WEEK 1

LESSON 1
1 Introduction to office
1.0 Introduction to Office Practice
Office Practice is concerned with planning, organizing, controlling and actuating office work and
performing it so as to achieve the desired objectives.
1.1 The Purpose of an Office practice course
Office practice course is designed to:
Bring together all the skills and knowledge acquired over the past ears of work and
stud.
!o"ordinate commercial skills so that one will be well prepared for work in a business
office
#eek emploment.
1.2 Office
$hat is an office%
&n office is generall understood to be a place where clerical work is performed and where all
kinds of paper work is done.
OR
&n office is a place where business is transacted or professional services are available.
OR
&n office is the place where the control mechanisms for an enterprise are located, where
records are initiated for communication and control and efficient operations of the enterprise.
1.2.1 Functions of an Office
'unctions performed b an office divided into two categories
( Basic 'unctions
) &dministrative 'unctions
1.2.2 asic or Routine Functions !"ea#in$ %ith infor&ation'
*he basic functions of an office include:
i Recei(e infor&ation through various was such as 'a+, telephone calls, letters of inquir,
quotations etc. *he information is received from both internal and e+ternal sources. ,nternal
sources include departments, divisions as sections. -+ternal sources include information from
customers, suppliers, visitors, government departments eg *a+ authorit, other organization etc.
ii Store )record infor&ation on computer disk, in file, account books, hours worked b
emploees, correspondences etc
N #ome records are required b law while others are kept to meet the needs of the
management in planning and controlling the business
iii *na#+,e infor&ation eg in accounts, sales figures, costing, personnel data etc
i( Supp#+ or disse&inate infor&ation to enquiries, customers, suppliers, distributors and
management
'igure: ( Infor&ation F#o% -hart
#tores information .manuall
or electronicall in computer/
0eceive ,nformation
&nalses information
Produces information
'a+
*elephone
#ales person
!omputer
1etter
Purchasing dpt
'inance dpt
#ales dpt
Production dpt
!ustomers
#alespeople
2epartments
*a+ authorit
)
1.2.3 *d&inistrati(e .ana$e&ent function
(. &dministrative management functions include the following
3anagement functions which include planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling.
*hese are also referred as /asic functions of management.
). Retention of records.
Office records include correspondence, letters, invoices, orders, finance and cost records,
reports, minutes etc. *hese records have to be retained for future reference.
4. Safe$uardin$ assets .,t is the function of an office to safeguard the assets of an organization eg
building, machiner, office equipment, furniture, lighting, air conditioning equipments,
tpewriters, calculating or accounting machines
5. For& desi$nin$ and contro#. #ince office work is mostl paper work, office forms are
e+tensivel used to perform the recording function of the office. & form is a standardized record
which is used to accumulate and transmit information for reference purposes. ,t is the task of the
3anagement to design standardized produce and control the forms to be used in the office as
well as the other departments of the organization.
6. Pu/#ic Re#ations Function. &n office has not onl to maintain cordial relations with other
departments in the organization but also with outsiders. ,t is therefore to perform public
relations function as well. 7ood public relations enhance the reputation and goodness of the
organization.
8. Stationar+ and Supp#+. Office work requires the suppl of office stationar of suitable qualit
and in adequate quantit. ,t is the dut of the office to carefull procure and maintain an
adequate suppl of stationar items. #ince stationar is a ver costl item these das, it should
be bought at competitive prices in economic order quantities, reasonable levels of stock must be
maintained and made available at all times and it should be issued onl against authorized
requisitions and stored scientificall to avoid damage, loss or deteriorations.
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9. Se#ection and purchase of office app#iances. Office work requires adequate equipment and
machines. 'urniture fi+tures, filling cabinets and drawers, tpewriters, duplicators, telephones,
intercommunication sstems, dictator phones, calculators, a censuring machine, computers etc.
,t is the dut of the office manager to purchase the right tpe of machines, equipment or
furniture and also to maintain these in efficient working order
1.2.4 I&portance of an office
*he office act as
(. *n infor&ation -entre. *his is due to the fact that an office deals with information b
collecting information from different sources e+ternal and internal of an organization, arranges,
analses and disseminate them to different stake holders when required
). *n inter&ediar+. *his is done through connecting different departments with the outsiders and
insiders eg orders are received through the office and purchase orders are routed through office
4. * coordinator. !oordinates
5. * ser(ice -enter. *his is because its activities of coordinating the works of production,
distribution, finance and personnel are in the nature of services to all other departments and to
the business as a single unit
6. *n *d&inistrati(e Ner(e -entre. *his is because the office acts as the heart of business
activities in that it helps in making the decision about what to produce and sell, when to
purchase materials, what reports to prepare etc
8. * -ontro# -entre. ,t is in the office where all the polit decisions are made and the activities of
all the organization are controlled and corrective action taken to ensure that the objectives of the
organization are achieved
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1.0 1roup *ssi$n&ent
*he lecturer will divide the students in groups determined b the class size
*ssi$n&ent 1
1roup %or2
&sk students to go to different organizations to collect different forms that are designed to cater
for different issues in offices. *he number of organizations will depend on the number of
groups. *he forms are to be filed and each individual will get a chance to pass thorough those
forms on his:her own time and compares them.. 3arks award will depend on number of forms
collected b individual groups
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LESSON 2
1.3 What is a /usiness4
,s an legal activit which is carried out b a person or a group of people in order to generate profit for
their owners or provide services .identif various business ou know/
1.4.1 Functions of a usiness
&n business has to carr out a range of functions. *he most important ones are:
'inance
Production
;uman 0esource
3arketing
&dministration
0esearch and development
1 Finance Function
*he main activities of the finance function are:
*o record all business transactions
3easure the financial performance of the business
!ontrol the finances and cash flow so that business stas solvent i.e. does not go bankrupt
*ake timel financial decisions b comparing the predicted performances with actual
performances
2 Production
*he function of production is to change inputs into outputs i.e. produce the goods and services
that are to be bought b customers.
Production includes assembling parts eg. to make televisions, manufacture furniture or
combining inputs to provide a service eg. films and plas in a theater.
Other activities of production function are:
3aintaining and improving qualit
3aintaining and control of machiner and equipment
-nsuring adequate stocks of raw materials and finished goods
3eeting the specific needs of customers
!ontrolling production methods and planning the scale or amount of production
!ontrolling costs and working efficientl
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.ethods of Production
'low production
*he technique is ver useful for producing standardized identical items when there is a large,
permanent and known market demand.
Batch"production
*his method can be used when fi+ed amounts of standard items are required
<ob Production
0efers to one of a special orders for individual items eg a printing job .mention others/
0 5u&an Resource function
&ctivities include
0ecruiting
#electing
*rain and develop staff
=.B. #tatutor and legal requirements
,t is a legal dut for ever business with emploees to have personnel records which shows
*he ta+ that must be paid
*he emploees and emploers pension fund contributions
*he statutor sick pa
*he statutor maternit pa
&ccident book
3 .ar2etin$ function
& tpical sales and marketing function might be responsible for>
3arketing research ?data collection, analsis and presentation
!ustomer care and service ?dealing with customer complaints and problems
#ales production and advertising which performs the following activities
Preparing sales budgets and forecasts
Providing support services to sales staff, credit clearance and credit control
#ales administration eg processing orders, and preparing quotations and invoices
,dentifing and implementing the marketing mi+
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6 *d&inistration Function
*he purpose of the administrative sstem in a business is to create an ordered routine which
enables the business to function smoothl. ,t co"ordinates or brings together the various parts of
the business so that the all work towards the same goals.
7 Research and "e(e#op&ent !R8 "' Function
*he activities include:
2eveloping new products, material and processes
!reating new services
!hanging:improving e+isting products
'inding new uses for products
*esting products foe strength, qualit, safet etc.
!ollecting worldwide research which could be of help to the business
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1.7 *ssi$n&ent 2
1roup Wor2
( Pa a visit around our college ie !be and ,dentif different businesses found in the area.
) Aou as a businessperson discuss how ou will collect data:information on our business in
order to improve it
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WEEK 2
LESSON ONE
Office Location
1.6 Office *cco&&odation)Location
Office accommodation is a place where an office has to be established. ,t is a geographic
position of an office.
Office accommodation depends on the office location
1.7 The Office ui#din$
*he office building should not onl be a proper size and shape, it should also be of such design as
to serve the requirements of the organization. *he management should tr to obtain such
premises, which fulfill its requirements in the best possible manner
=B 3anagement will decide whether to own the office building or to rent it or lease it.
1.6.1 Factors in Se#ectin$ Location of an office
*he following are the different factors to consider when selecting the location of an office>
1. 1eo$raphica# and #oca# sittin$. These inc#udes
&vailabilit of transport
Pro+imit to the market .nearness to market/
&vailabilit of banks and post office services
&vailabilit of labour force &vailabilit of recreation facilities eg shops, restaurants,
social halls etc.
