Fault Currents

Electric Power Transmission
Fault currents
Fault current issues

The fault current withstand capacity of components has to be
sufficient. Fault currents can be affected by network planning.
Benefits of low short-circuit current:
Low temperature rise
Lower force effect
Better circuit-breaking capacity
Lower hazardous voltages
Lower disturbance voltages
electric arc
Benefits of high short-circuit current
low impedance
stability
voltage rigidity
reactive power
operation of protection
J.Partanen 1
www.ee.lut.fi/fi/lab/sahkomarkkina/
Electric Power Transmission, fault currents
Nature of short-circuit current

R L
U = 2U sin (ωt + α ) U
α = switching instant after the zero of the voltage, time t

calculated from the switching instant of the short circuit
di
= 2U sin (ωt + α ) 2U ⎡ ⎤
R
− t
Ri + L ⇒i= ⎢sin (ωt + α − ϕ ) − e sin (α − ϕ )⎥
L
dt Z ⎣ ⎦
ωL
Z = R 2 + (ωL ) tan ϕ =
2
R
Maximum asymmetric short-circuit current I S = Η 2 I K′′

⎛R⎞
Η = f ⎜ ⎟ = damping factor I K′′ = initial short circuit current
⎝X⎠
⎛R ⎞
At high voltage Η ≈ 1.8 ⎜ ≈ 0.07 ⎟ ⇒ I S ≈ 2.5I K′′
⎝ X ⎠
J.Partanen 2
Direct component of the short-circuit current and damping

α - ϕ = - 900 α - ϕ = 00
Ik’’ > Ik’ > Ik (X’’ < X’ < X) especially if there are
generators near to the fault point
J.Partanen 3
Stages of a short-circuit state:

Initial state
Ik” , initial short-circuit current
Xd”, direct initial reactance of a synchronous machine
Td” , time constant (ca. 0.1 s)
protection of the main grid operates in 0.1–0.5 s
Transient state
Ik´ , transient short-circuit current
Xd´ , transient reactance of a synchronous machine
Td´ , time constant (ca. 3–6 s)
Ik” and Ik´ determines the temperature rise of conductors
and components
Steady state
Ik , steady-state short-circuit current
Xd , direct synchronous reactance of a synchronous
machine
J.Partanen 4
Transient phenomenon of a synchronous machine

initial reactance X”
transient reactance X´
synchronous reactance X
X” < X´ < X
x” ≈ 0.2
x´≈ 0.4
x ≈ 1.5
Also E changes during transient ⇒ has to be taken into account

in stability calculation
J.Partanen 5
Asymmetrical short-circuits, e.g. 1-phase earth fault

