A History of Instructional

Desi gn a n d Technol ogy:

Part I: A History of Instructional Me d i a
[ ] Rober t A, Rei ser
This is the first of a two-part article that will
discuss the history of the field of instructional
design and technology in the United States. A
definition of the field is provided and the major
features of the definition are ident~ed. A
rational for using instructional design and
technology as the label for the field is also
presented. Events in the history of
instructional media,from the early 1900s to
the present day, are described. The birth of
school museums, the visual and audiovisual
instruction movements, the use of media
during World War II, and the interest in
instructional television, computers, and the
Internet are among the topics discussed. The
article concludes with a summarization of the
effects media have had on instructional
practices, and a prediction regarding the effect
computers, the Internet, and other digital
media will have on such practices over the next
decade.
[] Approxi mat el y 15 years ago I wrote a history
of the field of instructional technology (Reiser,
1987), whi ch appeared as a chapter in a book
edited by Robert M. Gagn6. Since that time,
many i nnovat i ons and new ideas have affected
the nat ure of the field. For example, recent tech-
nological advances, new ideas and theories
regardi ng the learning process, and new views
of how to promot e learning and performance i n
classrooms and i n the workplace have all had an
influence on the field. In light of all the changes
that have taken place, it seems appropriate to
updat e the earlier history. This article and
another that will appear i n the next issue of Edu-
cational Technology Research and Development
serve as an updat e of my description of the his-
tory of the field I now refer to as instructional
design and technology.
Before I begi n to discuss the history of the
field of instructional design and technology, and
before I provi de my reasons for labeling it as
such, let me provi de a definition of field:
The field of instructional design and technology
encompasses the analysis of learning and performance
problems, and the design, development, implementa-
tion, evaluation and management of instructional and
non-instructional processes and resources intended to
improve learning and performance in a variety of set-
tings, particularly educational institutions and the
workplace. Professionals in the field of instructional
design and technology often use systematic instruc-
tional design procedures and employ a variety of
instructional media to accomplish their goals. More-
over, in recent years, they have paid increasing atten-
tion to non-instructional solutions to some
performance problems. Research and theory related to
each of the aforementioned areas is also an important
part of the field. (Reiser, in press)
ETR&D, Vol, 49, No, 1,2001, pp, 53-64 ISSN 1042-1629 53
54 ETR&D, Vol. 49, No. 1
Wh a t ar e t he maj or f eat ur es of t hi s def i ni -
t i on? I n ma n y wa ys i t is si mi l ar t o t he mos t
r ecent As s oci at i on for Educat i onal Communi c a -
t i on a n d Technol ogy (AECT) def i ni t i on of t he
f i el d (Seel s & Ri chey, 1994). Li ke t he 1994 AECT
def i ni t i on, t he def i ni t i on pr e s e nt e d i n t hi s ar t i cl e
me nt i ons fi ve cat egor i es of act i vi t i es or pr ac-
tices: (a) design, Co) development, (c) utilization or
implementation, (d) management, a n d (e) evalua-
tion, of t en associ at ed wi t h t he field; a nd a d d s a
si xt h cat egor y, (f) analysis. Mor eover , l i ke t he
1994 def i ni t i on, t he cur r ent def i ni t i on r el at es
t hose act i vi t i es or pr act i ces to processes and
resources for learning. In addi t i on, t he cur r ent def-
i ni t i on i ndi cat es t hat research and theory, as wel l
as pr act i ce, p l a y an i mpor t a nt r ol e i n t he fi el d.
I n s ever al r espect s, however , t he cur r ent def-
i ni t i on goes be yond t he 1994 AECT defi ni t i on.
For e xa mpl e , t he cur r ent def i ni t i on makes spe-
cific r ef er ence t o s ome of t he performance technol-
ogy concept s t hat ha ve r ecent l y e x p a n d e d t he
na t ur e of t he fi el d (e.g., analyzing performance
problems in the workplace a n d e mpl oyi ng nonin-
structional solutions, as wel l as i ns t r uct i onal sol u-
t i ons, t o sol ve t hose pr obl ems) . Mor eover , t he
c ur r e nt def i ni t i on hi ghl i ght s t wo pr act i ces t hat
have, over t he year s, f or med t he cor e of t he field.
These t wo pr act i ces ar e (a) the use of media for
instructional purposes a nd (b ) the use of systematic
instructional design procedures (oft en s i mpl y
cal l ed instructional design). Al t h o u g h ma n y have
a r g u e d a bout t he va l ue of e mp l o y i n g t hese pr ac-
t i ces, t hey r e ma i n as t he ke y def i ni ng el ement s
of t he fi el d of i ns t r uct i onal des i gn and t echnol -
ogy. I ndi vi dua l s i nvol ved i n t he fi el d ar e t hose
wh o s pe nd a si gni f i cant por t i on of t hei r t i me
wo r k i n g wi t h me di a , or wi t h t as ks associ at ed
wi t h s ys t emat i c i ns t r uct i onal de s i gn pr ocedur es ,
or wi t h bot h.
Wh y us e t he t er m instructional design and tech-
nology, r at her t han instructional technology, as t he
l abel for t he f i el d? Because i n spi t e of t he ma ny
ef f or t s t o cl ear l y def i ne t he b r o a d me a ni ng of t he
l at t er t er m (Rei ser & El y, 1997), mos t i ndi vi dua l s
out s i de of t he pr of essi on, as wel l as ma n y i ns i de
it, wh e n a s ke d t o def i ne t he t e r m instructional
technology me nt i on comput er s , vi deos, CD-
ROMs, ove r he a d a nd sl i de pr oj ect or s, a nd ot her
t ype s of h a r d wa r e a nd s of t war e t ypi cal l y associ -
at ed wi t h t he t er m instructional media. In ot her
wor ds , mos t i ndi vi dua l s equat e t he t e r m instruc-
tional technology wi t h t he t er m instructional media.
I n l i ght of t hi s fact, p e r h a p s i t is t i me t o r econ-
si der t he l abel we use for t he b r o a d f i el d t hat
encompas s es t he ar eas of i nst r uct i onal medi a,
i ns t r uct i onal des i gn a nd pe r f or ma nc e t echnol -
ogy. Whi l e any of a n u mb e r of t er ms come t o
mi nd, I l i ke instructional design and technology
(IDT). Thi s t er m, whi c h ha s been e mp l o y e d by
one of t he pr of es s i onal or gani zat i ons i n our fi el d
(Professors of I ns t r uct i onal Des i gn a nd Technol -
ogy), di r ect l y r ef er s to t he key concept s me n-
t i oned e a r l i e r - - i ns t r uc t i ona l de s i gn a nd
i ns t r uct i onal t e c hnol ogy (i.e., i ns t r uct i onal
medi a) . Mor eover , as my des cr i pt i on of t he hi s-
t or y of i nst r uct i onal desi gn wi l l i ndi cat e, i n
r ecent year s ma ny of t he concept s associ at ed
wi t h t he per f or mance t echnol ogy mo v e me n t
have been r egul ar l y e mpl oye d b y t hose i ndi vi du-
als who call t hemsel ves i nst r uct i onal desi gner s.