2. The si,e of the /ui#din$ ie the office
*he office should be reasonable to allow future e+pansion. *he ratio of the large to small rooms,
need to be considered
0 Per&anenc+ of the office9 ,f the office meant to be permanent, it is advisable to bu or build
rather than rent or lease a building.
5 En(iron&enta# factors !ph+sica# conditions/: *hese include things like fresh air, lighting, and
heating. Phsical conditions affect the nature of the work and the workers in the office. ;ence,
an office must be located in a good site to allow good ventilation, lighting etc
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6 Financia# consideration: *he capital outla and running costs must be taken into account.
7 Interna# structura# p#an
1.: Factors in Se#ectin$ office Pre&ises of an office /ui#din$
*he followings are factors one need to consider when selecting the office premises.
(. Safet+ of Records and Staff. *he office building should have the advantage of a fire proof
construction, fire escapes, automatic safet devices etc
). Wor2in$ conditions. *he office building must provide good and satisfactor working
conditions. 'acilities for water, lighting and ventilation should be available. *he building should
be free from dust, noise, fumes and obno+ious smells.
4. *dapta/i#it+ to proposed #a+out. ,t should be capable of being modified or altered so that
different sections of the office ma be properl housed in it.
5. Office Fittin$s. ,t should be adequatel provided with electricit, power, telephones, water
connections and other fittings.
6. Future E;pansion. ,t should offer enough scope for future e+pansion
1.< T+pes of office /ui#din$.
*hese ma be either
i Open office
ii Private Office
iii 1andscaping
1.= Office La+out
1.9.1 "efinition
Office laout ma be defined as the arrangement of equipment within the available floor space
OR
&n office laout ma be described as the arrangement of different departments, equipment and men
within a given floor apace with a view to make optimum utilization of space and ensure ma+imum
efficienc of the office.
((
OR
,s the sketch showing both the location of office workers and the wa in which work moves from
person to person within the office laout.
1.9.2 T+pes of La+outs
*here are two main tpes of laouts. *hese are
*raditional .or conventional/ laout
Open ?plan laouts
1.9.3 Traditiona# #a+outs
& traditional laout is a design consisting of constructed walls, doors and hardware that limit
communication and fle+ibilit but add securit.
1.9.4 Open >p#an #a+outs
&n open"plan laout is designed consisting of integrated panel sstems with electrical racewas and
optional task"ambient lighting. *he open"plan laout is a design of change, fle+ibilit, communication
and innovation.
Open"plan laouts are categorized with
i 3odified open"plan laouts
ii $ork centers
ii 1andscaped laouts
.odified Open p#an
*his compromise between the traditional laout and the open"plan laout in which some walls are
replaced b glass
Wor2 center
&re areas consisting of an emploeeDs furniture, equipment, working surface and storage needs
surrounded b a privac panel%
Landscaped #a+out
*his is characterized b integrating straight and curved panels
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1.9.5 Princip#es of office #a+out
(. Princip#e of f#o% of %or2? *he flow of work should be smooth and unhindered whether the
laout is in a straight line, a circle or E"shaped. *he movement of people and papers should be
to the minimum.
). Princip#e of free &o(e&ent and o/ser(ation: *he floor space should be as free as possible
from partitions, columns etc, so that there is free movement and observation.
4. Princip#e of effecti(e super(ision: *he laout should be such that it aids effective supervision.
5. Princip#e of f#e;i/i#it+: *he laout should allow changes in the future because a business is not
a static entit.
6. Princip#e of &ora#e and #o+a#t+: ,t is necessar to ensure the loalt of workers in large
organizations because working groups are social groups. & proper laout of the office can
certainl contribute to this aspect through a careful design.
8. Princip#e of /a#ance: 1aout should be balanced and pleasing in appearance. Balancing gives it
a sense of responsibilit. Pleasing appearance of the office attracts more customers and
improves the image of the enterprise
9. Princip#e of &a;i&u& uti#i,ation of #east cost: Office space has to be utilized to the
ma+imum so that mone costs are the lowest. ;owever, each staff has to be given adequate
working space because this increases efficienc and makes for a healthier staff.
@. Princip#e of e@uip&ent p#ace&ent: -quipment and filing cabinets should be placed close to
those using them. *he staff should be able to approach them without loss of time or
inconvenience.
B. Princip#e of arran$e&ent: 2esks should be arranged in such a wa that the face each other
according to desired standard, plan so that it looks more efficient and eas to supervise.
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(C. Princip#e of $ood #i$htnin$> 1ightning should be studied. $ork requiring ver good light
should be sited near the windows. 2esks and other equipments should be located near users.
*he should be so that the light from the windows cast on the working place.
((. Princip#e of (enti#ation: Fentilation in laout plas a significant role. *he problem of
ventilation is more comple+ where ou have mi+ed staff. 3en usuall prefer to be close to the
windows while women prefer the warmer temperature.
(). Princip#e of 1an$%a+s> *he number of gangwas .space between desks/ should be adequate.
*his will depend on the number of desks and equipments involved.
1.10 I&portance of a $ood office #a+out
*he following are the importance of having a good office laout
(. *o ensure proper utilization of the floor space.
). *o facilitate supervision
4. *o facilitate intercommunication
5. *o ensure better use of machines and equipment
6. *o ensure better comfort and morale to workers
8. *o ensure favourable impression on customers and visitors
9. *o ensure smooth work flow
*ssi$n&ent 0
Indi(idua# assi$n&ent
1!a' Aou are a/out to start a ne% /usiness that is food processin$ of a #ar$e @uantit+. What %i##
/e the different thin$sB %hich %i## inf#uence +our decision on %here to esta/#ish +our
/usiness4
!/' Wi## +ou #ease or construct +our o%n /ui#din$4 and %h+4
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LESSON 2
1.10.1 -ase stud+
-hoosin$ a usiness Location
-dgar and Benedicta were each planning to go into a business for themselves. *he were talking about
how the had made their decisions to become self"emploed.
-dgar had decided to start his business in his home town because he had lived there all his life, knew
most of the people, and the all liked him. *here are ) stores alread e+isted, but -dgar still thought he
could do good business. Both the ) stores had been in business for some time. *he both did a lot of
business.
-dgarDs home town was not ver big. 3an of the people who lived there were in the fishing and
hunting trade. #ome of the people worked part time with the government. #ome had jobs out of town,
mainl on construction sites and in the mines. *hese people onl come back home for a week or two
four or five times a ear.
*ransportation into -dgarDs home town was b boat or plane. *he ) e+isted stores had their supplies
transported into the town b barge in the summer. & few supplies were flown in during the winter, but
not too much could be brought in this wa.
-dgar thought there were enough people in the town to support three stores.
Benedicta had decided to set up her business in a town some distance awa from where she lived.
Benedicta did not know too man people in the town, but she still thought that a well"run business
would be a success there.
*he town where Benedicta had decided to build her store alread had one general store. ,t was the onl
store in town. *he people in this town did some trapping and fishing but the also had some tourist
camps. *here was a mine situated in a communit a few miles awa, and man persons in the town
worked and lived at the mine all week and came home to their families on weekends. *here was also
some logging in the area around the town. 3an persons worked on the cutting crews. *he cut timber
was trucked out to the mill on a road, which ran past the town. Benedicta was of the opinion that
because people had jobs all ear round there was a better chance of making business succeed in this
town. #he estimated that there were enough people to keep two stores bus all ear. Benedicta thought
that b offering the right kind of merchandise, she would achieve success if she established her store in
this town.
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Cuestion for discussion9
$hich location do ou think is the best from a business point of view, -digaDs or BenadictaDs% wh%
*cti(ities9
2ivide the class in groups
7ive the case to students, and allow them to read and answer the question
1et them select one member to present.
&llow onl two groups to present
1et the whole class contribute and add some points to the two presentations
!onclude the discussion b giving the answers.
1.11 T+pes of offices
Open offices Ds Pri(ate offices
1.11.1 Open offices
&n open office is referred to as a large room where all the departments, men and equipments are
housed under a single roof without partitions or walls separating them. *his means that several
sections or departments work together instead of working in separate partitioned offices or
rooms. .-g at the bank, post office, staffroom etc/.
1.11.2 *d(anta$es
(. Econo&ica#. #ince unnecessar partitions and corridors are avoided, open offices make batter
utilization of the office space building.
). etter Li$htnin$ and (enti#ation. $ith the removal of unnecessar walls and partitions, open
offices allow a free flow of air and natural light which step up the efficienc of the office staff.
4. etter Super(ision. Open offices encourage better work through better supervision and easier
operation. Onl a few supervisors are required to supervise the staff.
5. etter -o&&unication. Open offices facilitate better interdepartmental communication. &
worker is not required to g to another room for consultation, advice or instruction.
6. F#e;i/i#it+. *here is a greater fle+ibilit in planning the laout of an open office which ensures a
more effective placement of office machines and equipment. 'urther changes in the laout can
be affected without much difficult.