The conventional single-phase equivalent circuit cannot be used in the
calculation.
Symmetrical components; By applying symmetrical components, an
asymmetric system can be converted into three symmetric systems.
zero-sequence system
UR0=U0
US0=U0
UT0=U0 UR0 US0 UT0
positive-sequence system
UR1=U1 UT1
2
US1=a U1
UT1=aU1
US1 UR1
negative-sequence system
UR2=U2 UT2
US2=aU2
UR2 US2
UT2=a2U2
J.Partanen 6
U R = U R 0 + U R1 + U R 2 = U 0 + U 1 + U 2
U S = U 0 + a U 1 + aU 2
2
U T = U 0 + aU 1 + a U 2
2
U0 =
1
(U R + U S + U T ) I0 =
1
(I R + I S + I T )
3 3
1
(
U 1 = U R + aU S + a U T
3
2
) 1
(
I1 = I R + aI S + a I T
3
2
)
1
(
U 2 = U R + a U S + aU T
3
2
) 1
(
I 2 = I R + a I S + aI T
3
2
)
Symmetric system
I R + I S + IT = 0 ⇒ I0 = 0
aI S = I R
〉I1 = I R ∴ I 2 = 0
a IT = I R
2
J.Partanen 7
UT1 b. UT2
a.
UR2 US2
US1 UR1
c.
UR0 US0 UT0
d. UT2
UT0
UT1
UT
US1 UR1
US2 UR U UR0
R2
US
US0
J.Partanen 8
ER Z IR
ES Z IS UR U R = E R − Z I R − Z M (I R + I S + I T )
ET Z IT US U S = E S − Z I S − Z M (I R + I S + I T )
UT U T = E T − Z I T − Z M (I R + I S + I T )
ZM
⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡U 0 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡(Z + Z M ) ZM ZM ⎤
⎢1 a 2 a ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢U 1 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢a 2 ⎥⎥ E 1 − ⎢⎢ Z M (Z + Z M ) Z M ⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣U 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z M ZM (Z + Z M )⎥⎦
⎡1 1 1 ⎤⎡I 0 ⎤ ⎡U 0 ⎤ ⎡0⎤ ⎡ Z + 3Z M 0 0 ⎤⎡I 0 ⎤
⎢1 a 2 ⎢U ⎥ = ⎢1⎥ E − ⎢ 0 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ I 1 ⎥⎥
⎢ a ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ I 1 ⎥⎥ ⎢ 1⎥ ⎢ ⎥ 1 ⎢ Z
⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣U 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 Z ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦
J.Partanen 9
U 0 = −( Z + 3Z M ) I 0 = − Z 0 I 0
U 1 = E1 − Z I 1 = E1 − Z 1 I 1
U 2 = −Z 2 I 2
I0 I1 I2
Z Z1 Z2
U0 E1 U1 U2
3ZM
Positive- Negative-
Zero-
sequence sequence sequence
network network network
J.Partanen 10
Example: 1-phase earth fault UR = Z f IR

ER Z UR IS = 0
IT = 0
ES Z US
IR
ET Z UT
Z f I R = U 0 +U1 +U 2
I 0 + a2 I 1 + aI 2 = 0
ZM Zf ⇒ I 0 = I1 = I 2
I 0 + aI 1 + a2 I 2 = 0
− Z 0 I 0 + E 1 − Z 1 I 0 − Z 2 I 0 = 3Z f I 0
123 1424 3 123
U0 U1 U2
E1 E1 if Zjo = Zj1 = Zj2 = Z

I0 = ∗
=
Z 0 + Z 1 + Z 2 + 3 Z f 3Z + 3Z M + 3Z f
E1
I R = I f = 3I 0 =
Z +ZM +Z f
J.Partanen 11

Fault current calculation
1. Determine the equation for fault current (search in

literature)
e.g. single-phase earth fault in neutral earthed system
2. Construct the equivalent circuits for the required

component networks
positive-, negative- and zero-sequence network
(transformer models)
3. Simplify the equivalent circuits; Z1, Z2, Z0

in a mesh network, this is not possible in manual calculation
4. Calculate the fault current
J.Partanen 12
Equations for fault current in parallel faults, node k

1. Three-phase short circuit
If =
Uk (If = IR = IS = IT)
Z kk1 + Z f
2. Two-phase short circuit
Uk (= IS = -IT)
If =−j 3
Z kk1 + Z kk 2 + Z f IR = 0
3. Single-phase short circuit
3U k (= IR)
If =
Z kk1 + Z kk 2 + Z kk 0 + 3Z f IS = IT = 0
4. Two-phase earth fault
j 3 (a Z kk 2 − Z kk 0 − 3Z f )U k
IR =
Z kk1 Z kk 2 + (Z kk 0 + 3Z f )(Z kk1 + Z kk 2 )
IS =
(
− j 3 a Z kk 2 − Z kk 0 − 3Z f U k
2
) IT = 0
Z kk1 Z kk 2 + (Z kk 0 + 3Z f )(Z kk1 + Z kk 2 )
J.Partanen 13
Example of the equivalent circuit of the zero-sequence network
G
Z
ZY ZM
Formation of the equivalent circuit of a zero-