As s t at ed earl i er, t hi s hi s t or y of t he f i el d wi l l
a p p e a r i n t wo ar t i cl es i n s ucceedi ng i ssues of
t hi s j our nal . This ar t i cl e focuses on t he hi s t or y of
i ns t r uct i onal medi a, a nd t he s econd ar t i cl e wi l l
focus on t he hi s t or y of i ns t r uct i onal des i gn. Thi s
is a nat ur al s e pa r a t i on because, f r om a hi st or i cal
per s pect i ve, mos t of t he pr act i ces r el at ed t o
i ns t r uct i onal me di a have occur r ed i n d e p e n d e n t
of de ve l opme nt s as s oci at ed wi t h i ns t r uct i onal
desi gn.
I t s houl d al so be not e d t hat a l t hough ma n y
i mpor t a nt event s i n t he hi s t or y of t he IDT fi el d
have t aken pl ace i n ot her count r i es, t he e mpha -
sis i n t hi s ar t i cl e a nd t he one t hat wi l l f ol l ow wi l l
be on event s t hat ha ve t aken pl ace i n t he Uni t ed
States.
HISTORY OF I NSTRUCTI ONAL MEDI A
The t er m instructional media has be e n de f i ne d as
t he phys i c a l me a ns vi a whi ch i ns t r uct i on is pr e-
s ent ed t o l ear ner s (Rei ser & Gagn6, 1983). Un d e r
t hi s def i ni t i on, e ve r y phys i cal me a ns of i nst r uc-
t i onal del i ver y, f r om t he l i ve i ns t r uct or t o t he
t ext book t o t he c omput e r a nd so on, wo u l d be
cl assi f i ed as an i ns t r uct i onal me d i u m. It ma y be
wi s e for pr act i t i oner s i n t he f i el d t o a dopt t hi s
vi ewpoi nt ; howe ve r , i n mos t di s cus s i ons of t he
hi s t or y of i ns t r uct i onal medi a, t he t hr ee p r i ma r y
HISTORY OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA 55
me a ns of i ns t r uct i on pr i or to t he 20th cent ur y
( and st i l l t he mos t c ommon means t o d a y ) - - t h e
t eacher , t he chal kboar d, a nd t he t e x t b o o k - - h a v e
been cat egor i zed s epar at el y f r om ot her me di a
(cf. Commi s s i on on I ns t r uct i onal Technol ogy,
1970). I n or de r t o cl ear l y descr i be t he hi s t or y of
medi a, t hi s vi e wpoi nt wi l l be e mp l o y e d in t hi s
art i cl e. Thus, instructional media wi l l be def i ned
as t he phys i c a l means , ot her t han t he t eacher,
chal kboar d, a nd t ext book, vi a whi c h i ns t r uct i on
is pr e s e nt e d to l ear ner s.
i ndi cat i ng t hat (a) t eacher s s houl d be v i e we d on
an equal f oot i ng wi t h i ns t r uct i onal me d i a - - a s
j ust one of ma n y possi bl e me a ns of pr e s e nt i ng
i nst r uct i on; and (b) t eacher s s houl d not be gi ve n
sol e aut hor i t y for de c i di ng wh a t i ns t r uct i onal
me di a wi l l be e mp l o y e d i n cl assr ooms. Ho w-
ever, in t he br oa d educat i onal c ommuni t y, t hes e
vi e wpoi nt s have not pr evai l ed.
The Visual Instruction Movement and
Instructional Films
School Museums
I n t he Uni t e d St at es, t he use of me di a for i nst r uc-
t i onal p u r p o s e s has been t r aced back t o at l east
as ear l y as t he fi rst de c a de of t he 20th cent ur y
(Saet t l er, 1990). It was at t hat t i me t hat school
mu s e u ms came i nt o exi st ence. As Saet t l er (1968)
has i ndi cat ed, t hese mus e ums " s er ved as t he
cent r al a dmi ni s t r a t i ve uni t (s) for vi s ual i nst r uc-
t i on by (t hei r) di s t r i but i on of por t a bl e mu s e u m
exhi bi t s, s t e r e ogr a phs ( t hr ee- di mens i onal pho-
t ogr aphs ) , sl i des, films, s t u d y pr i nt s , char t s, a nd
ot her i ns t r uct i onal ma t e r i a l s " (p. 89). The first
school mu s e u m was ope ne d i n St. Loui s i n 1905,
a nd s hor t l y t her eaf t er , school mu s e u ms wer e
o p e n e d i n Readi ng, PA, a nd Cl evel and, OH.
Al t h o u g h f ew such mu s e u ms ha ve been est ab-
l i s hed si nce t he ear l y 1900s, t he di s t r i ct - wi de
me d i a cent er ma y be c ons i de r e d a mo d e r n - d a y
equi val ent .
Saet t l er (1990) has al so st at ed t hat t he mat er i -
al s h o u s e d i n school mu s e u ms wer e vi e we d as
s u p p l e me n t a r y c ur r i c ul um mat er i al s. They wer e
not i nt e nde d t o s uppl a nt t he t eacher or t he t ext -
book. Th r o u g h o u t t he pa s t 100 year s, t hi s ear l y
vi e w of t he r ol e of i ns t r uct i onal me d i a has
r e ma i n e d pr e va l e nt i n t he educat i onal c ommu-
ni t y at l ar ge. That is, dur i ng t hi s t i me per i od
mos t e duc a t or s have vi e we d i ns t r uct i onal me di a
as s u p p l e me n t a r y means of pr es ent i ng i nst r uc-
t i on. I n cont r ast , t eacher s a nd t ext books ar e gen-
er al l y v i e we d as t he p r i ma r y means of
pr e s e nt i ng i nst r uct i on, and t eacher s ar e us ual l y
gi ven t he a ut hor i t y to deci de wha t ot her i nst r uc-
t i onal me d i a t hey wi l l empl oy. Over t he year s, a
n u mb e r of pr of es s i onal s in t he IDT f i el d (e.g.,
Hei ni ch, 1970) have a r g u e d agai ns t t hi s not i on,
As Saet t l er (1990) has i ndi cat ed, i n t he ear l y p a r t
of t he 20t h cent ur y, mos t of t he me di a h o u s e d i n
school mu s e u ms wer e vi s ual medi a, such as
fi l ms, sl i des, and phot ogr a phs . Thus, at t he t i me,
t he i ncr eas i ng i nt er est in us i ng me di a i n t he
school wa s r ef er r ed to as t he "vi s ual i ns t r uct i on"
or "vi s ual educat i on" move me nt . The l at t er t e r m
wa s us ed at l east as far back as 1908, wh e n t he
Keys t one Vi ew Co mp a n y publ i s he d Visual Edu-
cation, a t eacher ' s gui de t o l ant er n sl i des a nd st e-
r eogr aphs .