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Other ad(anta$es inc#ude
The cost of decorationB c#eanin$ and &aintenance is #o%er
The sharin$ of &achines and e@uip&ent
It &a2es /etter %or2in$ condition possi/#e
1.11.3 "isad(anta$es
*he following are the disadvantages of open offices
(. */sence of secrec+. Privac cannot be maintained in an open office for work is done in full
view of all the staff.
). -oncentration not possi/#e. Open offices are not suitable for work which requires
concentration of mind eg accounting and statistical work.
4. En/uisness#i2e &ppearance. *oo man people working in the same room and moving about
their work make an open office untid, shabb and unbuisnesslike
5. Lo%erin$ of .ora#e. &pparent regimentation and loss of individualalit, reduces sense of
belonging to a well defined group and apparent loss of status among senior staff tells on the
morale and efficienc of office workers.
6. Nois+. *he efficienc or the staff ma be impaired b the noise of ringing telephones and
clicking tpewriters etc
8. Enhea#th+. & large open office is generall objected to on ground of health. ,nfectious diseases
can easil be passed from one person to another. .eg accountants, cashiers, principle secretaries
and others/
1.12 Pri(ate offices)ce## offices
Private offices are small rooms or cubicles, which are, separated from similar other rooms in the
open office b full or half partition. *hese consist of several partitioned offices each
accommodating a limited number of emploees concerned with the same or related office
functions
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1.12.1 *d(anta$es
(. 1reater pri(ac+ is ensured for confidential work and discussions
). *he promote a personnel atmosphere and land a sense prestige or importance to the concerned
staff.
4. *he increase the efficienc+ of workers b facilitating concentration of mind, which is possible
because of the absence of noise.
5. *he are more con$enia# and less regimented
6. *here is /etter (enti#ation and heatin$) coo#in$ arrangements
8. *he are preferred on $round of hea#th
1.12.2 2isadvantages
(. EnFecono&ica#. 'ew people can be accommodated. $hen an office is situated in a rented
building the cost of office operations increases considerabl.
). -ost#+ Operations. Private offices make supervision more difficult and costl. #upervision also
becomes less effective because the supervisor loose personal contact with the staff.
4. *d(erse#+ affects the f#o% of %or2. B creating barriers and partitions private offices
adversel affect inter"communication and free flow of work
5. *ffects #i$htin$ and ventilation. $alls and partitions adversel affects free ventilation and flow
of natural light
6. Inf#e;i/#e. Private offices make the task of office laout more complicated and less fle+ible
7. Increases chances of corruption
1.12.3 Office Landscape
& landscaped office is an open office but with the following special features.
i &smmetrical la"out of the furniture usuall in groups facing in different directions.
ii & total concept involving such things as fitted carpets, soft lighting air conditioning , etc
iii *he inclusion of even managers desks inside the open office, which ma be with or without
screening
iv ,t ma even have areas where workers can stop work and rest and drink refreshments when the
want to.
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(B
WEEK 0
LESSON 1
TOPI- 0
0.0 Office Or$ani,ation
4.( *he 'orms of Ownership
( Private enterprises :Profit enterprises
) Public enterprises
4 =on ? profit Organizations
*hese forms of ownership influence how an organisation is run e.g.
i ,ts objectives
ii $ho makes decisions
iii $ho take profits
0.1.1 Pri(ate enterprise
*his categor covers business, which are owned and operated with the objective of making
profit for the owners. Gind of private ownership are mentioned below
0.1.2 So#e Trader
#ole trader is a business which is owned b one person..and if get a loss must compensate him
self/
0.1.0 Partnership
& partnership is a business, which is owned between two to twent people .the upper limit ma
var according to the law/
1.12.4 -o&pan+
& compan is business which has a separate legal identit to its owners i.e. it can own assets and
make contracts in its own name and continue to operate after the death of its owner.
1.12.5 -oF operati(e
& cooperative is a group of people who join together to organize trading and service activities
rather than rel on middlemen.
1.12.6 Pu/#ic Enterprise
*he are owned b and operated on behalf on behalf of the government usuall because the are
viewed as to important to the well ? being of societ to be left to prate entrepreneurs.
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1.12.7 Non Profit Or$ani,ation
*he are societies, associations and clubs which e+ist to promote members interests rather than to
make profits
#port clubs
3ost religious organizations
1.10 Office or$anisation defined
Office organization can be defined in different was.
*##en define it as a process of identifing and grouping the work to be performed, defining and
delegating responsibilit and authorit and establishing relationships for the purpose of enabling people
to work most effectivel together in accomplishing objectives.
On the other hand, Oliver defined it as the process of combining the work, which individuals or groups
have to perform with facilities necessar for its e+ecution, that the duties performed provide the best
channels for the efficient, sstematic, positive and coordinated application of the available effort.
'urthermore, 1eor$e defined it as the arrangement of functions deemed necessar for attachment of
the objective and is an indication of the authorit and the responsibilit assigned to individuals charged
with the e+ecution of their respective functions.
*herefore organization include> defining and grouping the activities of an enterprise and
establishing the authorit and responsibilit relationship among them
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1.10.1.1 Princip#es of office Or$anisation
*he following are principles needed to be considered when organizing an office.
"efinin$ O/Gecti(es
,n the process one need to be clear about the objectives of an organization and therefore precisel what
has to be achieved b different department or function
"i(ision of Wor2
!onsidering the objectives what follows is to divide the work in such a wa that the objectives are
achieved in a sstematic manner.
Parit+ of *uthorit+ and Responsi/i#it+.
'or one given responsibilit to e+ercise it need to be given enough authorit to discharge it.
Enit+ of -o&&and
*his means that, ever subordinate should be immediate responsible to one and not several supervisors.
One will get confused if there are man bosses.
Span of -ontro#
3an subordinate should be placed under one supervisor as man as he:she can effectivel supervise.
*he number will depend on the nature of work to be done b the subordinate, capabilit of the
supervisor and other circumstances.
Nu&/er of #e(e#s of .ana$e&ent
*he number of levels of management that is the hierarch steps should be reduced to minimum. *oo
man levels of management make both the upward and downward communication difficult
a#ance /et%een -entra#i,ation and "ecentra#i,ation
*o achieve the best results it is necessar to have a mi+ture of both
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E(en distribution of $ork
-ver subordinated should be assigned equal work. =o one should be over or under worked
La+in$ "o%n Tas2s and Functions
*he responsibilities and duties of ever individual should be clearl defined
F#e;i/i#it+
*he organizational structure should be fle+ible so that it can be capable of adopting changes.
-ontinuit+
*he structure of an organization should be in such a wa that it is able to maintain a continuous suppl
of required personnel and equipment.
Efficienc+
*his means that the goal of the organization should be achieved at a ver minimum cost. $orkers
should be motivated also to increase efficienc.
Si&p#icit+
&n enterprise should be organized in such a wa that ever emploee can easil follow the laid down
procedures and methods without difficult.
1.13 Structure and Or$ani,ation
1.14.1 Structure
*he structure of an organization refers to the arrangement of its functions and personnel. *his is
determined b the organization size, tpe of ownership and activities performed.
'igure ): *he management pramid
)4
Lower level supervisors supervise and, manage staff performing daily
activities
Operating staff ? perform the basic activities of the
organization
*op management ? sets goods, policies and overall
control
3iddle management ? make decisions on dail activities
Note9
;owever, as a business grows, a more formal chain of command is needed, &s chain of
command means that staff are organized in hierarch authorit and responsibilities, as shown
above.
1.14.2 Or$ani,ation -hart
&n organisation chart is a document, which shows hierarchical structure of organisation.
,t shows
Official lines of communication
2ivision of work
*he relationship of work groups each other
1ine of authorit and particular area of responsibilities
'igure 4:&n e+ample of an organization chart for small business.

2epartmental 'unction
)5
Owner #ecretar
Purchasing office
Purchasing goods
Geep stock records
#ales 3anager
;andle sales
#upervises sale
assistants
&ccount 3anager
2oes book ? keeping
!alculate salaries
#upervises account clerks
#hareholder
Board of 2irectors
3anaging 2irectors -+ecutive &ssistant
Production
3anager
'inance
3anager
3arketing
3anager
Personnel
3anager
0esearch
3anager
Fi$ure 39 *n e+ample of an organization chart for large public !ompan
1.16 *ssi$n&ent 3
Indi(idua# assi$n&ent
1 1i(en the fo##o%in$ t+pes of /usinesses c#assif+ the& into different $roups of /usiness
o%nerships +ou 2no%.
