OCTOBER 1ST, 1995 By Dino J.

Farina
CATEGORIES: Design, Test & Measurement
ISSUE: October 1995
TAGS: Liquid Crystal Thermography, Surface Temperature, Thermochromic
Liquid Crystal, TLC
No Comments. Be the first
ShareThis
Print This
Making surface temperature
measurements using liquid crystal
thermography
Introduction
The development of liquid crystal (LC) based
thermography overthe past 30 years has
provided thermal engineers with a relatively
inexpensivetechnique for visualizing and
measuring surface temperature. Engineers
andscientists have successfully used LC
thermography to investigate various
thermalphenomena in a wide variety of
applications. These applications
includeelectronics cooling (Figures 1 and 2),
gas turbine heat transfer, boiling heattransfer,
and fluid temperature measurement.
Commercially available,quantitative LC
thermography systems have recently begun
to emerge from thelaboratory into the thermal
engineering community. The use of modern
high speedcomputers, solid-state color
cameras and image digitizers has helped
thisemerging trend tremendously (see
Figures 2 and 3). In order to
Page 1of 6 Making surface temperature measurements using liquid crystal thermography - Electronic...
22/08/2014 http://www.electronics-cooling.com/1995/10/making-surface-temperature-measurements-...
properlyinvestigate thermal phenomena with
LC thermography, a basic understanding of
thedifferent types of LC materials is
necessary.
Figure 1. Temperature contour plot of a hot-spot on a thin
film resistor. From [1], bypermission.
Figure 2. Temperature distribution on an
operating floppy disk drive voltage
regulator. From [2], by permission.
Figure 3. Temperature distribution under an array of slot jets
impinging on a heatedsurface. From [3], by permission.
What are TLCs?
At the heart of LC based thermography systems are liquid crystal materialscalled thermochromic liquid crystals
(TLCs). Fundamentally, a liquid crystal isa thermodynamic phase that is between the pure solid and pure liquid
phases ofmatter and exists in some organic compounds under certain conditions. Attemperatures below the
TLCs event temperature, a TLC will be in the solid stateand will appear transparent. When a TLC is at its
event temperature, illuminatedby white light
1
and viewed under fixed optical conditions, the TLCmaterial will
reflect a unique wavelength
2
of visible light (i.e.,color). As the temperature rises through the TLCs bandwidth,
the reflectedcolor of the TLC will change. Finally, when the temperature exceeds the TLCsclearing point
temperature, the material will enter the pure liquid state andwill revert back to being transparent. This
phenomenon is selective reflectionand occurs in most TLCs both on heating and cooling and occurs with
minimalhysteresis.
The molecular structure of a TLC gives the material two indices ofrefraction causing the material to become
birefringent. Birefringence willcause the selectively reflected light emerging from a TLC to become
circularlypolarized. The reflected color spectrum for most TLC materials will varycontinuously from the longer
wavelengths (i.e., red) corresponding to the eventtemperature to shorter wavelengths (i.e., blue) corresponding
to the clearingpoint temperature. Additionally, a TLC material will also transmit asignificant amount of the
incident light with virtually no modification. Viewing TLCs against a non-reflecting, i.e., black, background
prevents thistransmitted light from adversely affecting the interpretation of the selectivelyreflected light.
Classification of TLCs
The chemical makeup of a TLC material fixes its color-temperature responseat the time of manufacture. A
simple, two color/temperature designatortypically describes this response and can be useful in qualitative
applicationsand for properly selecting a TLC formulation for a particular application. Forexample, R35C5W
designates a commonly used TLC formulation. The R35Csignifies that the red, R, start or event temperature
of the TLC is 35C. The 5W signifies that the blue start temperature is 5C above the redstart temperature and
this provides users with a crude estimate of theformulations active bandwidth. Narrow-band TLC formulations
have bandwidthsbelow 1 or 2C, while wide-band formulations typically have bandwidthsbetween 5C and 20
Page 2of 6 Making surface temperature measurements using liquid crystal thermography - Electronic...
22/08/2014 http://www.electronics-cooling.com/1995/10/making-surface-temperature-measurements-...
C. Off-the-shelf TLC formulations areavailable with event temperatures ranging from -30C to 100C
andbandwidths ranging from 0.5C to 30C.
Due to their inherently oily form, pure TLCs are very difficult to work withand their thermal performance
degrades rapidly due to chemical contamination andexposure to ultra-violet radiation. To combat these effects,
two manufacturingprocesses, microencapsulation and polymer dispersion, have emerged that attemptto
protect the raw TLC material and to make them more usable.