Besi des magi c l ant er ns ( l ant er n sl i de pr oj ec-
t ors) a nd st er eopt i cons ( s t er eogr aph vi ewer s) ,
whi c h wer e us ed i n s ome school s dur i ng t he sec-
ond hal f of t he 19th cent ur y ( Ander s on, 1962),
t he mot i on pi ct ur e pr oj ect or wa s one of t he f i r st
me di a devi ces us ed i n school s. In t he Uni t ed
St at es, t he fi rst cat al og of i ns t r uct i onal f i l ms wa s
publ i s he d i n 1910. Lat er t hat year , t he publ i c
school s ys t em of Rochest er, NY, be c a me t he f i r st
to a d o p t f i l ms for r e gul a r i ns t r uct i onal use. I n
1913, Thoma s Edi son pr oc l a i me d: "Books wi l l
soon be obsol et e i n t he school s . . . . I t is pos s i bl e
t o t each e ve r y br anch of h u ma n k n o wl e d g e wi t h
t he mot i on pi ct ur e. Ou r school s ys t em wi l l be
c ompl e t e l y changed i n t he next t en ye a r s " ( ci t ed
i n Saet t l er , 1968, p. 98).
Ten year s af t er Edi s on ma d e hi s f or ecast , t he
changes he ha d pr e di c t e d ha d not come about .
Howe ve r , dur i ng t hi s decade (1914-1923), t he
vi s ual i ns t r uct i on mo v e me n t di d gr ow. Fi ve
na t i ona l pr of es s i onal or ga ni z a t i ons for vi s ual
i ns t r uct i on wer e est abl i shed, f i ve j our nal s f ocus-
i ng on vi s ual i nst r uct i on be ga n publ i cat i on,
mor e t han 20 t eacher - t r ai ni ng i ns t i t ut i ons be ga n
of f er i ng cour ses i n vi s ual i ns t r uct i on, a nd at
l east a doz e n l ar ge- ci t y school s ys t ems devel -
5 6 ETR&D, Vol. 49, NO. 1
oped bur eaus of vi sual educat i on (Saettler,
1990).
The A u d i o v i s u a l I nst r uct i on M o v e m e n t
a n d I n s t r u c t i o n a l Ra d i o
Dur i ng t he r emai nder of t he 1920s and t hr ough
muc h of t he 1930s, t echnol ogi cal advances in
such areas as r adi o br oadcast i ng, s ound record-
ings, and s ound mot i on pi ct ures l ed t o i ncreased
i nt erest i n i nst ruct i onal medi a. Wi t h the advent
of medi a i ncor por at i ng sound, t he expandi ng
vi sual i nst r uct i on move me nt became known as
t he audi ovi sual i nst ruct i on move me nt (Finn,
1972; McCl uskey, 1981). However , McCl uskey,
wh o wa s one of the l eaders in t he field dur i ng
this per i od, i ndi cat ed t hat whi l e t he field cont i n-
ued t o gr ow, t he educat i onal communi t y at
l arge wa s not great l y affected by t hat gr owt h.
He st at ed t hat by 1930, commerci al interests in
t he vi sual i nst r uct i on move me nt had i nvest ed
and l ost mor e t han $50 million, onl y par t of
whi ch was due to t he Great Depressi on, whi ch
began i n 1929.
I n spi t e of t he adver se economi c effects of t he
Gr eat Depressi on, t he audi ovi sual i nst ruct i on
mo v e me n t cont i nued t o evolve. Accor di ng t o
Saettler (1990), one of t he mos t significant event s
i n this evol ut i on was t he mer gi ng, i n 1932, of t he
t hree exi st i ng nat i onal professi onal organi za-
t i ons for vi sual i nst ruct i on. As a resul t of this
mer ger , l eadershi p i n t he move me nt was consol-
i dat ed wi t hi n one organi zat i on, t he Depar t ment
of Vi sual I nst r uct i on (DVI), whi ch at t hat t i me
was par t of t he Nat i onal Educat i on Association.
Over t he years, this organi zat i on, whi ch was cre-
at ed i n 1923, and whi ch is n o w called AECT, has
mai nt ai ned a l eadershi p rol e i n t he field of
i nst ruct i onal desi gn and t echnol ogy.
Dur i ng t he 1920s and 1930s, a numbe r of text-
books on t he t opi c of vi sual i nst ruct i on wer e
wri t t en. Per haps t he most i mpor t ant of these
t ext books was Visualizing the Curriculum
(Hoban, Ho b a n , & Zi ssman, 1937). I n this book,
t he aut hor s st at ed t hat the val ue of audi ovi sual
mat er i al was a f unct i on of their degr ee of real-
ism. The aut hor s also pr esent ed a hi erarchy of
medi a, r angi ng f r om t hose t hat coul d onl y pres-
ent concept s in an abst ract fashi on t o those t hat
al l owed for ver y concret e represent at i ons
(Heinich, Mol enda, Russell, & Smal di no, 1999).
Some of these i deas had pr evi ous l y been dis-
cussed by others, but had not been deal t wi t h as
t hor oughl y. I n 1946, Edgar Dale furt her elabo-
rat ed on t hese i deas whe n he devel oped his
f amous Cone of Experience. Thr oughout t he his-
t or y of the audi ovi sual i nst ruct i on movement ,
ma ny have i ndi cat ed t hat par t of t he val ue of
audi ovi sual mat eri al s is their ability t o pr esent
concept s i n a concret e manner (Saettler, 1990).
A me di um t hat gai ned a great deal of atten-
t i on dur i ng this per i od was radio. By t he earl y
1930s, ma n y audi ovi sual ent husi ast s wer e hail-
i ng r adi o as t he me di um t hat woul d r evol ut i on-
ize educat i on. For exampl e, in referri ng t o the
i nst ruct i onal pot ent i al of radi o, films, and televi-
sion, t he edi t or of publ i cat i ons for t he Nat i onal
Educat i on Associ at i on st at ed t hat " t omor r ow
t hey wi l l be as c o mmo n as t he book and power -
ful in their effect on l ear ni ng and t eachi ng"
(Morgan, 1932, p. ix). However , cont r ar y t o
these sorts of predi ct i ons, over t he next 20 year s
r adi o had ver y little i mpact on i nst ruct i onal
practices (Cuban, 1986).
