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PART I-UNDERSTANDING THE DERIVATION OF THE AMPLIFICATION FACTOR AND ITS

IMPORTANCE IN FREQUENCY RESPONSE RELATED EQUATIONS


Nelson Baxter & Brad Barton
ABM Technical Services
NELSONBAXTER@ATT.NET
Abstract: The response of structures depends upon the amount of the force applied divided by the
dynamic stiffness characteristics of the structure. In the world of dynamics, the response of the structure
is dependent not just on the magnitude of the force, but also on the frequency of the force. This paper
starts with a physical visualization of a mechanical system then progresses into a graphical interpretation
of the force response characteristics that then eventually results in the formula for the amplification factor.
This paper highly references work by Dr. Ron Eshleman(Forced Harmonic Vibrations) and the graphical
interpretations of W. T. Thomson (Mechanical Vibrations, Second Edition, Prentice-Hall, INC., Englewood
Cliffs, NJ, 1953). A second paper which shows the use of the equations developed in this paper to solve
field problems will also be presented in this conference.

Keywords: Amplification Factor, Force, Response, Eccentricity, Transmissibility, Isolation, Harmonic
Motion, Damping
In Mechanical Engineering, we were taught you only need to know two things. These things were F=ma
and you cannot push on a rope. For this paper, Hooks law of F=kX will be added. From the basic laws
of Newton and Hook, and with extensive help from Dr. Ron Eshleman and W.T. Thomson, a simplified
explanation of the concept of the frequency dependence of the resistance to motion will be presented.
The you cant push on a rope bit of knowledge will not be of much use for this discussion.
It is helpful to start any learning process with a visualization of the interaction of the elements that make
up a system. Albert Einstein was riding a bus one day when he viewed a clock as he was moving away
from it. He began to ponder time and its relationship to speed and out of that thought process came forth
his theory of relativity. Making mental images of things can therefore be a powerful aid to understanding
how things work. Ultimately, mathematics must be used to describe a process, but it takes observation
and our innate ability to have a feel for how things work to truly understand the world around us. When
that observation based model is combined with the associated mathematics, then there is a solid basis
from which we can work to achieve better understanding.
STEP 1- A MENTAL OBSERVATION BASED MODEL
THE CONCEPT OF MECHANICAL LAG
The lower carrier moves at a constant velocity then stops,
but the mass continues to move deflecting the support.

In the figure to the left, a mass is on a
vertical leaf spring with stiffness k and is
moving at constant velocity when it
decelerates and comes to a stop. It is
not hard to imagine that the mass
continues to move, thereby deflecting
the spring. If the lower carrier then
accelerates in the opposite direction, the
upper mass follows behind. This delay
illustrates mechanical lag, which can
arise under acceleration or deceleration
The preceding illustration is intuitive. If there is a situation where there is a spring and a mass and we try
to accelerate the mass by applying a force (kX ) from the spring, then the motion of the mass follows
force applied by the spring. It is also intuitive that if the spring is weak or the rate at which we attempt to
accelerate the mass is fast that the amount of lag will increase. From a slightly more technical approach
to looking at things, we know that the resistance to acceleration is a function of the frequency squared.
We also know that the force generated by the spring is kX. For a given spring force, it therefore becomes
apparent that there is a frequency at which this kX force cannot accelerate the mass through a given
displacement. The kX force just cannot overcome the (Ma )resistance force at higher frequencies and the
motion of the mass thereby lags the force. At high frequencies (high meaning well above the natural
frequency) the mass will lag the input force 180 degrees and the amount of the transmitted motion will be
reduced. This is an intuitive interpretation of the concept of isolation, which will be discussed later on.
THE CONCEPT OF AMPLIFICATION