sequence network:
Zero-sequence network is connected to earth
only at the points where the neutral point is
earthed either directly or through impedance
the impedance between earth and the neutral
Zero-sequence
point and the fault impedance are multiplied by
network three in the equivalent circuit
the zero-sequence network of the transformer is
connected to
ZG0 ZM0 Z0 earth if the neutral point is earthed, or
the transformer is delta-star connected
3ZY 3ZM via earth through the transformer if the
transformer is star-star connected and if
the neutral points are earthed
J.Partanen 14
Example
Construct the equivalent circuit of the zero-sequence network

with the network illustration below, when the fault occurs
at the point g.
X0=300Ω g M
G
M
Zn Zm Zn
g
g Zm0
ZG0 Xm0 Xj0 Xm0 Zm0 Zm0
3Zm 3Zn
3Zn 3Zn
Z0=Zm0+3Zn
J.Partanen 15

Example
A two-phase short circuit on a line without any rotating machines

connected to the network
ER Z UR
U R = U S = U T = UV
ES Z US
U RS = U
ET Z UT
U 3U V
If = =
2Z 2Z
The three-phase short-circuit current becomes
UV 3
Ik3 = ⇒ Ik2 = Ik3
Z 2
If there are rotating machines on the grid, the above is not valid,
since for generators
Z1 ≠ Z2.
J.Partanen 16
Representations of network components in

positive-, negative- and zero-sequence networks
1. Synchronous machines
source voltage only to positive-sequence network
Z1 and Z2 inequal (Z2 low)
Z0 depends on the neutral point connection
Z0 ⇒ Z0g + 3Z∗ (Z0g itself low)
2. Conductors
usually Z2 ≈ Z1
Z0 is clearly higher than these
Z0
= 1...5.5 depending on conductor type
Z1
3. Transformers
usually Z2 ≈ Z1
Z0 depends on the vector group of transformer and the
impedances to earth
e.g. an non-earthed star connection breaks the equivalent
circuit of the zero-sequence network
J.Partanen 17

Earthing method in the Finnish power transmission network
400 and 220 kV are effectively earthed k ≤ 1.4

A part of the neutral points of 400 kV and 220 kV
transformers earthed through a reactor, a part not
earthed
⇒ sufficient, reasonable fault currents e.g. for
distance relay protection
110 kV network is earthed at the neutral points

of only a few transformers. k = 1.7
⇒ fault currents sufficient for earth fault protection
J.Partanen 18
Short-circuit currents in 400 kV and 220 kV networks
The highest short-circuit currents at the supply stations of

large power plants are of the magnitude of 15 kA
Elsewhere in the 400 kV network ca. 10 kA
When new large power plants are connected to the network,
local short-circuit currents may reach a value of 20 kA
220 kV network is not extended
J.Partanen 19

Short-circuit currents in 110 kV networks
110 kV maximum short-circuit currents at the central

stations in South Finland ca. 20–30 kA, in North
Finland below 20 kA
In the future, when the 400/110 kV stations are

located closer to each other and the 110 kV is
meshed, at some stations, a short-circuit current level
of 40 kA is reached
At central stations, the rated short-circuit currents

(I1S / îS) of 110 kV buses are normally 40/100 kA
J.Partanen 20
Limiting the short-circuit current
Short-circuit currents increase as the demand for

electricity increases, because
more power plants are built
transformer sizes increase
more lines are built
the existing line impedances decrease
Means to limit short-circuit currents:
application of inductors
selection of the uk values of the transformers
current-limiting fuses
isolation of neutral points of transformers from earth
choosing higher voltage level
splitting up the network
J.Partanen 21