T*.W* !.edia Wo&en *ssociation'
onite ott#ers
./e+a ce&ent
"arFerFSa#aa& Stoc2 E;chan$e
.a&a nti#ie ! * /usiness of food usua##+ done /+ %o&en'
TR* !Tan,ania Re(enue *uthorit+'
IPP Ltd
-harcoa# trader
TT-L
*,a& Tan,ania Li&ited
T*EL* ! Wo&en #e$a# association'
W*W*T* ! *n association of catho#ic %o&en'
Indi(idua# shop
Doda co& Tanania #i&ied
.achin$a !street (endors'
SPE-I*L OLA.PI-S !*n *ssociation for O#+&pic $a&es for peop#e %ith &enta#
retardation'
)6
LESSON 2
1.16 Organization structure of cbe
&ssign among the groups of the class two of them to go and stud the organisation structure of
!be and come and present it in class while the lecturer and the rest of the class comparing the
presentations and then allow the class to criticise the presentations. *here after the lecturer will
make a conclusion
Fi$ure9 6 &n Organisation #tructure of !ollege Of Business -ducation
)8
1.16.1 *ssi$n&ent 6
1roup %or2
#tud the following organization structure then answer the questions below
Fi$ure 69 *n e;a&p#e of an or$ani,ation structure of a certain or$ani,ation
1.16.2 Cuestions
'rom a given chart answer the following questions
(. $hat is the name of the person to whom *.Bamtula is directl responsible
). *he name of the person in charge of stationer
4. 2r &ntidius wishes to have a conference concerning telephone and receptionist services. =ame
the supervisors he would call to the meeting%
5. 3hando has a compliant on the mailroom services. ,f the complaint is processed through the
proper lines of authorit indicate the route b listing names and positions it would follow.
Persona# Secretar+
1enera# *d&inistration Officer).anager
2r &ntidius '
Supe(isor.
B. 3edard
Super(isor
<. 3eshack
Super(isor
&.3akame
"up#icatin$
P.3hando
Office .ashines
<.Galinga
-o&pan+ -ars
!. ;amisi
Te#e$raph
#. #elei
Fi#es
G. Gilemile
Pa+ -hec2 "istri/ution
7. 7regor
*ranscription
Photographic .Galulu/
#tationar .-.Galisa/
1ibrar
*. Bamtula
*elephone
3.Barufu
3ail 0oom
0.1ugano
)9
0eceptionist
;.=unge
6. $hat information is not shown b the chart%
)@
WEEK 3
LESSON 1
0.7 Location of "epart&ents in an Office
*his refers to how the various office departments are located within an office building. *he
guide lines for this purpose are:
i 2epartments which deal with the public like the reception and the mail office must be close to
the entrance.
ii 2epartments with heav machiner and equipment should be kept on the ground floor.
iii 2epartments which require concentration and much thinking like planning department or
managing 2irectorDs office should be kept a bit far so as to allow them work in a more quite
atmosphere
iv 2epartments which serve other departments should be located centrall eg the tping pool,
records room etc.
v 2epartments should be located in such a wa that toilets, wash basins, cloak rooms and other
facilities are within eas reach to all departments
vi 2epartments which require e+tra light eg the drawing department should be located near
windows
vii 2epartments which work close together should be located within eas reach eg sales and credit
control departments should be ver close to each other.
0.7.1 The t+pin$ poo#
2efinition: & tping pool is a single room in which the tpists of the organization work together.
& tping pool is desirable in the case of an office in which man e+ecutives work.
& tping pool supervisor is appointed to allocate, coordinate, and supervise the work of the pool
tpists. *he place should be properl housed and should have adequate communication links
with the rest of the organization to improve on its efficienc. ,t would be proper to carr out a
cost benefit analsis of the tping pool before it is instituted. Besides, it would be ideal to
review its working from time to time to find out its benefits. -ven though, all the senior
e+ecutives of the organization must be provided with their own secretaries so that their work
goes on smoothl.
)B
0.7.2 *d(anta$es of the t+pin$ poo#
i 'air distribution of work
ii -conom is the use of the tpists labour
iii Better training
iv 3ore flow of work
v ,solation of noise
vi !omparisons of work of different tpists is possible
vii &voidance of interruptions of work
viii 1ess time is wasted compared to departmental tping
i+ 3ore correct work
+ #ickness and holida difficulties are easil overcome as reallocation can easil be done
0.7.0 "isad(anta$es of the t+pin$ poo#
i 1oss of tpistDs personal touch with the e+ecutives
ii Overloading of work to some tpists is inevitable
iii 1ow qualit of work is often complained of
iv ,ncreased need of messenger services to collect scripts from the various departments to the
tping pool and back
v =o specialization for a particular tpe of work. *pists handle scripts from an department eg
legal, accounts, sales, personnel etc.
0.: Office Staff
0.:.1 Line Of Staff in an Office
The fo##o%in$ of the #ine of staff in an office
i *he office 3anager ?higher position in the office
ii #upervisors"these are the heads of sections or departments
iii !lerical staff"these are the subordinates
iv *pists
v 3essengers"these distribute documents
4C
0.:.2 Cua#ities of an office %or2er
*he qualities are divided into two
i Personal qualities
ii Office qualities
0.:.0 Persona# @ua#ities
.i/ Education and trainin$
.ii/ 1ood h+$iene " health
"neatness
" !leanliness
"smartness

.iii/ *ttracti(e persona#it+ "friendl
"cheerfulness
"good appearance


.iv/ Persona# interests .office etiquettes/. *hese should be linked to the tpe of work performed.
*he worker should show interest in the work he:she does.
0.:.3 Office @ua#ities .office etiquettes/: These shou#d disp#a+ $ood professiona# conduct and
socia# /eha(iour.
*hese include
i 5onest+ and #o+a#t+ to the emploer
ii 2iscipline
iii 1ood /ehaviour
i( Punctua#it and regularit
v #hould o/ser(e ru#es and re$u#ations and office procedure
4(
0.< The .ana$er
&n office 3anager takes important roles in an organization and his:her duties are:
i -nsuring a smooth flow of work
ii &dvises the management on the purchase of office equipment
iii *raining of office staff
iv 1ooking after the office staff welfare
v Preparing office plans, procedures, rules and policies
vi 3otivating and directing the staff
0.<.1 Cua#ities of an office &ana$er
i ;e:she should posses the necessar qualification, must be trained and have e+perience
ii ;e:she should posses good leadership qualities
iii ;e:she should be a person of strong character
iv ;e:she should be a methodical ie should carr his:her work according to laid down procedures
v ;e:she should be have discipline"well behaved
vi ;e:she should be polite to his:her subordinates
vii ;e:she should be forward ?looking .a person with vision/, ie he:she should be able to anticipate
problems well in advance and look for the solutions when the arise.
Fiii ;e:she should be communicative .&s an administrator he:she should be able to e+press
himself:herself effectivel and clearl at all levels both verball and in writing
0.= The functions of the Personne# .ana$er !5u&an resource .ana$er'
*he human resource department in an organization is generall a part of the management. *he
main aim or objective of this department is to recruit the best staff, to make sure that the best use
is made of them when emploed and tr to ensure that the best staff remains in the organization.
*herefore, the main functions of the human resource 3anager are:
i 0ecruitment of staff"tring to get suitable person for each job
ii -ducation and training of the staff
iii 1ooking after the working conditions and safet of staff
iv *o maintain good industrial relations particularl negotiating with trade unions .give e+amples/
etc
4)
v 1ook, after the emploees services eg health, recreation facilities like sports, games etc,
provision of transport facilities to staff to and from places of work, canteen services, get
together parties etc.
vi Geep staff records as well as staff reports
vii ;e she has the dut of settling disputes, dealing with discipline, promotions and dismissals of
staff and also transfer of staff from one department to another.
0.10 *ssi$n&ent 7
,ndividual assignment
( Aou are a human resource personnel and our organization need to recruit in new emploees.
$hat will be the things ou e+pect one to have in order to secure that emploment%
44
LESSON 2
0.11 Functions of the -hief *ccountant
*he chief accountant in an organization perform the following main functions
i Geeps the books of accounts relating to the financial affairs of the business
ii 0esponsible for the preparation of annual accounts which must be presented to the shareholders
.owners of the business/ at the annual general meeting
iii ;e:she is the in charge of the cash of business and the bank account
iv ;e:she prepares and pas wages and salaries to the workers
v 3aintains the stock records of the business
vi ;e:she pas the creditors of the business and also collects cash from the debtors
vii ;e:she is responsible for the sales invoicing to the customers of the business for all the goods
sold
0.12 Functions of the office super(isor
0.12.1 "efinition: &n office supervisor is a person in charge of all the office functions of an
organization or some major part of them.
5is)her &ain functions are as fo##o%s:
i *o plan and foresee the needs of the organization, the management and staff
ii *o organize his:her section to conform with the organizational goals
iii *o co"ordinate the activities of his section
iv *o install effective control measures
v *o prepare objective training plan for his:her section
vi *o understand the act of delegation and use it effectivel
vii *o communicate effectivel
viii *o distribute work among the staff evenl
i+ *o establish good working conditions
+ * create team spirit
+i * stud and understand human behaviuor
+ii *o get along with people .subordinates/
+iii *o give credit when and where due
+iv *o develop staff b imparting knowledge and skills
+v *o tr and change attitudes and motivate the staff
+vi *o practice self analsis
45
+vii *o keep abreast with current management techniques
+viii *o practice impartialit
E;ercise 09 10 Indi(idua# assi$n&ent to /e done in c#ass
( One of the advantages of a geographical filing sstem is that it classifies information into
readil identifiable groups
) *he office laout should allow changes in the future because a business is not a static entit.