MAKING A MODEL THAT SHOWS HOW THE RESISTIVE FORCES ARE EQUAL TO THE DRIVING
FORCE
Mental models are very useful in describing how a system responds and allow us to get an intuitive feel
for the important parameters. In the mental exercise above, for an un-damped system the important
parameters turned out to be the amount of mass (M), the stiffness (k), the Force that was applied (F) and
the frequency of the force, which we will refer to as (). Mental models unfortunately do not allow us to
adequately design a system or predict the response to a known force. Our understanding must
eventually be expressed in mathematics if we want to make any practical use of it.
For this discussion, rather than jumping directly into the mathematics, a graphical representation of the
forces will be utilized. This graphical interpretation will serve as a bridge to aid in the understanding of the
mathematical formulae that describe simple dynamic systems. W.T. Thomson who is referenced in the
abstract, pioneered this graphical approach. It shows the derivation of all of the important amplification
factor related equations. The intuitive model will be useful in summing up the force vectors which will in
turn lead to the formulation of a mathematical representation of the amplification factor. The diagrams
and vector drawings were obtained from the referenced work by Dr. Ron Eshleman.
K
If a static force F is applied to the system
to the right, then the amount of deflection
X will be F/K. This is Hooks law and is
simple to comprehend. This law,
however; only works for static deflection
or when the frequency of the applied
force is well below the systems natural
frequency. Intuitively we know that if
we start pushing on the mass faster and
faster that there will be a point where the
mass moves with very little force. The
amount of motion per unit of force at a
certain frequency gets very high. This is
referred to as resonance amplification.
F
X
As force is applied at
the natural frequency,
the amount of motion
per unit of force gets
very high. Hooks law
can therefore by itself
no longer be used to
describe the response
of the mass to the
force, when the force is
dynamic in nature.
Since all systems have damping, that component has been added to the basic model. Damping
represents the absorption of the vibration energy by its conversion to heat. Only viscous damping will be
considered in this particular model. The viscous damping force that converts motion into heat is
proportional to the velocity, so dampings effect will be greatest when the velocity is the highest.
STEP 2- MAKING A MATHEMATICAL REPRESNTATION OF A FORCE DRIVEN SPRING MASS
SYSTEM
The equations in the box show all of the forces present in a Damped-Spring-Mass system. If the system is
in equilibrium, the sum of the resistive forces must equal the applied force.





From the above, in order for all the forces to be in balance and the system to be stable, the sum of the
forces from the resistance of the mass to acceleration, the resistance of the damping force to velocity and
the resistance of the spring to displacement must equal the applied force. These forces can all be
displayed as vectors. Ultimately, the key to determining how this system will respond is to derive the
mathematical formulae that describe how the force vectors interact across a given frequency range. The
frequency ranges can be broken down into three distinct regions which are: Below the natural frequency,
at the natural frequency, and above the natural frequency. Below the natural frequency it will be seen that
the stiffness (k) value dominates, at the natural frequency the response is controlled by damping (c) and
above the natural frequency, the motion is dominated by the mass term (m).







STEP 3-A GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE DYNAMICS OF A MECHANICAL SPRING MASS
DAMPER SYSTEM
The vector diagrams below that will eventually be used to derive the amplification factor equation show
the relationships of the force vectors. For the first case, the forcing frequency is below the natural
frequency. The second case is at the natural frequency. This special case of when the forcing frequency
is exactly at the natural frequency illustrates how the well known

can be derived . The third
case shows the vector relationship when the forcing frequency is above the natural frequency.
Important Graphical Vector Relationships
1: The spring restoration force is always 180 degrees out of phase from the mass resistance force.
2: Since velocity peaks at 90 degrees from when the displacement peaks, its vector will be 90 degrees
out of phase from the displacement vector. The damping force vector, which is velocity dependent, is
therefore always 90 degrees out from the stiffness and mass force vectors.
3: The lag angle is less than 90 degrees when the excitation frequency is below the natural frequency, 90
degrees at the natural frequency and between 90 and 180 degrees above the natural frequency.
Vector drawings are courtesy of Dr. Eshlemens referenced paper-Forced Harmonic Vibrations
VECTORS SHOWING FORCE RELATIONSHIPS BELOW RESONANCE

Note that from the above plot, which represents the forcing frequency being below resonance that the
spring force( kX) is greater than the mass force (
2
e mX )and the Lag Angle ( ) is less than 90
degrees.