Wor l d War II
Wi t h t he onset of Wor l d War II, t he gr owt h of
t he audi ovi sual i nst r uct i on move me nt i n t he
school s sl owed; however , audi ovi sual devi ces
wer e used ext ensi vel y i n t he mi l i t ary services
and i n i ndust ry. For exampl e, dur i ng t he war t he
Uni t ed States Ar my Ai r Force pr oduc e d mor e
t han 400 t rai ni ng films and 600 filmstrips, and
dur i ng a t wo- year per i od (from mid-1943 t o
mid-1945) it was est i mat ed t hat t here wer e mor e
t han f our mi l l i on s howi ngs of t r ai ni ng films t o
Uni t ed States mi l i t ary personnel . Al t hough
t here was little t i me and oppor t uni t y t o collect
har d dat a r egar di ng t he effect of t hese films on
the per f or mance of mi l i t ary personnel , several
sur veys of mi l i t ary i nst ruct ors r eveal ed t hat
t hey felt t hat t he t r ai ni ng films and filmstrips
used dur i ng t he war wer e effective t r ai ni ng t ool s
(Saettler, 1990). Appar ent l y, at least s ome of t he
enemy agreed; i n 1945, after t he war ended, t he
Ger man Chi ef of General Staff said: "We had
ever yt hi ng cal cul at ed perfect l y except t he speed
HISTORY OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA ~7
wi t h whi ch Amer i ca was able to train its peopl e.
Our maj or mi scal cul at i on was i n under est i mat -
i ng their qui ck and compl et e mas t er y of film
educat i on" (cited in Ol sen & Bass, 1982, p. 33).
Dur i ng t he war, t rai ni ng films also pl ayed an
i mpor t ant rol e i n pr epar i ng civilians i n the
Uni t ed States t o wor k in i ndust ry. In 1941, the
federal gover nment established t he Di vi si on of
Vi sual Ai ds for War Training. Fr om 1941 to
1945, this or gani zat i on over s aw t he pr oduct i on
of 457 t r ai ni ng films. Most t rai ni ng di rect ors
r epor t ed t hat t he films r educed t r ai ni ng time
wi t hout ha vi ng a negat i ve i mpact on t rai ni ng
effectiveness, and t hat t he films wer e mor e inter-
est i ng and r esul t ed in less absent eei sm t han tra-
di t i onal t r ai ni ng pr ogr ams (Saettler, 1990).
I n addi t i on t o t rai ni ng films and film projec-
tors, a wi de var i et y of ot her audi ovi sual mat eri -
als and equi pment wer e empl oyed i n the
mi l i t ar y forces and in i ndust r y dur i ng Wor l d
War II. Those devi ces t hat wer e used ext ensi vel y
i ncl uded over head projectors, whi ch wer e first
pr oduc e d dur i ng t he war; slide projectors,
whi ch wer e used i n t eachi ng aircraft and shi p
recogni t i on; audi o equi pment , whi ch was used
in t eachi ng forei gn l anguages; and si mul at ors
and t rai ni ng devices, whi ch wer e empl oyed in
fl i ght t r ai ni ng (Olsen & Bass, 1982; Saettler,
1990).
Post-World War II Devel opment s and
Medi a Research
The audi ovi sual devi ces used dur i ng Wor l d
War II wer e general l y per cei ved as successful in
hel pi ng t he Uni t ed States sol ve a maj or t rai ni ng
pr obl e m- - na me l y, h o w t o train effectively and
efficiently l arge number s of i ndi vi dual s wi t h
di ver se backgr ounds. As a result of this appar -
ent success, after t he war there was a r enewed
i nt erest in usi ng audi ovi sual devi ces i n the
school s (Finn, 1972; Ol sen & Bass, 1982).
I n t he decade f ol l owi ng t he war , several
i nt ensi ve pr ogr a ms of audi ovi sual research
wer e under t aken (e.g., Car pent er & Greenhill,
1956; Lumsdai ne, 1961; May & Lumsdai ne,
1958). The research st udi es t hat wer e conduct ed
as par t of t hese pr ogr ams wer e desi gned t o i den-
t i fy h o w var i ous features, or attributes, of audi o-
vi sual materials affected l earni ng; the goal bei ng
to i dent i f y those at t ri but es t hat woul d facilitate
l ear ni ng i n gi ven situations. For example, one
research pr ogr am, conduct ed unde r t he di rec-
t i on of Ar t hur A. Lumsdai ne, f ocused on i dent i -
f yi ng how l earni ng wa s affect ed by var i ous
t echni ques for eliciting overt st udent r esponse
dur i ng t he vi ewi ng of i nst ruct i onal films
(Lumsdai ne, 1963).
The post - Wor l d War II audi ovi sual research
pr ogr a ms wer e a mong t he first concent r at ed
efforts t o i dent i fy principles of l earni ng t hat
coul d be used in t he desi gn of audi ovi sual mat e-
rials. However , educat i onal pract i ces wer e not
gr eat l y affected b y these research pr ogr ams i n
t hat ma n y pract i t i oners ei t her i gnor ed, or wer e
not made awar e of, ma ny of t he research fi nd-
i ngs (Lumsdai ne, 1963, 1964).
Most of t he medi a research st udi es con-
duct ed over t he years have compar ed h o w
muc h st udent s have l earned after recei vi ng a
l esson pr esent ed vi a a part i cul ar medi um, such
as film, radi o, television, or t he comput er , ver sus
h o w much st udent s have l earned f r om live
i nst r uct i on on t he same topic. Studies of this
t ype, oft en called medi a compar i son st udi es,
have usual l y reveal ed t hat st udent s l earned
equal l y wel l regardl ess of t he means of pr esent a-
t i on (Clark, 1983, 1994; Schr amm, 1977). I n l i ght
of these r epeat ed fi ndi ngs, critics of such
research have suggest ed t hat t he focus of such
st udi es s houl d change. Some have ar gued t hat
researchers shoul d focus on t he at t ri but es (char-
acteristics) of medi a (Levie & Dickie, 1973); ot h-
ers have suggest ed an exami nat i on of how medi a
i nfl uence l earni ng (Kozma, 1991, 1994); and still
ot hers have suggest ed t hat t he research f ocus
shoul d be on i nst ruct i onal met hods, r at her t han
on t he medi a t hat del i ver t hose met hods (Clark,
1983, 1994). I n recent years, some of t hese t ypes
of st udi es have become mor e preval ent .