*his is a principle of effective supervision.
4 *he most important function of a business is production
5 #ome of the basic function of management is to safeguard assets, form designing and public
relations function
6 & chief accountant is responsible in planning, and foreseeing the needs of the organization,
management, and staff.
8 $hen introducing a visitor to our boss ou mention first the name of the visitor followed b
the name of our boss
9 &n area of consisting of an emploeeDs furniture, equipment, working surface and storing panel.
*he above describes a modified open plan of an office.
@ Open offices has greater privac than closed offices
B Production is to change outputs into inputs.
(C Batch production is a technique used in producing standardized identical items when there is a
large, permanent and known market demand
(( #ecretaries need to be women
() Office practice is for office seekers onl
46
WEEK 6
LESSON 1
3.0 Office 5a,ards
;azard> ,s literall defined as a danger or risk. *herefore, to minimize office hazards there is a need to
have a good working environment.
3.1 Wor2in$ En(iron&ent
Ph+sica# conditions in an office
*he performance of clerical work suffers if phsical conditions are below standard. *herefore,
the following are important for efficient office administration
1 -#ean#iness: &ll premises must be kept clean, with floors cleaned place appearing untid the
are also a source of infections of various tpes.
) 0easonable office space
4 0easonable te&perature must be provided and maintained in all rooms in which the emploees
work
5 #uitable and sufficient #i$htning must be provided.
6 Denti#ation
&dequate supplies of either fresh artificiall purified air must be circulated to secure the
ventilation of offices. 'resh air reduces fatigue and removes irritable feelings of the clerks and
increases efficienc
7 Washin$ faci#ities: Premises must have suitable conveniences washing facilities at places
convenientl accessible to all emploees. *hese include running hot and cold water, soap and
towels. 2rinking water must be available. Places for hanging clothing for dring them
: First aid 2it must be provided so as to be readil available and accessible
< Seats for %or2ers who normall perform their work sitting must be suitable in design,
construction and dimensions for the worker and for the kind of work
= Interior decorations
,nterior decorations cater for the pscholog of office of office works. *hese decorations
include colours on the walls, colours and design of furnishings, floor and others. *hese create a
cheerful effect in the minds of the workers and hence increase efficienc.
48
10 Noise contro#
=oise affects workers efficienc to a great e+tent. ,t is important to control noise in an office
since clerical work involves great concentration of the mind. *herefore, the mental
concentration should not be disturbed b noise. #ources of noise are both internal and e+ternal.
-+ternal noise can be caused b traffic movements .mention others/.
3.2 5ea#th+ and Safet+ .atters
Safet+: 1iterall, safet is defined as the condition of being safe, that is something designed to
prevent injur or damage.
5ea#th: *his is the state of being free from illness or injur
*herefore, an office place needs to be both health and safe
3.2.1 Safet+
-mploees must not onl be provided with a good working environment but also with a safe
working place to minimise accidents and injuries.
&ccidents and injuries can affect the morale of emploees and hence lead into inefficienc and
therefore loss for an organization:business. =ot onl that, but accidents might lead to permanent
disabilit and prolonged hospitalization which costs emploers for compensation and treatment
respectivel.
3.2.2 -o&&on factors %hich &i$ht cause accident ha,ard are9
i -+posed electric wire or loose connection
ii #lipper floors or loose carpeting
iii Open drawers of desk or filing cabinet
iv *ilting backwards in reclining chair
v #harp edges of office equipment, or broken glasses
vi Enguarded moving parts of office machines
vii Pencil sharpness, pins etc
viii 0unning or rapid walking along stairwa or through door was
i+ 0eading while walking along passes
+ ,nadequate lightning or worn"out treads or stairwas
49
3.0 -auses of *ccidents
The fo##o%in$ are the causes of accidents
i 3ost accidents are a result of human failure.
ii 1ack of action or failure on the part of the management to rectif some defects in office
accommodation, furniture, equipment and machine or in taking safet measures to prevent
accidents.
iii 2ue to some phsical deficienc or carelessness of the emploees themselves
*he above causes of accidents have been further classified with other writers in three groups:
i .echanica# -auses
*hese include inadequate lightning, e+posed electric wires, unguarded moving machines, and
technical defects in equipment
ii Ph+sio#o$ica# causes
*hese are mainl a result of human failure such as bad ee sight, advanced age, other phsical
disabilit of emploees
iii Ps+cho#o$ica# causes
*hese are a result of carelessness, tendenc to make unnecessar chances and temporar mental
and or emotional imbalance of emploee
3.3 *cti(it+ !indi(idua# assi$n&ent'
&sk students to identif different hazards present if an at their college ie cbe that hinders the smooth
teaching and learning processes and therefore suggest was of improving the situation. *he
observations have to be discussed in class.
3.3.1 So#utions
4@
LESSON 2
3.6 .easures to ensure Safet+ at the Wor2in$ P#ace
&ccidents can be reduced and or be eliminated if adequate safet measures are taken to prevent
their occurrence.
( *he above can be done in the following was>
) *aking safet precautions with regard to all phsical sources from accidents
4 ,nstilling in emploees work habits and practices which will ensure safet
5 -nforce safet regulations throughout the office regularl and methodologicall
3.6.1 * p#anned &ana$e&ent pro$ra&&e to ensure office safet+ shou#d inc#ude the fo##o%in$
steps:
a Pro(ision of safe %or2in$ p#ace
3easures should be made to provide a safe working place for the emploees. *hat is the size
and shape of the office rooms, location and size of doors must be in such as to eliminate hazards
of accident. Office floors should be safe b being carpeted or covered with non"slipper, enough
lightning in gangwas, chairs and desks free from sharp edges.
/ Safe$uardin$ ha,ardous &achines and e@uip&ent
3oving machines and those with cutters should have should have safet guards, electric wirings
and cables to be properl insulated, office machines and equipment should be placed on firm
foundations and proper fitting of desk and file drawers be ensured.
c Pro(ision of safet+ c#othin$
#afet clothing should be provided to emploees engaged in works prone to accident. *hese
include things like aprons to people dealing with grease ink, glue, or inflammable cleansing
liquid. 'inger guards should be provided where chances of suffering from cuts might be high.
d .aintenance of Order#iness and -#ean#iness
;abit of orderliness and cleanliness should be encouraged in emploees along with necessar
arrangements of their maintenance. #tair"was should be kept free of loose objects, ad"equate
number of waste paper baskets should be provided and regular cleaning of office floors should
be ensured
4B
e Pro(ision Of firstF*id ser(ices.
*o ensure immediate treatment of injuries, 'irst"aid bo+es should be provided for each
department of work area. *he should also be regularl inspected to make sure that the are
stocked with all necessar materials.
f Pro(ision of fire fi$htin$ e@uip&ent
ost accidental fires can be put out and prevented from becoming serious, if detected in time and
tackled with fire fighting equipment. *he equipments should be placed in suitable and eas
accessible points, and the should be maintained in a good working order.
g Safet+ education and trainin$ of e&p#o+ees
-mploers should be made aware of the dangers of his or her job and the need for maintaining
alert against accidents while doing his:her job. *herefore emploees should be given to
emploees in the correct and safe wa of doing work so that it becomes a habit. *he training
should also cover fire" fighting. #afet regulations should be carefull framed and strictl
enforced.
h Pro&otin$ safet+ consciousness
3ental preparedness for accidents is the best guarantee of safet. &ll efforts should be made to
calculate safet"consciousness in emploees. -ven though it is a difficult task to remind
emploees to work safel, to avoid carelessness or taking chances and remain alert against
accidents will produce good results.
3.7 -L*SS *-TIDITA
I&a$ine +ou are in a c#ass and the fire /rea2s. *s2 +our students to ro#eFp#a+ on ho% the
situation %i## /e dea#t on. In the course are supposed to de&onstrate ho% to operate a fire
e;tin$uisher and other &eans of fire fi$htin$ #i2e %ater and sand. The+ shou#d a#so 2no%
%here those fireFfi$htin$ faci#ities are #ocated in different parts of the co##e$e
5C
WEEK 7
LESSON 1
3.: Office Securit+
Office securit is a big problem especiall in big organisations. Organisations are faced with theft of
cash and materials b the staff or public. 1arge organisations as stated above are with more organised
crimes organizations are likel to be faced with more serious risks like industrial espionage, terrorist
activities including bomb"threats, kidnapping, hijacking of goods, vehicles and looting of godowns
*herefore, protecting confidentialit of office secrets as well as the secretes of emploees against such
risks, an adequate securit arrangement for an office is essential
3.:.1 -auses of securit+ 5a,ards
i =ot checking of unauthorised and undesirable visitors
ii Enguarded entrances and e+ists of office building and compound
iii 1eaving windows open
iv &ccess of all to confidential documents of all kinds
v !oping of confidential documents b unauthorised persons
vi =ot checking of visitors brief"cases
vii &ccess to cash and safes b too man people and keeping of too much cash in the premises
vii =ot controlling over kes of safes and doors
i+ Ensecured files and documents of the office
+ #taff taking freel of confidential matters inside and outside the office
+i !ars and goods vehicles left unguarded in places where these can be tempered with.