Driving Force
leads
displacement
Displacement

Damping
Force
Mass resistance
force=
Spring
Force
VECTORS SHOWING FORCE RELATIONSHIPS AT RESONANCE
The figure below shows what happens at resonance
1: The spring and mass forces are equal and opposite in direction and cancel each other out.
2: The displacement lags the applied force by 90 degrees.
3: Since the spring and mass forces cancel each other out, the only force opposing motion is the
damping.


When the spring and mass forces are equal and cancel each other out then

and if this
relationship is solved for then under these conditions =

which is the well known formula


for the natural frequency. For this unique case is therefore named

.
VECTORS SHOWING FORCE RELATIONSHIPS ABOVE RESONANCE





For above resonance the lag angle
is greater than 90 degrees.
For above resonance, the mass term
m

X is now greater than the kX
stiffness term.
Angle between
force and response
is 90 degrees
At resonance the kX
spring force and
mass force
cancel each other
out.
The next step in deriving the Amplification Factor is to sum the stiffness and mass terms.
Since the kX and x m
2
e are opposite in direction those terms can be combined as follows:

Using the Pythagorean Theorem, the following equation can be derived

Derivation by W.T. Thompson (1)


For a quick review lets look at what has been accomplished to this point:
1: By looking at a basic model, the forces have been identified and summed
2: A vector representation of these forces has been formed
3: By representing the forces present in the spring-mass-damper model as vectors, we have derived a
useful mathematical expression that defines the relationship of all the forces with each other.
The next step is to put these mathematical relationships into a form that can be used for some design and
analytical purposes, which we get to later. This is accomplished by algebraic manipulation and
substitution of equal terms.
STEP 4- SOLVING THE FORCE VECTOR EQUATIONS FOR THE AMPLIFICATION FACTOR
It is necessary to rearrange the terms of the solution for the summation of the force vectors.
Remember that the formula below is nothing more than the Pythagorean Theorem solution for the
summation of the force vectors shown above.


Divide both sides by [

] and take square root of both sides to get


X

(2)
Divide numerator and denominator by k to get the equation (3)on the following page

This equation comes directly from the
force summation triangle shown above.
Summation of stiffness and mass
forces to form one combined term.
X

(3)
Since

which is then substituted in the above equation.


This above substitution makes the first term under the radical

(4)
The Damping c in the

term is very difficult to determine, so the concept of the damping ratio


term


is introduced. The damping ratio can easily be measured in the field, so this concept is
very useful in the derivation of a solution that can be solved using field supplied data. Later on in this
paper four methods of measuring the damping ratio in the field are presented.

and

Substitute k with this expression


The

term then becomes

or

so


The second term under the radical therefore becomes

(5)
Replace the terms under the radical of equation (3)with expressions (4) & (5) above and finally the
equation that we have been looking for, the Amplification Factor has been derived.
Since


XX

(6)

The essence of the Amplification Factor comes down to knowing where the forcing frequency is
relative to the natural frequency and the damping ratio. This is an incredibly useful equation that
is the basis for understanding dynamic systems.
To get the response for a known force and stiffness another substitution is made.
Multiply through by

and substitute back in

for

and the result is the force response equation


X

(7)

What we now have is basically Hooks Law times the Amplification Factor. This equation describes how
a spring mass system will respond to both a static force where the frequency equals zero or from a
dynamic force of any frequency.



Hooks Law times the Amplification Factor
Amplification Factor
Hooks Law times the Amplification Factor
A COMPARISON OF THE RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME OF THE IMPORTANT
EQUATIONS THAT CONTAIN THE AMPLIFICATION FACTOR
FORCED RESPONSE EQUATION
X

(7)
Equation(7) is used when an analyst needs to know how much a structure will respond to a known force
given the stiffness of the structure(k), the amount of force

, where the machine operates at


relative to its natural frequency (

and the percent of critical damping(.


