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VECTORS SHOWING FORCE RELATIONSHIPS ABOVE RESONANCE
For above resonance the lag angle
is greater than 90 degrees.
For above resonance, the mass term
m
X is now greater than the kX
stiffness term.
Angle between
force and response
is 90 degrees
At resonance the kX
spring force and
mass force
cancel each other
out.
The next step in deriving the Amplification Factor is to sum the stiffness and mass terms.
Since the kX and x m
2
e are opposite in direction those terms can be combined as follows:
Using the Pythagorean Theorem, the following equation can be derived
Divide both sides by [
(2)
Divide numerator and denominator by k to get the equation (3)on the following page
This equation comes directly from the
force summation triangle shown above.
Summation of stiffness and mass
forces to form one combined term.
X
(3)
Since
(4)
The Damping c in the
is introduced. The damping ratio can easily be measured in the field, so this concept is
very useful in the derivation of a solution that can be solved using field supplied data. Later on in this
paper four methods of measuring the damping ratio in the field are presented.
and
or
so
The second term under the radical therefore becomes
(5)
Replace the terms under the radical of equation (3)with expressions (4) & (5) above and finally the
equation that we have been looking for, the Amplification Factor has been derived.
Since
XX
(6)
The essence of the Amplification Factor comes down to knowing where the forcing frequency is
relative to the natural frequency and the damping ratio. This is an incredibly useful equation that
is the basis for understanding dynamic systems.
To get the response for a known force and stiffness another substitution is made.
Multiply through by
for
(7)
What we now have is basically Hooks Law times the Amplification Factor. This equation describes how
a spring mass system will respond to both a static force where the frequency equals zero or from a
dynamic force of any frequency.
Hooks Law times the Amplification Factor
Amplification Factor
Hooks Law times the Amplification Factor
A COMPARISON OF THE RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME OF THE IMPORTANT
EQUATIONS THAT CONTAIN THE AMPLIFICATION FACTOR
FORCED RESPONSE EQUATION
X
(7)
Equation(7) is used when an analyst needs to know how much a structure will respond to a known force
given the stiffness of the structure(k), the amount of force
.5 X natural frequency .053 There is some amplification present at a frequency = to .5
1.0 X natural frequency .400 There is an amplification of 10:1 In this case AF=
= 1/(2 *.05)
2.0 X natural frequency .013 The response is lower than
(8)
The curve to the left shows the response to an
unbalance force. Instead of a constant force, the
force varies as the square of the frequency. Note
that the response starts at zero because the
rotational force is zero at a 0 frequency. Unlike
the general force response curve, at higher
frequencies, the unbalance response does not
taper off towards zero. This is because both the
unbalance force and the masss resistance to
acceleration increase with the square of the
frequency. These offsetting effects yield a flat
curve in this region.
COMPARISON BETWEEN GENERAL FORCE RESPONSE AND UNBALANCE RESPONSE CURVES
AMPLIFICATION FACTOR AND FORCE RESPONSE CURVE
UNBALANCE RESPONSE AND ECCENTRICITY RESPONSE CURVE
Starts at 1.0
ratio
Tapers down
towards 0 due to
the isolation
effect.
Starts at 0 because there is no
unbalance force at 0 frequency
Ends at a fixed value because
unbalance force and mass
resistance are both
frequency squared functions.
Important Point- Remember from
earlier in the paper that as the
frequency is increased that there
becomes a frequency where the kX
force from the spring cannot
overcome the ma resistance force.
That is why isolation occurs and the
response ratios drop at the higher
frequencies and thus approach
zero.
As noted previously, there is no
response due to unbalance at the
beginning of the curve. This is because
at zero speed, there is no force
generated by the unbalance.
At the higher frequencies, the force
generated by the unbalance
increases as the square of the speed
and so does the resistance to
motion(ma), so they equal one another
and the response reaches an
equilibrium value rather than dropping
to zero.
Response to Eccentricity
The response to eccentricity is a special case of the unbalance response equation. To derive the
eccentricity formula, start with the unbalance response formula.