Microencapsulation, (ME): Researchers at the National Cash RegisterCompany pioneered the development
of microencapsulation techniques for TLCs inthe early 1970s. Microencapsulation is a chemical process that
takes raw TLCmaterial and encases it in protective 5-10 micron diameter capsules. Customtailored, sprayable
formulations consisting of TLC-filled microcapsulessuspended in a water-based binder material are
commercially available forvirtually any application. The ME process offers superb chemical
contaminantresistance and good radiation protection and it can also make the TLC surfaceless sensitive to the
lighting-viewing geometry. However, special care isnecessary to properly prepare and apply ME-TLCs in order
to avoid problemsassociated with over-attenuation of the reflected light coming from the TLCs andsegregation
of the binder and the micro-capsules.
Polymer dispersion, (PD): Researchers originally designed polymerdispersion methods for TLCs to facilitate
the manufacture of continuous castingsand sheets of TLC material. The process chemically disperses pure
monomer-basedTLC material into a solid polymer-based matrix. A key benefit of this processis that the virtually
transparent polymer material only causes mild attenuationof the reflected light from the TLC. This feature
preserves more of thebrilliant color response characteristics of the raw TLC material.
However, PD-TLCs are fairly limited in their usability for two reasons:
1) they are not typically available in a sprayable medium, limiting use torelatively flat surfaces;
2) edge effects due to chemical contamination can destroy a PD-TLC surfacewhen a cutout portion of a
manufactured sheet is used.
Qualitative Temperature Visualization Techniques
Many temperature visualization applications only require qualitativeinformation. In these applications, the two
color/temperature descriptors ofthe TLC material combined with the color response capabilities of our own
eyescan readily provide a very simple solution. Qualitative TLC techniques aretypically easy and inexpensive
to implement and can provide high spatialresolution when properly used in an application that provides suitable
cellspacing=0 opticalaccess to the TLC coated surface. A typical qualitative TLC application couldprovide a
quick investigation of an electronic components temperature responseto changes in thermal conditions like air
flow rate and direction or componentorientation. Other qualitative TLC implementations may include verification
ofisothermal and adiabatic temperature conditions in computer models ofelectronics cooling situations. Many
quantitative measurement techniques thatuse the tristimulus (or three input) color response system of the
human eye toinfer the TLC temperature have their origins in these types of qualitativemeasurement
techniques.
Quantitative Temperature Measurement Techniques Using Narrow-
Band andMulti-Event Narrow-Band TLC Formulations
Most quantitative LC thermography applications have used narrow-band ME-TLCformulations or multi-event
temperature mixtures of several narrow-band TLCseach having different event temperatures. Collected data
from successiveexperiments at different surface temperatures or power levels facilitatesconstruction of the
surface isotherm patterns using single- or multi-eventformulations. Narrow-band TLC formulations can allow
accurate verification ofthe surface temperature distribution of presumably isothermal objects. Thesmall range
of valid temperatures in these formulations permits making highlyaccurate relative temperature measurements
using narrow-band TLC formulationsand simple image processing systems. In situ color-temperature
calibrations areusually sufficient to provide reasonably accurate absolute temperaturemeasurements with
these formulations. On the down side, computations ofmulti-event isotherm patterns are usually very tedious
and time-consuming andthe implementation of full-field measurement capabilities is difficult withnarrow-band
formulations.
Using Wide-Band TLC Formulations
An alternative to using narrow-band TLCs is to use the wider bandwidth of asingle wide-band TLC to map the
isotherm (i.e., isocolor) pattern of a surfacefrom a single image. These wide-band techniques are useful when
an object haslarge temperature variations or when accurate measurement of an objects surfacetemperature
distribution warrants high spatial resolution. Practicalapplications of wide-band techniques are numerous. They
include theinvestigation of the surface temperature distribution in such areas as gasturbine blade cooling,
electronic component characterization and the study ofboiling heat transfer phenomena. Figures 2 and 3 show
some examples of theseapplications.
The development efforts of LC thermography systems have shown that thefollowing issues are crucial when an
application requires high measurementaccuracy from wide-band TLC formulations:
Accurate and efficient descriptor of color that is usable in TLCapplications.
TLC color-temperature response calibration.
Lighting and viewing effects.
Page 3of 6 Making surface temperature measurements using liquid crystal thermography - Electronic...
22/08/2014 http://www.electronics-cooling.com/1995/10/making-surface-temperature-measurements-...
Comparison of Narrow-Band and Wide-BandTechniques
Advantages Disadvantages
Narrow-
band
High Accuracy absolute and relative
temperature measurements can be
readilyobtained
Construction of an isotherm pattern can be
tedious and time-consuming.