Example: Lets take a spring mass system and solve for the amount of response at 4 different
frequencies. Assume that the spring stiffness is 10000 lb/in, the damping ratio is .05 and the force is 400
lb.
Frequency Response of Structure to an applied force
0.0 X natural frequency .040 This is the solution for Hooks Law =


.5 X natural frequency .053 There is some amplification present at a frequency = to .5


1.0 X natural frequency .400 There is an amplification of 10:1 In this case AF=

= 1/(2 *.05)
2.0 X natural frequency .013 The response is lower than

& is thus in the isolation region







This curve shows the solution for
all frequency ratios to a force of
400 lb for a system with a
stiffness of 10000 lb/in and a
damping ratio of .05 . The
circles show the solution for the
four frequency ratios listed
above.
COMPARISON BETWEEN AMPLIFICATION FACTOR AND FORCED RESPONSE CURVES
Amplification Factor Curve for .05 damping ratio Forced Response Curve for .05 damping ratio

As can be seen from the above, the Amplification Factor curve and the Forced Response curves look
identical for a system with the same damping. This is as would be expected since the Force Response
equation is just the Amplification Factor times the static response predicted by Hooks Law.
RESPONSE TO ECCENTRICITY AND UNBALANCE
In vibration work, there are some commonly used variations of the force response equation. One is the
response to an unbalance force and the other is eccentricity response, which is a close cousin to the
unbalance response case. The main difference between the unbalance and eccentricity responses, as
compared to the standard force response solution, is that the forces from unbalance and eccentricity
are not constant, but instead vary with the speed. The response to a force at a given frequency is still
governed by the amplification factor, but since the force for unbalance varies as a function of the
frequency squared, the response curves look different than they do with the standard forced response
function.
Remember that F=ma. So for a rotating unbalance the force is F=mr

and the response X is:


X

(8)

The curve to the left shows the response to an
unbalance force. Instead of a constant force, the
force varies as the square of the frequency. Note
that the response starts at zero because the
rotational force is zero at a 0 frequency. Unlike
the general force response curve, at higher
frequencies, the unbalance response does not
taper off towards zero. This is because both the
unbalance force and the masss resistance to
acceleration increase with the square of the
frequency. These offsetting effects yield a flat
curve in this region.

COMPARISON BETWEEN GENERAL FORCE RESPONSE AND UNBALANCE RESPONSE CURVES
AMPLIFICATION FACTOR AND FORCE RESPONSE CURVE

UNBALANCE RESPONSE AND ECCENTRICITY RESPONSE CURVE

Starts at 1.0
ratio
Tapers down
towards 0 due to
the isolation
effect.
Starts at 0 because there is no
unbalance force at 0 frequency
Ends at a fixed value because
unbalance force and mass
resistance are both
frequency squared functions.
Important Point- Remember from
earlier in the paper that as the
frequency is increased that there
becomes a frequency where the kX
force from the spring cannot
overcome the ma resistance force.
That is why isolation occurs and the
response ratios drop at the higher
frequencies and thus approach
zero.
As noted previously, there is no
response due to unbalance at the
beginning of the curve. This is because
at zero speed, there is no force
generated by the unbalance.
At the higher frequencies, the force
generated by the unbalance


increases as the square of the speed
and so does the resistance to
motion(ma), so they equal one another
and the response reaches an
equilibrium value rather than dropping
to zero.


Response to Eccentricity

The response to eccentricity is a special case of the unbalance response equation. To derive the
eccentricity formula, start with the unbalance response formula.
X
m


therefore

m and


Note that the eccentricity e is as noted above is the amount of displacement of the entire mass from the
geometric center. In the case of the eccentricity, the mass is the entire mass of the rotating element.
Therefore for this case r=e and as shown above

.
Therefore:
m


By making the substitution into the unbalance response equation we end up with the eccentricity
response equation.
X

(9)
As noted in the box above, If the amount of unbalance and the rotor mass are known, the eccentricity can be
calculated by:



The eccentricity response equation can then be used to determine the response of the system at any rotational
frequency.