X
m
therefore
m and
Note that the eccentricity e is as noted above is the amount of displacement of the entire mass from the
geometric center. In the case of the eccentricity, the mass is the entire mass of the rotating element.
Therefore for this case r=e and as shown above
.
Therefore:
m
By making the substitution into the unbalance response equation we end up with the eccentricity
response equation.
X
(9)
As noted in the box above, If the amount of unbalance and the rotor mass are known, the eccentricity can be
calculated by:
The eccentricity response equation can then be used to determine the response of the system at any rotational
frequency.
The eccentricity is the distance between the
geometric center and the mass center of a
rotating mass. The eccentricity can be calculated
when we know the amount of unbalance in oz-in
and we also know the mass of the rotor. The
eccentricity will be the unbalance in oz-in
divided by the weight of the rotor in oz. The
force produced will be the mass times the
eccentricity times the rotational velocity in
radians squared (
.
Force Transmissibility /Base Motion
Another important equation that is used in the field of vibration analysis and vibration control is the
Force Transmissibility & Base Motion equation. It is used when an analyst or designer wants to calculate
either the amount of force transmitted from a vibrating mass to a structure or alternatively the amount
of motion transmitted from a floor to an isolated mass. That equation is shown below. As can be seen,
it also contains the amplification factor. It is
(10)
This equation can be used to calculate the transmissibility of motion or force across a set of isolation
springs. The efficiency of the isolators is simply 1-minus the transmissibility. At low damping values, the
response curve of the above equation is similar to the amplification factor. At higher damping values,
the upper term
that contains the damping ratio starts to have an effect on the results.
Comparison of Amplification Factor and Transmissibility at .05 damping ratio
When the frequency
ratio is 1.414, force
transmission is 1.0.
Above a frequency
ratio of 1.414 isolation
begins.
At low damping ratios, the Amplification Factor and the Force Transmission/Base Motion response look
very similar. As the amount of damping gets higher, the curves start to show differences in their
shape. The next three sets of plots show what happens as damping is increased. As would be
expected, one of the effects of adding damping, is to reduce the amplification at the natural frequency.
As noted in the plots below, another effect of the additional damping is that more force and motion is
transmitted across the springs. Consequently another side effect of increased damping is the reduced
effectiveness of the isolators at frequency ratios above 1.414 of
.
Comparison of Amplification Factor and Force Transmission at .3 damping ratio
Comparison of Amplification Factor and Force Transmission at 1.0 damping ratio
At the 1.414
frequency ratio
the value is 1.0
Added damping
reduces response
at natural
frequency
As damping increases,
the force & motion
transmitted across the
isolators increases.
Comparison of Amplification Factor and Force Transmission at 2.0 damping ratio
As noted in the graphs above, the transmissibility is always 1 at the 1.414
ratio.
The above equations include the amplification factor, forced response given a fixed force, response
to unbalance, eccentricity response and force and base transmissibility. These are very important
concepts in the field of vibration analysis. Understanding them is vital in working with the
response to dynamic forces. All these equations contain the Amplification Factor. Its DNA can be
seen in each of them. It is what allows us to determine the dynamic stiffness of a structure. The
Amplification Factor equation looks complicated, but in simple terms comes down to just knowing
the following: Where does the machine operate at () relative to its natural frequency (
) and
what is the damping ratio(). We usually know the speed () and can often obtain the natural
frequency(
) using an impact test or a structural model. That leaves the need to determine the
damping ratio (). In order to provide a full set of basic tools for the analyst, four well known
methods of measuring the damping ratio in the field are outlined below.
FOUR METHODS OF THE FIELD DETERMINATION OF THE DAMPING RATIO
POWER METHOD OF DETERMINING DAMPING RATIO
The power approach to computing the damping uses the following equation. This data can be
obtained by measuring the response due to an impact or from coast down data.