Fault current calculation in a mesh network
1. Description of network components

lines: Π equivalent circuit (positive-, zero-sequence)
transformers: short-circuit impedance (positive-, zero-
sequence)
vector group
impedances to earth
generators: initial and transient reactances (positive-,
negative-, zero-sequence)
neutral point connection
impedance to earth
loads: motors presented similarly as generators
2. Description of the network
Bus impedance matrix (positive-, negative-, zero-)
gathered from the component data
J.Partanen 22
Bus impedance matrix Zii is the self-impedance = internal

impedance at a node i = Thevénin
⎡ U 1 ⎤ ⎡ Z 11 Z 12 ... Z 1N ⎤ ⎡ I 1 ⎤ impedance, by which for instance a
⎢U ⎥ ⎢ Z Z 22 ... Z 2 N ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ I 2 ⎥⎥
three-phase fault current can be
U =⎢ 2⎥=⎢ = ZI calculated
21
⎢ ... ⎥ ⎢ ... ... ... ... ⎥ ⎢ ... ⎥ ZiN is the transfer impedance, by
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ which for instance a voltage change
⎣U N ⎦ ⎣ Z N 1 Z N2 ... Z NN ⎦ ⎣ I N ⎦
in a node N in the case of a fault in a
node i can be calculated
I1
1
U i = Z ii I i
Ii
Ui
Network i Ii =
IN Z ii
R N ∆U N = Z iN I i
UN Ui U1
J.Partanen 23

Example
~
1
line reactance (pu)
1-2 0.40 ⎡0.1258 0.0780 0.0445 0.0972 0.0852⎤
5
1-4 0.60 ⎢0.0780 0.1928 0.0732 0.1468 0.0756⎥⎥
2 1-5 0.20 ⎢
2-3 0.20
[Z ] = j ⎢0.0445 0.0732 0.0933 0.0617 0.0689⎥
⎢ ⎥
2-4 0.40 ⎢0.0972 0.1468 0.0617 0.3668 0.0794⎥
3-5 0.20 ⎢⎣0.0852 0.0756 0.0689 0.0794 0.1770⎥⎦
3 4
Determine
a) fault current
b) node voltages during the fault when at the node 4 there occurs a
symmetrical three-phase short-circuit, the fault resistance of which is
Rf = 0,05 pu. Before the fault, there is a voltage of 1.0 pu in all nodes.
c) calculate the fault current and the voltage at the fault point during the
time period when the fault is a two-phase short circuit ( [Z] 1 = [Z] 2 )
J.Partanen 24
Symmetrical three-phase short circuit
UV positive-sequence component of the fault

I f1 = I f =
Z kk1 + Z f current also represents the total fault
current (symmetry)
Fault occurs at the node 4.
The self-impedance Zkk1 represents the total impedance between
the fault point and the reference node. It is obtained from the
diagonal of the Z-matrix: Zkk1=j0.3668
Fault impedance Zf = Rf = 0.05 and UV = 1.0∠0°
1.0∠0°
I f1 = I f = = 2.701∠ − 82.24°
a. j 0.3668 + 0.05
b. The fault causes voltage changes at the nodes of the network.

Also these are obtained with the elements of the Z-matrix
∆Ui = -Zik1If1 ; when i = k, we obtain the voltage change at the
fault point
continued... 25
J.Partanen

Symmetrical three-phase short circuit
This change is superposed on the node voltage that prevailed before the
fault.
Voltages during the fault
U 4 f = 1.0 − j 0.3668 ⋅ 2.701∠ − 82.24° = 0.0183 − j 0.1338 = 0.135∠ − 82.2°
U 1 f = 1.0 − j 0.0972 ⋅ 2.701∠ − 82.24° = 0.7399 − j 0.0354 = 0.741∠ − 2.74°
U 2 f = 1.0 − j 0.146 ⋅ 2.701∠ − 82.24° = 0.6071 − j 0.0535 = 0.609∠ − 5.04°
Elements Zik1, when i ≠ k, are transfer impedances. They describe the

effect of the source (fault) current at the node in question on other nodes.
The higher the impedance, the more the voltage changes at the other
node.
I0 = 0
c.
U4
I 1 = −I 2 =
Z 441 + Z 442 + Z f
{
0
continued... 26
J.Partanen
⎡ I R ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ I ⎥ = ⎢ I ⎥ = ⎢1 a 2 a ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ I 1 ⎥⎥ ⇒ I f = − j 3 I 1
⎢ S⎥ ⎢ f ⎥ ⎢
⎢⎣ I T ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣− I f ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a 2 a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦
2
1
If =−j 3 = −2.36 pu
2 × j 0.3668
Voltage components at the node 4 during the fault:

}0
U 41 = U 4 − Z 44 I 1 U 42 = 0 − Z 44 I 2 (before fault U40=U42=0)
U 40 = 0 − Z 440 I 0 = 0
1
U 41 = 1 − j 0.3668 ⋅
1
= 0.5 U 42 = − j 0.3668 ⋅ − = 0.5
2 × j 0.3668 2 × j 0.3668
⎡U 4 R ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢U ⎥ = ⎢1 a 2 a ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢0,5⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢0,5⎥⎥
⎢ 4S ⎥ ⎢
⎢⎣U 4T ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0,5⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0,5⎥⎦
2
J.Partanen 27
Construction of the Z-matrix
By inverting the Y-matrix; laborious calculation, requires

plenty of storage capacity
By constructing the Z-matrix with an algorithm; requires
plenty of storage capacity
By constructing the required part of the Z-matrix applying
the sparse-matrix technique; effective, small amount of
storage capacity required
J.Partanen 28
Construction of the Z-matrix with an algorithm

A branch from the reference node to a new node k:
Zkk = Zbranch
Zik = Zki = 0 , i ≠ k (if added to an already existing matrix)
A branch from the node k to a new node j:
Zij = Zik , i ≠ j
Zjj = Zkk + Zbranch
A branch from the node k to an existing node j:
an extra s-th vertical and horizontal row added
Zis = Zik - Zij , i ≠ j
Zss = Zkk + Zjj - 2Zkj + Zbranch Z is Z js
Z ij ( new) = Z ij ( old ) −
the extra vertical and horizontal row eliminated Z ss
A branch from the existing node k to the reference node:
special case of item c
(Zij = Zjj = Zkj = 0)
J.Partanen 29

Problem
Construct an impedance matrix for the network illustrated

below
2
Z=100 Ω
1 Z=300 Ω
~
Z=50 Ω
3
How does the matrix change, if a branch, for which

Z = 100 Ω, is added between the nodes 2 and 3?
J.Partanen 30
Application of sparse-matrix technique to fault current
calculation
In theory, the nodal impedance matrix is obtained by inverting

the nodal admittance matrix.
Z = Y-1
In fault current programs, the Z-matrix row corresponding to the
fault is solved, i.e., the matrix is not inverted (storage capacity,
speed).
The Z-matrix row corresponding to the fault can be obtained
e.g. by the bi-factor method.
The idea of the method: 2n factor matrices are constructed so that
condition (1) is met.
1. LnLn-1Ln-2...L2L1·Y · R1 · R2...Rn-2Rn-1Rn = I (I = unit matrix)

⇒ we obtain the Z-matrix as follows
Z = Y-1 = R1R2...Rn-2Rn-1RnLnLn-1Ln-2...L2L1
J.Partanen 31

Application of sparse-matrix technique to fault current
calculation
Factor matrices Ri and Li are constructed step by step so that at each step,
one row and one column is eliminated from the admittance matrix.
Elimination takes place as follows:
Y0 = Y Y1 = L1Y0R1 Y2 = L2Y1R2 ....... Yn = LnYn-1Rn = I
The structure of the matrices Ri and Li is the following:
1 2 . . . i. n 1 2 . . . i. n
1 1
1 1
2 1 2 1
Li = 3
.
.
.
1
1 Ri =
3
.
.
.
1
1
. 1 X . 1 X X
. .
1 0
X
n 1 n
X 1
Although the matrices Li and Ri are very rare, the Z-matrix resulting as
their product is a full matrix. Thus, when applying this method,
a whole Z–matrix is not constructed in one go, but only the elements
required at the fault situation in question are formed. If the fault is at the
node i, to calculate the effects of the fault, the self-impedance and the
transfer impedances of the corresponding column are required.
They are obtained by multiplying the impedance matrix by the i-th column
of the unit matrix according to the following equation.
J.Partanen 32
Application of sparse-matrix technique to fault current calculation
⎡ Z 1i ⎤ ⎡0⎤ ⎡0⎤
⎢Z ⎥ ⎢0⎥ ⎢0⎥
⎢ ⎥ 2 i ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ... ⎥ ⎢...⎥ ⎢...⎥
Z i = ⎢ ⎥ = Z ⎢ ⎥ = R1 R2 ...Rn Ln ...L2 L1 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ Z ii ⎥ ⎢1⎥ ⎢1 ⎥
⎢ ... ⎥ ⎢...⎥ ⎢...⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ Z ni ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
In fault calculation, the factor matrices Ri and Li of the Z-matrices