The eccentricity is the distance between the
geometric center and the mass center of a
rotating mass. The eccentricity can be calculated
when we know the amount of unbalance in oz-in
and we also know the mass of the rotor. The
eccentricity will be the unbalance in oz-in
divided by the weight of the rotor in oz. The
force produced will be the mass times the
eccentricity times the rotational velocity in
radians squared (

.

Force Transmissibility /Base Motion
Another important equation that is used in the field of vibration analysis and vibration control is the
Force Transmissibility & Base Motion equation. It is used when an analyst or designer wants to calculate
either the amount of force transmitted from a vibrating mass to a structure or alternatively the amount
of motion transmitted from a floor to an isolated mass. That equation is shown below. As can be seen,
it also contains the amplification factor. It is

times the amplification factor.


The derivation of the transmissibility equation is not covered in this paper, however since the formula
contains the Amplification Factor and is used extensively in the field of vibration analysis, it is being
included in this compilation of Amplification Factor related equations.
Force Transmissibility / Base Motion Equation

(10)
This equation can be used to calculate the transmissibility of motion or force across a set of isolation
springs. The efficiency of the isolators is simply 1-minus the transmissibility. At low damping values, the
response curve of the above equation is similar to the amplification factor. At higher damping values,
the upper term

that contains the damping ratio starts to have an effect on the results.
Comparison of Amplification Factor and Transmissibility at .05 damping ratio

When the frequency
ratio is 1.414, force
transmission is 1.0.
Above a frequency
ratio of 1.414 isolation
begins.
At low damping ratios, the Amplification Factor and the Force Transmission/Base Motion response look
very similar. As the amount of damping gets higher, the curves start to show differences in their
shape. The next three sets of plots show what happens as damping is increased. As would be
expected, one of the effects of adding damping, is to reduce the amplification at the natural frequency.
As noted in the plots below, another effect of the additional damping is that more force and motion is
transmitted across the springs. Consequently another side effect of increased damping is the reduced
effectiveness of the isolators at frequency ratios above 1.414 of

.
Comparison of Amplification Factor and Force Transmission at .3 damping ratio

Comparison of Amplification Factor and Force Transmission at 1.0 damping ratio






At the 1.414
frequency ratio
the value is 1.0
Added damping
reduces response
at natural
frequency
As damping increases,
the force & motion
transmitted across the
isolators increases.
Comparison of Amplification Factor and Force Transmission at 2.0 damping ratio

As noted in the graphs above, the transmissibility is always 1 at the 1.414

ratio.
The above equations include the amplification factor, forced response given a fixed force, response
to unbalance, eccentricity response and force and base transmissibility. These are very important
concepts in the field of vibration analysis. Understanding them is vital in working with the
response to dynamic forces. All these equations contain the Amplification Factor. Its DNA can be
seen in each of them. It is what allows us to determine the dynamic stiffness of a structure. The
Amplification Factor equation looks complicated, but in simple terms comes down to just knowing
the following: Where does the machine operate at () relative to its natural frequency (

) and
what is the damping ratio(). We usually know the speed () and can often obtain the natural
frequency(

) using an impact test or a structural model. That leaves the need to determine the
damping ratio (). In order to provide a full set of basic tools for the analyst, four well known
methods of measuring the damping ratio in the field are outlined below.
FOUR METHODS OF THE FIELD DETERMINATION OF THE DAMPING RATIO
POWER METHOD OF DETERMINING DAMPING RATIO
The power approach to computing the damping uses the following equation. This data can be
obtained by measuring the response due to an impact or from coast down data.
AMPLIFICATION FACTOR Q
N
N N
C
=

2 1
(11)

N
2

N
C
= NATURAL FREQUENCY
N
2
= FREQUENCY ABOVE Nc AMPLITUDE = .707 Nc AMPLITUDE
N
1
= FREQUENCY BELOW Nc AMPLITUDE = .707 Nc AMPLITUDE
At the 1.414
frequency ratio
the value is still
1.0
Greater damping means
more force transmission