Hii =o securit venting of newl recruited staff.
3.:.2 Securit+ &easures
Safe$uardin$ the co&pound
*he following are securit measures that might be emploed:
i &ll doors, windows and sklights should be closed after office hours and kes left in the hands
of a senior officer.
ii & suitable alarm sstem should be installed
iii *he compound should be regularl patrolled b securit staff or night watchman
5(
Re$u#atin$ entr+ of (isitors
i entr of visitors should be checked at entrance. =o one is allowed unless produces the identit
card bearing his:her photograph
ii One entrance is preferabl for visitors
iii -ach visitor to be issued a pass which should be carried throughout the visit and returned to the
securit man when leaving the compound
iv Brief"cases of visitors need to be checked at the entr point
Securit+ re$u#ations for the staff
i -ach member of the staff should be oriented for securit at the time of recruitment
ii #ecurit regulations for staff should be framed carefull in consultation with the representatives
iii -ach emploee should be issued with an identit card with a photograph and the signature of the
person concerned
iv -ach emploee irrespective seniorit should be asked to identif himself:herself to the securit
staff b producing an identit card while e entering and leaving the premises
v regulations should provide for checking the brief cases and packages of at the time of entr and
e+it
Protectin$ confidentia#it+ of &ai# and co&&unication s+ste&
i Ese of Post Bo+ and Post Bag ma be introduced while taking deliver of mail from the post
office. &ll confidential mail should be handled with senior staff
ii *elephones should be fitted with mechanical or electronic devices to prevent telephone tapping
b rival manufactures
5)
3.<
LESSON 2
CEIH)TEST
54
6.0 ESES *N" .*N*1E.ENT OF OFFI-E ECEIP.ENT
LESSON 1
6.1 Office .echanisation
Office mechanisation means a process of introducing machines and equipment in an office with a view
to increase efficienc and qualit of office operations
6.2 are &achines econo&ica#4
3achines are regarded to be economical if the achieve the following>
i ,f it serves labour time
ii $hen cost of operation and maintenance is not high
iii ,f it has to be used for a considerable long time and there is a chance for future e+pansion
iv $hen the suppl of power to run it is easil available
v $here there is a considerable work load to justif its emploment
vi ,t has adaptabilit and fle+ible in use
vii *here are adequate facilities for training of operations and proper maintenance of the appliance
at a reasonable cost
6.0 *d(anta$es of Office .achines or .echanisation
Office machines are La/our Sa(in$ devices. ,t leads to saving in salaries to emploees as few
emploees are needed and releasing staff for other work
1 Speed: *he speed of work is increased with the help of the machines.
) ,ncreases efficienc+ of office operations.
4 3echanisation ensures *ccurac+ of office work.
3 Enifor&it+. *he office records become uniform and give a better appearance
6 Re#ie(es &onoton+. 3echanisation relieves workers monoton of doing the routine works
7 -ontro#9 *he use of the machine minimises the chances of frauds b the clerks.
: Econo&ica#? !ost per unit job done b machines usuall works out to be less than that done
manuall and machines can operate a number of operations simultaneousl.
@ .achines pro(ide &ana$e&ent %ith a #ot of infor&ation ver quickl which can be used for
further analsis
6.0.1 "isad(anta$es of office .achines
( =eed the operation of human beings. 3achines cannot think and therefore need staff to operate
them or prepare work to be used b them.
55
2 -ost#+9 3achines are more e+pensive if the volume of work is small.
0 Initia# capita#> *he introduction of machines in an organisation requires large some of mone
for installation and maintenance of machines.
3 Ene&p#o+&ent: *he use of machines in offices lead to unemploment
6 O/so#escence> 3achines are subject to be out of use due to the introduction of new modern
machines. *his causes high costs.
8 *he use of machines tends to make the office sstems #ess f#e;i/#e because some of these
require special skills for their operations
9 3achines ma produce noise and space pro/#e&s in the office.
6.3 E@uip&ent Operatin$ .anua#s
*hese are manuals giving technical details about the equipment, e+plain the correct wa on how
to operate it, and tell ou how to solve minor problems that wa arise.
7ood are should be taken of those operating manuals because the are ver useful references.
Geep them in safe place but accessible to users the equipment
6.6 Factor to consider %hen /u+in$ office E@uip&ent
*he following are the factors which influence the choice of office equipments and machiner
1 -ost
,t is upon the organisation to consider its financial position when deciding on the tpe of
machines to purchase.
2 Cua#it+
*he organisation will prefer purchasing equipments of high or better qualit product
0 "ura/i#it+
3 Purpose
*he need for a particular feature eg better presentation of minimising of frauds
3 Effect on the staff &ora#e
56
6 Side affects eg the need to change some sstem or stationer which is in use before machines
are introduced
8 Presti$e: *he good image to be reflected b organisations ou deal with customer
: *dapta/i#it> *his is to meet future development eg computers
@ =eed for trainin$ staff and ancillar services
B ;ow much use can be made of the machines and if there is a possibilit of renting out spare
time b the public
58
LESSON 2
6.7 -o&&on e@uip&ents used in offices
&ddressing machine
&nswering machine
&utomatic *eller 3achines .&*3s/
!alculating 3achine
!ash register
!locking ? in machines .*ime recorders/
!ollators
!omputers
!oin counting machine
2ictaphone machine
2uplicators
'acsimile machine .fa+/
'olding machine
<oggers
1aminators
Photocopiers
Printers
#cales
#hredders
#taplers and staple ? removers
#witchboard
*eleconferencing
*ele+ machines
Private &utomatic Branch -+change .P&BH/
#piral binder machine
6.7.1 -o&&on &achines in a 1enera# Office
i Punching machine> ,t is used for making suitable holes in papers for filing
ii #tapling machine: *his is used for affi+ing letters and enclosures or other pages together
iii #tapler remover: ,t is used for removing pins from papers
iv #cissors: Esed for cutting papers
59
6.7.2 .achines$t of the t+pin$ Poo#
i T+pe%riters can be manual or electric. *he electric machine requires little effort to use and the
tpist can do continuous work without getting too tired. ,t could have onl one tpe of face or
use of a printing device that permits various tpes of faces.
6.7.0 T+pes of t+pe%riters
a *uto&atic T+pe%riters
*he use the work prepared on a pre"punched tape, edge pun on the automatic tpewriter. *his
is also referred as a Iwork processorD
Fi$ure9 7 E#ectronic t+pe%riters
5@
Porta/#e t+pe%riter: *his is of a smaller size and lighter in weight. *he are commonl being
suitable for personal use b business e+ecutives who often go on tour
Fi$ure :9 Porta/#e t+pe%riter
Noise#ess t+pe%riters
*hese make no noise when in use
6.7.3 -are of the t+pe%riter
( Brush the tpe dail and clean dust from the machine, including underneath.
) !over the machine when it is not is use
4 Before moving the machine, lack the carriage in the centre b bringing the margin stops
together
5 1ift the machine from the base not b the carriage
6 Put the machine awa from heat
8 Ese the backing sheet when tping especiall manual machines
9 ,f a fault arises, call an e+perienced mechanic
@ #witch off power when ou finish .-lectric :-lectronic/
B Geep food:drinks well awa from the machines in case of spillage
5B
6.: Photocopies
*hese are used to produce man copies out of a document. *herefore are used to photocop
reports, correspondences from suppliers and clients and other office related assignments.
6.< La&inatin$
*he are used for laminating documents for protecting them b becoming safe from dust and
water. *he document is inserted in a plastic pocket and passed through the machine which seals
it with the heat as it connected to the electric switch. *he documents laminated includes,
licence, identit cards .mention others/
6.= indin$ &achines
*he are used for binding together documents such as meeting reports, sales reports, list of
customers .mention others/
6.10 *ccountin$ .achines
*he handle accounting records using storage and counting registers to carr out ledger posting
and analsis work
6.10.1 -a#cu#ators
*hese ma be manual or electric. *he simplest one will add and subtract. *he more
complicated ones will add, subtract, divide, multipl and give totals and sub"totals.