Inexpensive implementation requires
simple image processing systems
Full-field capabailities of the TLC coating
are not utilized.
Wide-
band
Uses the TLCs bandwidth to map the
entire isotherm pattern of a surfacefrom
a single image
Robust TLC color-temperature response
calibration is necessary for highaccuracy
measurements.
Preferred in applications having large
temperature variations which
requirehigh spatial resolution
More expensive to implement because
more sophisticated image
processingsystems are required.
table cellspacing=0 1. Advantages anddisadvantages of using narrow- and wide-band TLC formulations in
LC thermographysystems.
Color descriptors: Since color is a subjective entity, it can bedifficult to quantify. However, many physiological
studies have proved that therods and cones of the human eye decompose color into a combination of the
red,green and blue (RGB) primary colors. Many modern machine vision systems haveimplemented this natural
tristimulus decomposition as an attempt to emulate thehuman vision system. These systems store the
appropriate amounts of red, greenand blue needed to produce a correspondingly matched color response at
eachpoint in an image. However, this implementation is not very efficient for LCthermography because it
requires that three values (red, green and blue, forexample) be used to interpret the temperature at each point
in an LCthermograph. Furthermore, these RGB color measurement models alone aredifficult to use in
applications that have non-ideal optical conditions present. However, recent development efforts have
formulated very robust andcomputationally efficient single value color descriptors tailored specificallyfor LC
thermography that are based on the standard RGB vision model, [5].
Color-temperature response calibration: Prior knowledge of theinput to output response characteristics of a
measurement sensor is crucial toproper implementation and use of that sensor. In LC thermography
applicationsthis means, ideally, that the intrinsic color-temperature response of the TLC beknown as well as
any other inputs that may affect this response including themeasurement system itself.
The simplest way of doing this is to directly calibrate the TLC and colormeasurement system response
characteristics in place, or in-situ. This methodrequires the apparatus under test be equipped with an external
means ofcontrolling and measuring the TLC temperature at or near the surface area ofinterest. This method
can be difficult or impossible to implement in someapplications and typically produces response characteristics
that are not onlyspecific to the color measurement system and TLC, but to the actual applicationitself.
Alternatively, many researchers have focused on developing more systemindependent calibration methods
with the intent of extracting the intrinsiccolor-temperature response of the TLC itself. These efforts have
implementedsuccessive-isotherm and gradient techniques.
Successive-isotherm methods typically use a temperature controlled testsurface and a color measurement
system to generate TLC color-temperaturecalibration data. Data acquisition commences by bringing the test
surface andTLC to the TLCs event temperature. Next, a color image of the surface is takenand an average
color value is computed and stored with the temperature of thetest surface. This process is then repeated at
subsequently higher temperaturesuntil the clearing point temperature is reached. Though seemingly simple
toautomate, successive-isotherm methods can be very time consuming and typicallysuffer from poor color-
temperature resolution and large amounts of required dataprocessing.
Gradient methods attempt to overcome many of the shortcomings ofsuccessive-isotherm methods by
subjecting a TLC material to a measurablecolor-temperature distribution, such as a linear temperature
gradient. Whenproperly implemented, a gradient technique can provide a continuous rather thandiscrete
representation of the entire color-temperature response for a TLC usinga single color image. These gradient
methods provide much highercolor-temperature resolution than successive-isotherm methods in a fraction
ofthe time and with much less data processing.
Unfortunately, the development of these advanced calibration methods has notbeen able to completely
eliminate the color measurement system from the TLCcolor-temperature calibration. However, due to their
fundamental approach, theyhave significantly enhanced our understanding of many important
issuesassociated with LC thermography.
Page 4of 6 Making surface temperature measurements using liquid crystal thermography - Electronic...
22/08/2014 http://www.electronics-cooling.com/1995/10/making-surface-temperature-measurements-...
Lighting and viewing: The perceived color of a pure TLC (at anyfixed, active temperature) is dependent on
the lighting-viewing arrangement andon the amount of background and/or secondary light present. However,
researchhas shown that using a co-aligned primary lighting-viewing system in the absenceof any background
or secondary light, can minimize this dependency, [7]. Furthermore, the signal to noise ratio in these systems
can be can be greatlyenhanced by cross polarizing the lighting-viewing system to maximize thetransmission of
the circularly polarized light being reflected by the TLC.
Sources of Temperature Measurement Error
Temperature measurement error effects have been difficult to quantify in LCthermography applications. This is
mainly due to the large number of possibleerror sources and the effects these sources have on the overall
temperaturemeasurement accuracy of an LC thermography system. However, most measurementerrors can
be attributed to one or more of the following effects:
Improper surface preparation and/or application of the TLC material.