AMPLIFICATION FACTOR Q
N
N N
C
=
2 1
(11)
N
2
N
C
= NATURAL FREQUENCY
N
2
= FREQUENCY ABOVE Nc AMPLITUDE = .707 Nc AMPLITUDE
N
1
= FREQUENCY BELOW Nc AMPLITUDE = .707 Nc AMPLITUDE
At the 1.414
frequency ratio
the value is still
1.0
Greater damping means
more force transmission
LOG DECREMENT APPROACH OF CALCULATING DAMPING RATIO
If the system is simple, then one of the best techniques to calculate the damping ratio is to measure
the decay rate of the response of a sine wave to an impact. A single channel analyzer can be used
for this test. Integration of the signal can be useful in regards to reducing the response from higher
frequency modes.
LOG DEC=
|
|
.
|
\
|
X
X
=
n
n
0
ln *
1
o n=# of cycles X
0
= Amp at 1
st
cycle X
n
= nth cycle amplitude (12)
o
t
*
* 2
1
=
USING REAL PART OF COMPLIANCE OR INERTANCE OR IMAGINARY PART OF MOBILITY
RESPONSE TO CALCULATE DAMPING RATIO.
This test requires the use of a dual channel spectrum analyzer. The Real or Imaginary components as
the case may be are obtained by a transfer function calculation.
Q= (13)
= Natural frequency zero crossing point
= frequency of positive or negative peak
above zero crossing frequency
= frequency of positive or negative peak
below zero crossing frequency
Damping Ratio
Cycle 0
Amplitude
Cycle N
Amplitude
TRANSFER FUNCTION PHASE SLOPE APPROACH TO DETERMINING DAMPING RATIO
Using the rate of change of phase shift in the transfer function phase plot to calculate the damping
ratio. This data can be obtained with a dual channel analyzer by viewing the phase display
generated by the transfer function calculation.
AMPLIFICATION FACTOR
f
f
Q
A
AO
= *
360
*
q
t
(14)
WHERE f
n
= NATURAL FREQUENCY
AO=CHANGE IN PHASE
Af =CHANGE IN FREQUENCY
PHASE SHIFT PLOT USED TO CALCULATE DAMPING RATIO
Example from above phase plot Q = =
t *
*
.
.
266
360
82 6
19
101 =
1
2*Q
= =
1
2 101
00495
*
.
Summary:
Mechanical spring mass systems respond differently to dynamic forces than they do to static loads.
These systems have a frequency dependent resistance to motion. This paper, through the use of
intuition, the mathematical summation of forces, the vector representation of these forces and some
algebraic substitutions has shown the derivation of the Amplification Factor.
The Amplification Factor forms the basis for forced response calculations, unbalance response, response
to eccentricity, isolation calculations and the determination of force and motion transmissibility. By
knowing just the rotational speed, the natural frequency and the damping ratio, it is possible to predict
how a simple mechanical system will react to a given dynamic force. The analyst usually knows the
frequency of a force. The natural frequency can often be obtained with an impact test and as shown in
this paper, there are several ways to determine the damping ratio. This means that the analyst or
engineer has some relatively powerful tools to work with in the design and analysis of mechanical
systems.
Damping Ratio
Slope of phase shift
determines damping ratio.
As a quick review, the following are the response equations derived and or discussed in this paper. They
are all based upon the Amplification Factor.
AMPLIFICATION FACTOR- The basis for the response of mechanical systems over a range of
frequencies. The Amplification Factor is contained in all the following equations.
XX
FORCED RESPONSE-Calculates response to a given force at various frequencies
X
RESPONSE TO UNBALANCE- Calculates response to mass(m) unbalance at a radius r
X
m
RESPONSE TO ECCENTRICITY- Calculates motion due to a given eccentricity (e)
X
FORCE & BASE MOTION TRANSMISSIBILITY- Calculates force & motion through a spring damper
system at various frequencies. This equation can be used for isolation calculations
X
Understanding the frequency dependent resistance to motion as described by the Amplification Factor is
vital in the field of vibration analysis. It is hoped that the tools presented in this paper will enable the
analyst to understand the effects of the Amplification Factor, and its value in solving real world problems.
That will be the intended subject of the paper that follows. A thank you again to Dr. Ron Eshleman &
W.T. Thomson for their work in this area.