Theories of Communi cat i on
Dur i ng t he ear l y 1950s, ma n y l eaders i n t he
audi ovi sual i nst ruct i on move me nt became
i nt erest ed i n var i ous theories or model s of com-
muni cat i on, such as t he model put f or t h by
Shannon and Weaver (1949). These model s
5 8 ETR&D, Vol. 49, No. 1
f ocus ed on t he c ommuni c a t i on pr ocess, a pr o-
cess i nvol vi ng a s ender and a r ecei ver of a mes-
sage, a nd a channel , or me di um, t hr ough whi ch
t hat me s s a ge is sent. The aut hor s of t hese mod-
el s i ndi c a t e d t hat dur i ng pl a nni ng for c ommuni -
cat i on i t wa s necessar y t o cons i der al l t he
e l e me nt s of t he communi cat i on pr ocess, a nd not
j ust f ocus on t he me di um, as ma n y i n t he audi o-
vi s ual f i el d t e nde d t o do. As Berlo (1963) st at ed:
" As a c ommuni c a t i on ma n I mus t ar gue
s t r ongl y t hat i t is t he pr oces s t hat i s cent r al and
t hat t he me di a , t hough i mpor t a nt , ar e second-
a r y" (p. 378). Sever al l eader s in t he audi ovi s ual
move me nt , such as Dal e (1953) a nd Fi nn (1954),
al so e mp h a s i z e d t he i mpor t a nc e of t he c ommu-
ni c a t i on pr ocess. Al t hough at first, audi ovi s ual
pr act i t i oner s wer e not gr eat l y i nf l uenced by t hi s
not i on ( Lums dai ne, 1964; Mei er henr y, 1980), t he
e xpr e s s i on of t hi s poi nt of vi ew event ual l y
h e l p e d e x p a n d t he focus of t he audi ovi s ual
mo v e me n t (Ely, 1963, 1970; Si l ber, 1981).
I ns t r uc t i onal Tel evi si on
Pe r h a p s t he mos t i mp o r t a n t fact or to affect t he
a udi ovi s ua l mo v e me n t i n t he 1950s wa s t he
i nc r e a s e d i nt er est i n t el evi si on as a me d i u m for
de l i ve r i ng i nst r uct i on. Pr i or t o t he 1950s, t her e
ha d be e n a n u mb e r of i nst ances i n whi ch t el evi -
s i on h a d been us ed for i ns t r uct i onal pur pos e s
( Gumper t , 1967; Tayl or , 1967). Dur i ng t he 1950s,
howe ve r , t her e was a t r e me ndous gr owt h i n t he
us e of i ns t r uct i onal t el evi si on. Thi s gr owt h was
s t i mul a t e d b y at l east t wo maj or factors: (a) t he
s et t i ng a s i de by t he Feder al Communi cat i ons
Commi s s i on of e duc a t i ona l channel s, and (b)
For d Founda t i on f undi ng.
The 1952 deci s i on b y t he Feder al Communi -
cat i ons Commi s s i on t o set as i de 242 t el evi si on
channel s for e duc a t i ona l pur pos e s , l ed t o t he
r a p i d d e v e l o p me n t of a l ar ge n u mb e r of publ i c
( t hen cal l ed " e duc a t i ona l " ) t el evi si on st at i ons.
By 1955, t her e we r e 17 such st at i ons i n t he
Uni t e d St at es, a nd b y 1960 t hat n u mb e r ha d
i ncr eas ed t o mor e t ha n 50 (Bl akel y, 1979). One of
t he p r i ma r y mi s s i ons of t hese st at i ons was t he
pr e s e nt a t i on of i nst r uct i onal pr ogr ams . As
He z e l (1980) i ndi cat ed: "The t eachi ng r ol e has
be e n as cr i bed t o publ i c br oa dc a s t i ng si nce its
ori gi ns. Especi al l y pr i or t o t he 1960s, educa-
t i onal br oa dc a s t i ng was seen as a qui ck, effi ~
cient, i nexpens i ve means of sat i sf yi ng t he
nat i on' s i ns t r uct i onal needs " (p. 173).
It has been e s t i ma t e d t hat dur i ng t he 1950s
and 1960s t he For d Founda t i on a nd i t s agenci es
s pent mor e t han $170 mi l l i on on educat i onal
t el evi si on ( Gor don, 1970). Those pr oj ect s s pon-
s or ed by t he f ounda t i on i nc l ude d a cl osed- ci r -
cui t t el evi si on s ys t em t hat was us e d t o del i ver
i nst r uct i on i n al l maj or subj ect ar eas at al l gr a de
l evel s t hr oughout t he school s ys t em i n Wa s hi ng-
t on Count y ( Hager s t own) , MD; a j uni or - col l ege
cur r i cul um t hat wa s pr e s e nt e d vi a publ i c t el evi -
si on i n Chi cago; a l ar ge- scal e e xpe r i me nt a l
r esear ch p r o g r a m de s i gne d to assess t he effec-
t i veness of a ser i es of col l ege cour ses t a ught vi a
cl osed ci r cui t t el evi s i on at Pe nns yl va ni a St at e
Uni ver s i t y; and t he Mi dwe s t Pr o g r a m on Ai r -
bor ne Tel evi s i on I nst r uct i on, a p r o g r a m
des i gned t o t r ans mi t t el evi sed l essons f r om an
ai r pl ane t o school s i n si x st at es s i mul t aneous l y.
By t he mi d-1960s, muc h of t he i nt er est i n
us i ng t el evi si on for i ns t r uct i onal p u r p o s e s ha d
abat ed. Ma n y of t he i ns t r uct i onal t el evi s i on pr o-
j ect s de ve l ope d d u r i n g t hi s pe r i od h a d s hor t
l i ves. Thi s p r o b l e m wa s par t l y becaus e of t he
me di oc r e i ns t r uct i onal qual i t y of s ome of t he
p r o g r a ms t hat we r e pr oduc e d; ma n y of t hem
di d l i t t l e mor e t han pr e s e nt a t eacher de l i ve r i ng
a l ect ure. I n 1963, t he For d Founda t i on de c i de d
to focus i t s s u p p o r t on publ i c t el evi s i on i n gen-
eral , r at her t han on i n- school appl i cat i ons of
i nst r uct i onal t el evi si on (Bl akel y, 1979). I n ma n y
cases, school di st r i ct s di s c ont i nue d i ns t r uct i onal
t el evi si on de mons t r a t i on pr oj ect s whe n t he
ext er nal f undi ng for t hos e pr oj ect s wa s hal t ed
(Tyl er, 1975). I ns t r uct i onal p r o g r a mmi n g wa s
st i l l an i mpor t a nt pa r t of t he mi s s i on of publ i c
t el evi si on, but t hat mi ssi on wa s n o w wi der ,
e nc ompa s s i ng ot her t ypes of p r o g r a mmi n g ,
such as cul t ur al a nd i nf or mat i onal pr e s e nt a t i ons
(Hezel , 1980). I n l i ght of t hese a nd ot her devel -
opment s , i n 1967 t he Car negi e Commi s s i on on
Educat i onal Tel evi si on concl uded:
The role played in formal education by instructional
television has been on the whole a small o n e . . , noth-
ing which approached the true potential of instruc-
tional television has been realized in practice . . . . With
minor exceptions, the total disappearance of instruc-
HISTORY OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA 59
tional television would leave the educational system
fundamentally unchanged. (pp. 80-81)
Many reasons have been given as to why
instructional television was not adopted to a
greater extent. These include teacher resistance
to the use of television in their classrooms, the
expense of installing and maintaining television
systems in schools, and the inability of television
alone to adequately present the various condi-
tions necessary for student learning (Gordon,
1970; Tyler, 1975).