'igure @: !alculating 3achine
6C
6.10.2 -ash re$ister and -oin hand#in$ .achines
-ash re$isters
*hese are used in those areas where a large number of customers make large paments for the
purchases as in a big retail store .give e+amples/. #ome of these even issue receipts to customers and
in most cases add receipts band show the total on the meter.
-oin hand#in$ devices are used mostl b banks, railwas booking .mention others/.
-oin sorters and cash counters are used for sorting coins of different denominations and giving out
the total of the coins passed through the machine from the dial
-oin chan$e &achine: &utomaticall calculate the change from the amount and deliver amount and
deliver the correct change to customers.
'igure B: !ash 0egister
6(
6.11 i##in$ and /oo2 2eepin$ &achines
6.11.1 i##in$ &achines
Esuall combine tpewriters of roller tpe calculator.
*he machines make calculations regarding discount, e+tensions, totals etc. and are useful for the quick
preparations of bills, invoices> credit notes .mention others/.
Fi$ure 109 i##in$ .achine
6.11.2 *ccountin$ and /oo2F2eepin$ &achines
These &achine are used for
i Posting in journals, cash books and ledgers .mention others/
ii Preparation of checks, parolls, cash received and pament sheets
iii Preparation of copies of ledger accounts, along with posting
iv !alculators and computing figures and drawing ledger or cash book business .mention others/
6)
Fi$ure 119 *ccountin$ and oo22eepin$ .achine
6.12 .ai# Roo& .achines
i Letter opener
*his ma be the hand ?operated device shaped like a knife or an automatic device which trims
narrow strips off one edge of envelops. !are should be taken when using the device not to
destro the contents on an envelop
Fi$ure9 12 Letter Openin$ .achine
64
ii Letter or parce# sca#es?
$eigh correspondences to ensure correct postage
iii Sta&p &oistenin$ de(ice
Esed for wetting stamps or envelops to affi+ to seal. ,t is usuall a moistening sponge in a
container
i( * date sta&p
Esed to record the date on which the letter was received. ,t also stamps a number of the letter
( Shreddin$ &achine
Eses to destro confidential documents if no longer in require
(i *ddressin$ &achine
Esed to print names and addresses of regular customers or correspondents
Fi$ure 109 *ddressin$ .achine
(ii Fran2in$ &achine
*his is used to print postal stamp impressions on the envelopes. $here arranged can also be
used to print slogans on envelops as it prints postal stamps impression
(iii -o&posite &achine
*his tpe of machine performs three functions which are: 'olding of the document, insert then
in envelopes, and seals the envelopes.
65
Fi$ure 139 Letter Fo#din$ .achine
1.13 Computers
!omputer came in man sizes. *he smallest can be pocket ? sized, while portable machine are
called laptops are popular for travelling business people. *he tpical desktop computer in the
office is called a personal computer .P!/. 1arger and more powerful machines include min ?
computers mainframe computers and super computer. !omputers are composed of several
pieces of electronic equipment it is there fore more correct to call them computer sstem.
6.10.1 .ain uses of the co&puter in an or$anisation are as fo##o%s
( *o get access to internet 6 Production control
) *o tpe letters and other correspondences
4 Preparation of paroll
5 #tock control
66
6.10.2 -are for the -o&puter
( *he computer needs to be clean and tid so that it can create a more pleasant environment for
everone to work in
) &void eating and drinking near the computer
4 Protect it with a suitable dust covet when not in use
6.10.0 -#eanin$ Process
#tart with a monitor, followed b the ke board and lastl the printer
6.10.3 -are and &aintenance of office e@uip&ents
( Geep them from e+cessive heat or cold and dust
) Geep food and drinks awa from them
4 ;andle gentl when moving them.
5 2isconnect them from the electrical cable or suppl
6 Geep the cop of operating manuals ! the machine
8 !heck for single and common faults
-.g. make sure that: "
i Power suppl is one
ii 'uses in the equipment are working
ii *here are no loose connecting cable plugs
6.13 Indi(idua# assi$n&ent
( 7ive at least three e+amples of specificall where ou can find the following accounting
machines
Billing and bookkeeping machines
!ash register
!oin handling 3achines
!alculators
2 -#ass *cti(it+ !No &ar2s'
2emonstration on common simple machines used in a general office eg stapler, punching
machines, how to fi+ pins in a stapler, different tpes of office pins and uses, stamp pad and ink
pad *his is done in class.
68
6.16 .I" SE.ESTER EI*.IN*TION *N" -ORRE-TIONS
69
WEEK =
LESSON 1
7.0 RE-OR" .*N*1E.ENT
7.1 The Re$istr+
7.2 "efinition
& registr is an office where all records of an organization are stored.
7.0 T+pes of Re$istries
*here are two tpes of 0egistries that is OP-= vis !O=',2-=*,&1
7.0.1 *n Open Re$istr+
*his is where all general non"confidential records and documents of an organization are dealt
with, and stored.
7.0.2 * -onfidentia# Re$istr+
*his is where all records and documents of confidential in nature .classified/ are dealt with and
stored.
7.3 Ro#e of the Re$istr+
& registr e+ists to serve all the office activities of an organization
O/Gecti(e of the Re$istr+
*he main objective of the 0egistr is to sort the information it receives and present it to
scheduled action officers immediatel.
7.6 Standardi,ation of the Re$istr+ Procedures
*he world J#tandardization J means making of all 0egistr Procedures uniform with the aim of
that whatever is done in one registr is done in the same wa as in another.
7.: Reasons for Standardi,in$ Re$istr+ Procedures
*he reasons are the following:
*raining of staff working in the 0egistr becomes cheap and simple
#taff can easil be transferred from one 0egistr to another without e+tra training e+penses
0egistr procedures are carried out in uniformit.
6@
7.< Ser(ices Rendered /+ the Re$istr+
i *he services offered b a registr include:
ii *o receive, sort and distribute incoming correspondence and other documents
iii *o file letters, records, and other documents
iv *o trace and produce documents as required
v *o put documents under custod when not in use
vi *o dispatch outgoing correspondence
vii *o e+amine files periodicall and send files to the &0!;,F- section
*o open file
7.= -o&&on "efects in the Re$istr+
i & registr ma fail to perform its activities properl when:
ii Papers ma take too long to reach scheduled action officers
iii 'iles take long to be allocated
iv Papers cannot be traced
v Outgoing mail cannot be dispatched on time.
7.=.1 Reasons for the "efects
*he following are the causes for the defects
i Office attendants required are not properl supervised
ii Papers are mis"sorted and :or misallocated
iii Previewing sstem is in use
iv Outstanding papers are not followed"up adequatel
v 'iles are not kept sent to the proper action officers .mis"direction/
vi 'iles are not kept on their proper places .misallocation/
vii *here is poor organization at the post opening stage.
7.10 "e#a+ in producin$ fi#es &a
7.11 + happen if9
i 0ecords are not kept properl
ii !ontrol of file movement is poor
iii !ooperation among officers concerned is low
iv *here is poor file classification
v 'ile inde+ing is poor
vi 'iles are not kept on their proper places
6B
7.10.1 Ina/i#it+ to trace papers &a+ happen if9
i *here is poor file classification
ii 'ile inde+ing is poor
iii Previewing sstem is in use
iv 2ela in dispatching outgoing mail ma happen if:
v 2rafts sent to tpists are not followed"up
vi 1etters that are signed neither are nor cleared out from signing officers in time.
Fii *pists put advance dates on tped letters
7.10.2 Success of Re$istr+ Ser(ices
#ervices rendered b the 0egistr ma be successful if:
i *he sstem and procedures used are clear to everone who uses the 0egistr
ii *he staffs working in the 0egistr are qualified
iii *here is proper supervision
iv &ll staff using the 0egistr are willing to cooperate full
7.11 Indi(idua# assi$n&ent
( 7ive at least three e+amples which can be filed under the following registries:
Open
!onfidential
8C
LESSON 2
7.12 Records .ana$e&ent
*he term records management is given to all aspects of creating, using, sorting retrieving files
disposal of records available.
* fi#e
,s a collection of one or two pieces of related information or records. & file is a collection of
one or more documents about a related subject.
Record9
,s an documented information, regardless of medium in which the information is stored e.g.
paper, microfilm, electronic, etc. 0ecords include letters, circulars, pictures, reports .mention
others/
2ocument is an recorded information in paper form, film or electronic form. & document is a
record.
7.12.1 Record &ana$e&ent can /road#+ /e defined as the sstem of coo"ordination of activities of
making, administering, retaining, submitting and disposing of records of the organization.
0ecord management should not be confused with filing. 0ecord management includes all
activities designed to control the life ccle of a record from its creation to its ultimate
disposition.
7.12.2 Sta$es of the #ife c+c#e of records
*he life ccle of records involves the following stages:
i -reation of records
*his is the first stage which involves designing and control of office forms 2ata need to be
recorded in forms accuratel and completel, and the time period of which the record is going
to be kept determined.
ii Stora$e of Records
*he second stage b which records are properl classified and put into appropriate life covers
or folders .files/.*he files are then kept in a suitable filing equipment eg cabinet .mention
others / and protected.