LOG DECREMENT APPROACH OF CALCULATING DAMPING RATIO
If the system is simple, then one of the best techniques to calculate the damping ratio is to measure
the decay rate of the response of a sine wave to an impact. A single channel analyzer can be used
for this test. Integration of the signal can be useful in regards to reducing the response from higher
frequency modes.
LOG DEC=
|
|
.
|

\
|
X
X
=
n
n
0
ln *
1
o n=# of cycles X
0
= Amp at 1
st
cycle X
n
= nth cycle amplitude (12)
o
t
*
* 2
1
=


USING REAL PART OF COMPLIANCE OR INERTANCE OR IMAGINARY PART OF MOBILITY
RESPONSE TO CALCULATE DAMPING RATIO.
This test requires the use of a dual channel spectrum analyzer. The Real or Imaginary components as
the case may be are obtained by a transfer function calculation.

Q= (13)
= Natural frequency zero crossing point
= frequency of positive or negative peak
above zero crossing frequency
= frequency of positive or negative peak
below zero crossing frequency


Damping Ratio
Cycle 0
Amplitude

Cycle N
Amplitude
TRANSFER FUNCTION PHASE SLOPE APPROACH TO DETERMINING DAMPING RATIO
Using the rate of change of phase shift in the transfer function phase plot to calculate the damping
ratio. This data can be obtained with a dual channel analyzer by viewing the phase display
generated by the transfer function calculation.
AMPLIFICATION FACTOR
f
f
Q
A
AO
= *
360
*
q
t
(14)
WHERE f
n
= NATURAL FREQUENCY
AO=CHANGE IN PHASE
Af =CHANGE IN FREQUENCY


PHASE SHIFT PLOT USED TO CALCULATE DAMPING RATIO

Example from above phase plot Q = =
t *
*
.
.
266
360
82 6
19
101 =
1
2*Q
= =
1
2 101
00495
*
.

Summary:
Mechanical spring mass systems respond differently to dynamic forces than they do to static loads.
These systems have a frequency dependent resistance to motion. This paper, through the use of
intuition, the mathematical summation of forces, the vector representation of these forces and some
algebraic substitutions has shown the derivation of the Amplification Factor.
The Amplification Factor forms the basis for forced response calculations, unbalance response, response
to eccentricity, isolation calculations and the determination of force and motion transmissibility. By
knowing just the rotational speed, the natural frequency and the damping ratio, it is possible to predict
how a simple mechanical system will react to a given dynamic force. The analyst usually knows the
frequency of a force. The natural frequency can often be obtained with an impact test and as shown in
this paper, there are several ways to determine the damping ratio. This means that the analyst or
engineer has some relatively powerful tools to work with in the design and analysis of mechanical
systems.

Damping Ratio
Slope of phase shift
determines damping ratio.
As a quick review, the following are the response equations derived and or discussed in this paper. They
are all based upon the Amplification Factor.
AMPLIFICATION FACTOR- The basis for the response of mechanical systems over a range of
frequencies. The Amplification Factor is contained in all the following equations.
XX


FORCED RESPONSE-Calculates response to a given force at various frequencies
X


RESPONSE TO UNBALANCE- Calculates response to mass(m) unbalance at a radius r
X
m


RESPONSE TO ECCENTRICITY- Calculates motion due to a given eccentricity (e)
X


FORCE & BASE MOTION TRANSMISSIBILITY- Calculates force & motion through a spring damper
system at various frequencies. This equation can be used for isolation calculations

X



Understanding the frequency dependent resistance to motion as described by the Amplification Factor is
vital in the field of vibration analysis. It is hoped that the tools presented in this paper will enable the
analyst to understand the effects of the Amplification Factor, and its value in solving real world problems.
That will be the intended subject of the paper that follows. A thank you again to Dr. Ron Eshleman &
W.T. Thomson for their work in this area.

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