Shifting Termi nol ogy
By the early 1970s, the terms educational technol-
ogy and instructional technology began to replace
audiovisual instruction to describe the application
of media for instructional purposes. For exam-
ple, in 1970, the name of the major professional
organization within the field was changed from
the Department of Audiovisual Instruction to
the Association for Educational Communica-
tions and Technology, and later in the decade,
the names of the two journals published by
AECT were also changed--Audiovisual Commu-
nication Review became Educational Communica-
tions and Technology Journal, and Audiovisual
Instruction became Instructional Innovator. More-
over, the group the United States government
established to examine the impact of media on
instruction was called the Commission on
Instructional Technology. Regardless of the ter-
minology, however, most individuals in the
field agreed that, up to that point, instructional
media had had minimal impact on educational
practices (Commission on Instructional Technol-
ogy, 1970, Cuban, 1986).
Comput ers: From t he 1950s t o 1995
After the interest in instructional television
faded, the next technological innovation to catch
the attention of a large number of educators was
the computer. Although wide-spread interest in
the computer as an instructional tool did not
occur until the 1980s, computers were first used
in education and training at a much earlier date.
Much of the early work in computer-assisted
instruction (CAI) was done in the 1950s by
researchers at IBM, who developed the first CAI
author language and designed one of the first
CAI programs to be used in the public schools.
Other pioneers in this area included Gordon
Pask, whose adaptive teaching machines made
use of computer technology (Lewis & Pask;
1965; Pask, 1960; Stolorow & Davis, 1965), and
Richard Atkinson and Patrick Suppes, whose
work during the 1960s led to some of the earliest
applications of CAI at both the public school and
university levels (Atkinson & Hansen, 1966;
Suppes & Macken, 1978). Other major efforts
during the 1960s and early 1970s included the
development of CAI systems such as PLATO
and TICCIT (Saettler, 1990). However, in spite of
the work that had been done, by the end of the
1970s, CAI had had very little impact on educa-
tion (Pagliaro, 1983).
By the early 1980s, a few years after micro-
computers became available to the general pub-
lic, the enthusiasm surrounding this tool ted to
increasing interest in using computers for
instructional purposes. By January 1983, com-
puters were being used for instructional pur-
poses in more than 40% of all elementary
schools and more than 75% of all secondary
schools in the United States (Center for Social
Organization of Schools, 1983).
Many educators were attracted to microcom-
puters because they were relatively inexpensive,
were compact enough for desktop use, and
could perform many of the functions performed
by the large computers that had preceded them.
As was the case when other new media were
first introduced into the instructional arena,
many expected that this medium would have a
major impact on instructional practices. For
example, in 1984, Papert indicated that the com-
puter was going to be "a catalyst of very deep
and radical change in the educational system"
(p. 422) and that by 1990 one computer per child
would be a very common state of affairs in
schools in the United States.
Although computers may eventually have a
major impact on instructional practices in
schools, by the mid-1990s that impact had been
rather small. Surveys revealed that by 1995,
although schools in the United States possessed,
6 0 ETR&D, Vol, 49, No. 1
on aver age, one c omput e r for e ve r y ni ne st u-
dent s , t he i mpa c t of c omput e r s on i nst r uct i onal
pr act i ces wa s mi ni mal , wi t h a s ubs t ant i al num-
be r of t eacher s r e por t i ng l i t t l e or no use of com-
p u t e r s for i nst r uct i onal pur pos es . Mor eover , in
mos t cases, t he use of comput er s wa s far f r om
i nnovat i ve. I n el ement ar y school s, t eacher s
r e p o r t e d t hat c omput e r s we r e bei ng pr i ma r i l y
us ed for dr i l l a nd pr act i ce, a nd at t he s e c onda r y
l evel , r epor t s i ndi cat ed t hat comput er s wer e
ma i nl y us e d for t eachi ng c omput e r - r e l a t e d ski l l s
s uch as wo r d pr oces s i ng ( Ande r s on & Ronnkv-
ist, 1999; Becker, 1998; Offi ce of Technol ogy
As s es s ment , 1995).
Recent Developments
Si nce 1995, r a pi d a dva nc e s in c omput e r and
ot her di gi t al t echnol ogy, as wel l as t he I nt er net ,
ha ve l e d t o a r a p i d l y i ncr easi ng i nt er est i n, and
use of, t hese me di a for i nst r uct i onal pur pos es ,
pa r t i c ul a r l y i n t r ai ni ng i n bus i nes s a nd i ndus t r y.
For exampl e, a r ecent s ur vey of mor e t han 750
t r a i ni ng i ndus t r y compani es (Bassi & Van
Bur en, 1999) r e ve a l e d t hat t he per cent age of
t r ai ni ng de l i ve r e d vi a such ne w t echnol ogi es as
CD- ROM, i nt r anet s a nd t he I nt er net r ose f r om
l ess t ha n 6% i n 1996 t o mo r e t han 9% i n 1997,
a nd wa s expect ed t o r i se t o mor e t han 22% by
2000. An o t h e r r ecent s ur ve y r e por t e d t hat , in
1999, 14% of al l f or mal t r a i ni ng wa s del i ver ed
vi a c omput e r s ( I ndus t r y Repor t 1999).