of the component networks are stored in the memory, and the self-
and transfer impedances are calculated with the above equation.
When the fault point transfers to another node, new self- and
transfer impedances are determined.
J.Partanen 33

Fault Currents

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Electric Power Transmission

Fault current issues

Electric Power Transmission, fault currents

Nature of short-circuit current

α = switching instant after the zero of the voltage, time t

Maximum asymmetric short-circuit current I S = Η 2 I K′′

Direct component of the short-circuit current and damping

Electric Power Transmission, fault currents

Stages of a short-circuit state:

Transient phenomenon of a synchronous machine

Also E changes during transient ⇒ has to be taken into account

Electric Power Transmission, fault currents

Asymmetrical short-circuits, e.g. 1-phase earth fault

Electric Power Transmission, fault currents

UR0 US0 UT0

Electric Power Transmission, fault currents

Example: 1-phase earth fault UR = Z f IR

E1 E1 if Zjo = Zj1 = Zj2 = Z

Electric Power Transmission, fault currents

1. Determine the equation for fault current (search in

2. Construct the equivalent circuits for the required

3. Simplify the equivalent circuits; Z1, Z2, Z0

4. Calculate the fault current

Equations for fault current in parallel faults, node k

Electric Power Transmission, fault currents

Example of the equivalent circuit of the zero-sequence network

Formation of the equivalent circuit of a zero-

Construct the equivalent circuit of the zero-sequence network

Electric Power Transmission, fault currents

A two-phase short circuit on a line without any rotating machines

Representations of network components in

Electric Power Transmission, fault currents

400 and 220 kV are effectively earthed k ≤ 1.4

110 kV network is earthed at the neutral points

 The highest short-circuit currents at the supply stations of

Electric Power Transmission, fault currents

 110 kV maximum short-circuit currents at the central

 In the future, when the 400/110 kV stations are

 At central stations, the rated short-circuit currents

Short-circuit currents increase as the demand for

Electric Power Transmission, fault currents

1. Description of network components

Bus impedance matrix Zii is the self-impedance = internal

Electric Power Transmission, fault currents

UV positive-sequence component of the fault

b. The fault causes voltage changes at the nodes of the network.

Electric Power Transmission, fault currents

Elements Zik1, when i ≠ k, are transfer impedances. They describe the

Voltage components at the node 4 during the fault:

Electric Power Transmission, fault currents

Construction of the Z-matrix

 By inverting the Y-matrix; laborious calculation, requires

Construction of the Z-matrix with an algorithm

Electric Power Transmission, fault currents

Construct an impedance matrix for the network illustrated

How does the matrix change, if a branch, for which

In theory, the nodal impedance matrix is obtained by inverting

1. LnLn-1Ln-2...L2L1·Y · R1 · R2...Rn-2Rn-1Rn = I (I = unit matrix)

Electric Power Transmission, fault currents

In fault calculation, the factor matrices Ri and Li of the Z-matrices

S-ar putea să vă placă și

The highest short-circuit currents at the supply stations of

110 kV maximum short-circuit currents at the central

In the future, when the 400/110 kV stations are

At central stations, the rated short-circuit currents

By inverting the Y-matrix; laborious calculation, requires