Improper calibration and/or interpretation of the TLC color-temperature
Fixed errors associated with the color and/or temperature measurementequipment of the system.
Summary
Many significant advances have arisen from a considerable amount offundamental and applied research and
development of TLCs and LC thermographyover the past 20 to 30 years. These advances have led to much
more stable cellspacing=0 andusable TLC formulations that cover a wide operating temperature range (15 to
100C). Commercially available LC thermography systems have recently become availablewhich use color
measurement models tailored to the complex responsecharacteristics of TLCs and state-of-the-art electronics
technologies, in orderto deliver cost-effective and reliable temperature measurement performance. However,
regardless of how impressive an LC thermography system may appear tobe, there is no replacement for the
knowledge of how best to use the availableTLC technology.
The following set of how-to guidelines should be helpful when consideringto use of LC thermography in an
application:
1. Determine the expected minimum and maximum temperatures of the surface(s)in question.
2. Select an appropriate TLC for this temperature range: narrow-band,multi-event or wide-band.
3. Properly prepare and apply the TLC material and black background to thetest surface.
4. Provide adequate optical access to the surface and minimize unwantedreflections.
5. Provide an on-axis lighting and viewing arrangement if possible withcrossed polarizers.
6. Calibrate the color-temperature response of the TLC and imaging system ifquantitative measurements
are needed.
7. Image/visualize the active TLC surface.
8. Relate color to temperature using the appropriate color-temperaturecalibration for the TLC.
Notes
1. To be more precise, this wavelength of light is actuallythe dominant wavelength of a continuous
wavelength spectrum and the dominantwavelength is of the most interest, [6].
2. In this discussion white light denotes light that containsall the wavelengths of at least the visible portion of
the electromagneticspectrum.
References
1. Azar, K., J. R. Benson & V. P. Manno (1991)Liquid Crystal Imaging for Temperature Measurement of
Electronic Devices. IEEESemiconductor Thermal Measurement and Management Symposium, Phoenix, AZ,
pp.23-33.
2. Batchelder, K. A. & D. J. Farina, Personal communication, August 9,1995.
3. Danek, C. J. & R. J. Moffat, (1995) Low Aspect-Ratio ImpingementCooling of Electronics with Turbulence
Augmentation. Advances in ElectronicsCooling, proceedings of the ASME/JSME InterPack 95, Maui, HI, pp.
837-842.
4. Farina, D. J. & R. J. Moffat, A System for Making TemperatureMeasurements Using Thermochromic Liquid
Crystals. Report Number HMT-48,Stanford University, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
ThermosciencesDivision, Stanford, CA, September, 1994.
5. Hacker, J. M. & J. K. Eaton, Heat Transfer Measurements in aBackward Facing Step Flow with Arbitrary
Wall Temperature Variations. ReportNumber MD-71, Stanford University, Department of Mechanical
Engineering,Thermosciences Division, Stanford, CA, June, 1995.
Suggested Reading
Page 5of 6 Making surface temperature measurements using liquid crystal thermography - Electronic...
22/08/2014 http://www.electronics-cooling.com/1995/10/making-surface-temperature-measurements-...
6. Collings, P. J., Liquid Crystals: Natures DelicatePhase of Matter, Princeton University Press, Princeton,
1990.
7. Farina, D. J., J. M. Hacker, R. J. Moffat & J. K. Eaton, (1994)Illuminant Invariant Calibration of
Thermochromic Liquid Crystals. ExperimentalThermal and Fluid Science, Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 1-12.
8. Parsley, M. Hallcrest Handbook of Thermochromic Liquid CrystalTechnology Hallcrest, Inc., Glenview, IL,
1991.
Rel at ed Ar t i cl es
Fan Cooled Enclosure Analysis Using A First Order Method
Introduction Most Electronics Packaging Engineers and Analysis Specialists have access toa wide range of high
quality analysis tools. While a few computer programs useanalytical methods, the majority are based on numerical
analysis techniques.Although these programsREAD MORE
Specifying Filters For Forced Convection Cooling
Introduction The importance and utility of air filters is often underestimated since itis typically an after-thought in the
design cycle. The wrong filter is oftenused for an application which may compromise the electrical and
thermalperformanceREAD MORE
Thermal Conductivity Of Printed Wiring Boards
The thermal management of printed circuit boards is of increasing importanceas the power density of components
and circuits continues to rise. Thesituation is complicated by the use of boards with multiple sheets of
copperembedded inREAD MORE
Page 6of 6 Making surface temperature measurements using liquid crystal thermography - Electronic...
22/08/2014 http://www.electronics-cooling.com/1995/10/making-surface-temperature-measurements-...