I n t he pa s t few year s, i nt er es t i n us i ng t he
I nt er net for i ns t r uct i onal p u r p o s e s has al so been
r a p i d l y gr owi ng i n hi gher educat i on and t he
mi l i t ar y. For exampl e, be t we e n t he 1994-95 a nd
t he 1997-98 academi c year s, enr ol l ment s i n di s-
t ance l e a r ni ng cour ses i n hi gher educat i on i nst i -
t ut i ons i n t he Uni t ed St at es ne a r l y doubl e d, a nd
t he pe r c e nt a ge of i nst i t ut i ons t hat of f er ed di s-
t ance l e a r ni ng cour ses r ose f r om 33% t o 44%,
wi t h 78% of publ i c f our - year i nst i t ut i ons offer-
i ng such courses. Mor eover , whe r e a s i n 1995
onl y 22% of t he hi gher e duc a t i on i nst i t ut i ons
of f er i ng di s t ance l ear ni ng cour ses us ed asyn-
c hr onous I nt er net - bas ed t echnol ogi es, b y t he
1997-98 academi c year 60% of t he i nst i t ut i ons
d i d so (Lewi s, Snow, Far r i s, Levi n, & Gr eene,
1999). I n t he mi l i t ar y, i n 2000, t he Secr et ar y of
t he Uni t ed St at es Ar my a nnounc e d t hat $600
mi l l i on wo u l d be s pe nt over t he next six year s t o
enabl e sol di er s t o t ake di st ance educat i on
cour ses vi a t he I nt er net (Carr, 2000).
Si nce 1995, t her e has al so been a si gni f i cant
i ncr ease in t he a mo u n t of t echnol ogy avai l abl e
i n school s i n t he Uni t ed States. For exampl e,
r esul t s of a 1998 na t i ona l s ur ve y ( Ande r s on &
Ronnkvi st , 1999) r e ve a l e d t hat wh e r e a s i n 1995
t her e was an aver age of one c omput e r for e ve r y
ni ne s t udent s , b y 1998 t her e was one c omput e r
for ever y six s t udent s . Mor eover , t he pe r c e nt a ge
of school s t hat ha d I nt er net access i ncr eased
f r om 50% i n 1995 t o 90% i n 1998. Howe ve r , as
has been t he case t hr oughout t he hi s t or y of
i ns t r uct i onal medi a, an i ncr eas ed pr es ence of
t echnol ogy i n t he school s does not neces s ar i l y
me a n an i ncr eas ed us e of t hat t e c hnol ogy for
i ns t r uct i onal pur pos e s . An d e r s o n & Ronnkvi s t
al so s t at ed t hat a l t hough t he n u mb e r of c omput -
ers i n school s has been i ncr easi ng, mos t of t he
comput er s ar e qui t e l i mi t ed i n t er ms of t he soft -
war e t hey can r un. Fur t he r mor e , t he y i ndi c a t e d
t hat a l t hough t he vas t ma j or i t y of school s now
have I nt er net access, i n ma n y school s s t ude nt
access t o t he I nt er net is l i mi t ed, wi t h few st u-
dent s be i ng abl e t o use i t for t hei r school wor k.
These obs er vat i ons ma ke i t di f f i cul t t o as cer t ai n
t he ext ent t o whi c h i ns t r uct i onal pr act i ces i n
school s ha ve been i nf l uenced b y t he i ncr eas ed
pr es ence of medi a.
I n s pi t e of t he uncer t ai nt y r e g a r d i n g t he
ext ent of me di a us age i n t he school s, mos t of t he
evi dence ci t ed a bove cl ear l y i ndi cat es t hat , si nce
1995, t her e has be e n a si gni f i cant i ncr eas e in t he
use of i ns t r uct i onal me di a i n a va r i e t y of set -
t i ngs, r a ngi ng f r om bus i nes s and i n d u s t r y t o t he
mi l i t ar y a nd hi gher educat i on. Wha t ar e s ome of
t he r easons for t hi s i ncr eas ed usage? I n bus i nes s
a nd i n d u s t r y a nd t he mi l i t ar y, t he I nt er net has
been v i e we d as a me a ns of p r o v i d i n g i ns t r uct i on
and i nf or mat i on t o wi d e l y di s pe r s e d l ear ner s at
a r el at i vel y l ow cost. Mor eover , i n ma n y cases,
t he easy accessi bi l i t y of c omput e r s ma ke s i t pos -
si bl e for l ear ner s t o r ecei ve i ns t r uct i on, per f or -
mance s u p p o r t ( of t en i n t he f or m of an el ect r oni c
pe r f or ma nc e s u p p o r t s ys t em or k n o wl e d g e
ma n a g e me n t syst em) , or bot h, wh e n a nd whe r e
t hey need it, as t hey ar e pe r f or mi ng par t i cul ar
j ob t asks.
HISTORY OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA 61
I n hi ghe r educat i on, di s t ance educat i on vi a
t he I nt er net has been seen as a l ow- cost me t hod
of p r o v i d i n g i nst r uct i on to s t udent s who,
becaus e of a var i et y of fact ors (e.g., j ob a nd f am-
i l y r esponsi bi l i t i es, geogr aphy) , mi ght not ot her -
wi s e have been abl e t o r ecei ve it. Howe ve r ,
ques t i ons r e ga r di ng t he cost effect i veness of
s uch i nst r uct i on r emai n una ns we r e d ( Hawk-
r i dge, 1999).
Anot he r r eason t hat t he ne we r me di a ar e
be i ng us e d t o a gr eat er ext ent ma y be t hei r
i ncr eas ed i nt er act i ve capabi l i t i es. Moor e (1989)
de s c r i be d t hr ee t ypes of i nt er act i ons a mong t he
agent s u s u a l l y i nvol ve d i n an i nst r uct i onal
act i vi t y. These i nt er act i ons ar e (a) bet ween
l ear ner s a n d i ns t r uct i onal cont ent , (b) bet ween
l ear ner s a nd t he i nst r uct or , and (c) a mong l ear n-
ers t hemsel ves. Because of t hei r at t r i but es, t he
i ns t r uct i onal me di a t hat wer e pr e va l e nt dur i ng
s ome por t i on of t he fi rst t wo t hi r ds of t he pas t
c e nt ur y (e.g., f i l ms a nd i ns t r uct i onal t el evi si on)
we r e p r i ma r i l y e mpl oye d as a means of havi ng
l ear ner s i nt er act wi t h i ns t r uct i onal cont ent . In
cont r ast , t h r o u g h t he use of such f eat ur es as e-
mai l , chat r ooms , a nd bul l et i n boar ds , t he I nt er -
net i s of t en us e d as a me a ns of havi ng l ear ner s
i nt er act wi t h t hei r i nst r uct or a nd wi t h ot her
l ear ner s, as wel l as wi t h i ns t r uct i onal cont ent .
Thi s is one e xa mpl e of h o w s ome of t he newer
me d i a ma k e i t easi er t o p r o mo t e t he var i ous
t ype s of i nt er act i ons des cr i bed b y Moor e.
I n a ddi t i on, a dva nc e s i n c omput e r t echnol -
ogy, pa r t i c ul a r l y wi t h r e ga r d to t he i ncr easi ng
mu l t i me d i a capabi l i t i es of t hi s me d i u m, have
ma d e i t eas i er for educat or s t o des i gn l ear ni ng
exper i ences t hat i nvol ve mor e compl ex i nt er ac-
t i ons b e t we e n l ear ner s a nd i ns t r uct i onal cont ent
t han has p r e v i o u s l y been t he case. For exampl e,
as t he a mo u n t a nd t ype of i nf or mat i on (e.g.,
pr i nt , vi deo, audi o) t hat can be pr e s e nt e d by
c omput e r s has i ncr eased, t he t ype of f eedback,
as wel l as t he t ype of pr obl ems , t hat can be pr e-
s ent ed to l ear ner s has gr eat l y e xpa nde d. These
i ncr eas ed i nst r uct i onal capabi l i t i es have
at t r act ed t he at t ent i on of ma n y educat or s . Mor e-
over , t he abi l i t y of c omput e r s to pr es ent i nfor-
ma t i o n i n a wi d e var i et y of f or ms, as wel l as to
a l l ow l ear ner s t o easi l y l i nk to var i ous cont ent ,
has at t r act ed t he i nt er est of i ns t r uct i onal des i gn-
er s ha vi ng a const r uct i vi st per spect i ve. They
a nd ot her s who ar e pa r t i c ul a r l y concer ned wi t h
pr e s e nt i ng aut hent i c (i.e., r eal - wor l d) pr obl e ms
i n l ear ni ng e nvi r onme nt s i n whi c h l ear ner s ha ve
a gr eat deal of cont r ol of t he act i vi t i es t he y
engage i n and t he t ool s and r esour ces t hey use,
f i nd t he ne w di gi t al t echnol ogy mor e a c c ommo-
da t i ng t han its pr edeces s or s .
As s ome of t he exampl es i n t he pr e vi ous f ew
p a r a g r a p h s demons t r at e, in t he pas t f ew ye a r s
c omput e r s , t he I nt er net and ot her di gi t al t ech-
nol ogy have of t en been us ed t o pr omot e l ear n-
i ng a nd pe r f or ma nc e vi a s ome " nont r a di t i ona l "
means. For i nst ance, c omput e r - a s s i s t e d el ec-
t r oni c pe r f or ma nc e s uppor t s ys t ems (St evens &
St evens, 1995), k n o wl e d g e ma n a g e me n t s ys t e ms
(Rosset t & Donel l o, 1999), a nd l ear ner - cent er ed
l ear ni ng envi r onment s oft en ser ve as al t er na-
fi ves to t r a i ni ng or di r ect i nst r uct i on. Wh e n t he
c ur r e nt - da y i mpact of "i ns t r uct i onal " me di a is
be i ng cons i der ed, t hese t ype s of a ppl i c a t i ons
s houl d not be over l ooked.
Concl usi on
Of t he ma n y l essons we can l ear n by r e v i e wi n g
t he hi s t or y of i ns t r uct i onal medi a, pe r ha ps one
of t he mos t i mpor t a nt i nvol ves a c ompa r i s on
be t we e n t he ant i ci pat ed a nd act ual effects of
me di a on i nst r uct i onal pr act i ces. As Cuba n
(1986) has poi nt e d out , as you l ook back over t he
pa s t cent ur y of me di a hi st or y, you ar e l i kel y t o
not e a r ecur r ent pa t t e r n of expect at i ons a nd out -
comes. As a ne w me d i u m ent er s t he e duc a t i ona l
scene, t her e is a gr eat de a l of i ni t i al i nt er es t a nd
muc h e nt hus i a s m about t he effect s i t is l i kel y t o
have on i nst r uct i onal pr act i ces. Howe ve r ,
e nt hus i a s m a nd i nt er est e ve nt ua l l y f ade, a nd an
exami nat i on r eveal s t hat t he me d i u m has ha d a
mi ni ma l i mpact on such pr act i ces. For e xa mpl e ,
Edi s on' s opt i mi s t i c pr e di c t i on t hat f i l ms wo u l d
r evol ut i oni ze educat i on p r o v e d t o be i ncor r ect ,
a nd t he e nt hus i a s m for i ns t r uct i onal t el evi s i on
t hat exi st ed dur i ng t he 1950s gr eat l y abat ed b y
t he mi d-1960s, wi t h l i t t l e i mpact on i ns t r uct i on
i n t he school s. Bot h of t hese e xa mpl e s i nvol ve
t he use of me di a i n school s, t he s et t i ng i n whi c h
t he use of i ns t r uct i onal me di a has been mos t
cl osel y exami ned. However , dat a r e ga r di ng t he
use of i ns t r uct i onal me di a i n bus i nes s a nd
6 *~ ETR&D, Vol. 49, No. 1
i ndust r y support s a similar conclusion: namel y
that, i n spite of ent husi asm about the use of
instructional media i n business and industry,
until recently media have had a mi ni mal impact
on instructional practices in that envi ronment .
What about the predictions, first made i n the
1980s, that computers woul d revolutionize
instruction? As the data from schools reveal, by
the mid-1990s that revol ut i on had not occurred.
However, data from the second half of the
decade indicate a growi ng presence, and per-
haps instructional use, of computers and the
Int ernet in schools. Moreover, dur i ng the past
five years, these medi a have taken on an increas-
ingly larger instructional and performance sup-
port role in other settings such as business and
i ndust ry and higher education.
Will the impact of media on instruction be
greater i n the future than it has been in the past?
In light of the aforementioned reasons for the
increasing use of the newer media, I think it is
reasonable to predict that over the next decade,
computers, the Internet, and other digital medi a
will bri ng about greater changes i n instructional
practices t han the media that preceded them.
However, i n light of the history of media and its
i mpact on instructional practices, I also t hi nk it
is reasonable to expect that such changes, both i n
schools and i n other instructional settings, are
likely to come about more slowly and be less
extensive t han most medi a enthusiasts currently
predict. []
Robert A. Reiser is a professor in the Instructional
Systems program at Florida State University, and
may be reached by e-mail at rreiser@rnailer.fsu.edt~
Portions of this article are from a chapter that will
appear in Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and
Technology (Reiser & Dempsey, in press). Some
segments of the article previously appeared in a book
chapter by Reiser (1987).
The author would like to thank Walter Dick, Don
Ely, and Kent Gustafson, each of whom reviewed
various portions of this manuscript and provided
him with invaluable feedback.
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