8(
iii Retrie(a# of Records
One of the purpose of keeping records is that are available for reference. *herefore a efficient
filing procedure should be put in place to retrieve the records in time.
i( "isposa# of records
0ecords ma become obsolete and hence need to be disposed. #ince the time frame for records
is pre"determined when time relapses the records are removed and discarded.
7.10 O/Gecti(es of 2eepin$ Records
*he following are the objectives of keeping records
i Future reference
0ecords are a memor of an organization: business which can be used in future as a reference
for making decisions.
ii E(idence
0ecords are an important aid when it becomes necessar to refer to past records to refer to the
past records to argue a case or settle a dispute. *he serve as a written proof.
iii "ecisionF&a2in$
0ecords are important tool for management. *heir decisions need to be based on relevant and
up"to"date information. ,t is risk for management to base their decision on guesses instead of
proper facts and figure.
iv Efficienc+
& good sstem is the one of which records are easil be available to the management in speed
and accurac. *his improves efficienc in the office operations.
v Le$a# o/#i$ation
0ecords are kept in compliance with the provisions of various statutes. 0ecords might be
needed to be seen b *a+ &uthorit .mention others/.
7.13 Essentia# of a $ood record &ana$e&ent
i Si&p#icit+
*he sstem of keeping records should be simple in order to facilitate comprehension.
8)
ii *ccurac+
0ecords should be kept accuratel so as to reduce the chances of error and frauds
iii Econo&+
*he cost of keeping and maintaining records should be minimal or cost effective
iv Esefu#ness
*he records should be useful for the better management of the affairs of the business. *he
records retained are the ones which needed.
7.16 Fi#in$
'iling is the process of classifing, arranging and storing information for future retrieval and
use. *he information can be in paper form or microfilm or in electronic form, e.g. in computer
discs and !2"0O3.
7.16.1 O/Gects of fi##in$ are9 to preserve documents in clean and tid condition and to ensure their
availabilit for reference when the are needed.
7.16.2 Reasons for Fi#in$
i Geeping together related papers in one file
ii Geeping papers clean and safe
iii ;aving information read for reference purposes
iv Geeping papers for research purposes
7.16.0 Essentia#s of 1ood Fi#in$ S+ste&
*he filing sstem refers to the classification, the equipment, the staffing and inde+ing
*n efficient fi#in$ s+ste& &ust ha(e the fo##o%in$ @ua#ities
( #implicit"simple to understand and operate
) #ecurit:safet"secure to protect the records when the are retained
4 -conom"economical in labour, cost and material
5 'le+ibilit"Be e+pandable to suit increased requirements of the business
6 -asil accessible"cabinets should be of reasonable height and should be ver close
8 #ustainabilit" *pes of files and methods of housing files should suit the needs of the business
of that particular organization
9 !ompactness"*he filing sstem should not take up too much space ie floor space
84
7.16.3 1enera# ru#es for fi#in$
(. 'ile neatl
). -nsure that the correspondence is placed in the correct file
4. Place the correspondence in the file with correct sequence of dates, the most recent documents
on top
5. &void large bulk files. *he old documents to be placed in JdeadK files
6. 2o not remove individual papers from file. ,f it must be removed a note stating the date, name
of correspondent and name of borrower should be placed in the file.
8. $hen there is insufficient correspondence from one source to justif opening an individual file
place it in a Jmiscellaneous K file
9. ,f a file is temporaril removed for reference, complete an absence marker or card
@. 'ile dail so that the filing sstem is alwas up to date
7.16.6 T+pes of fi#e co#ours
'iles are classified according to their nature of contents. *hus there are three .4/ kinds of file
colours:
i #ue"'or keeping confidential matters
ii 1reen with a red diagonal band" 'or keeping secret matters
iii Red"'or top secret matters
7.16.7 Indi(idua# assi$n&ent
7ive at least two e+amples of the documents that might be covered with under the following colours of
files:
Blue
7reen
0ed

85
WEEK 10
LESSON 1
7.16.: Fi#e -#assification S+ste&
'iles are classified so that the can be found and retrieved easil. Organizations choose the
sstem, or a combination of sstems, most suited to their needs.
*he main .basic/ filing classification sstems are
( &lphabetical filing: classif and arrange information in strictl alphabetical order
) 7eographical filing: group information according to geographical locations or areas e.g.
villages, towns, districts, regions, countries, continents, etc.
4 !hronological filing: files are arranged according to date or period in numerical order
5 =umerical filing: files are arranged numericall, each new file given a consecutive number
6 #ubject filing: files are arranged alphabeticall according to subjects or topics
8 -. *. !
7.16.: *#pha/etica##+ Fi#in$ S+ste&
*his is probabl the most commonl used of all filing sstems. Ender this sstem, files are
arranged according to the names of customers. ,n personal names the arrangement is
determined b the use of surname:ke names
*he surname is placed before the first names and if the surnames are the same, the first name
determine the position
,f the first name and surname are embodied in the name of the compan, the surname is written
first, followed b the first name and finall e.g. the remainder of the name should file 1eonard
$hite and !o filed under I$hite, 1eonard, and !o.D
,f the compan has several names, the first name is taken as the surname for filing purposes,
e.g. 3essrs 3a, <ones and <enkins should be filed under I3aD
$hen the first word of the name, it is either omitted, or placed at the end for inde+ing purposes
for e+ample *he Gilimanjaro ;otel, filed as IGilimanjaro ;otel, *he.D
,n hphenated names the first name is used, e.g. in #mith" 0aland, use I#mithD for filing
purposes. *itles are placed after the surname and before the first names, e.g. !hampion, #ir 7
;
=ames beginning with 3ac, 3c, 3D are treated as if the were spelt as I3acD.
=ames beginning with I#tD are treated as if the were spelt I#aintD.
86
*he names such as 2e 1a 3are, etc the prefi+ is regarded as part of the surname and inde+ed as
if the were one word e.g. 2eclare.
& name without initials precedes a name with an initial as the following names
0oberts
0oberts, &
0oberts, & &
=ames, which consist of initials, are placed before full names, e.g. B0# .Parcels/ 1td precedes
Brown Bros.
'or impersonal names such as government departments, use the name that distinguishes it from
the others, e.g. -ducation and -mploment.
=ames which begin with a number should d either be listed before the alphabetical name in
numerical order or converted to words and placed in the appropriates alphabetical position,
depending on the rules of the organization, e.g. 4 #tars *rading !ompan treated as I*hreeLD
&lphabetical filing is used widel b professions, which deal with clients .e.g. dentist and
doctors, #olicitors or lawers/, b schools for maintaining pupils records, b business
organizations for keeping staff records and filling correspondence.
7.16.: *d(anta$es
( Se#fFinde;in$, a direct and quicker method of filing without the need for a separate inde+
.direct filing./
) Si&p#e to operate, junior clerks can understand it easil
4 It is possi/#e to open up one fi#e for miscellaneous papers, which cannot make up their own
file
5 Eas+ to e;pand, new names can easil be added
6 & convenient method of grouping papers b compan, subject or location
8 -speciall usefu# for a s&a## fi#in$ ran$e of about (CC to 6CC files
9 Less cost in materials
88
7.16.< "isad(anta$es
( 2ifficult ma be e+perienced in locating common names. *oo man names under a common
name ma cause congestion in filing.
) ,t takes much time to trace papers in large sstems where the are man files
4 Encertaint for file location when subjects are used. 3is filing of papers under different
heading is possible as car e+penses, motor e+penses, vehicle e+penses, etc.
5 2ifficult to &sses space requirements for e+pansion. ,t is not eas to estimate space
requirements between different letters of alphabet.
6 & document ma be filed under a different name due to differences in spellings e.g. !alvin,
Gelvin, etc.
8 0equire constantl up dating the inde+
6.16 Geographical Filing System
&rrange files according to geographical location, e.g. village, town, district, region, countr,
continent, etc. files within each group are arranged alphabeticall. *he sstem cannot operate
on its own> it needs a supplementar card inde+.
*he method is suitable for sales organizations, government agencies, travel agencies,
publishers, freight companies, post offices, and large organizations with branch offices, which
are connected with geographical areas.
,n addition, more e+amples of data that dictate geographical filing is: market research data,
sales data, weather records, national health statistics, etc.
Esing geographical classification for sales and distribution for sales and distribution of te+tiles
b 'riendship *e+tile 3ill, &rusha and 3bea regions as e+amples: .#ales in *anzania, all
regions are arranged alphabeticall, followed b districts under them/
&rusha 0egion 3bea region
("(&rumeru district )"( !huna district
(") &rusha district )") Gela district
("4 Babati district )"4 ,leje district
("5 ;anang district )"5 3balali district
("6 Giteto district )"6 3bea 0ural district
("8 1oliondo district )"8 3bea Erban district
("9 3bulu district )"9 3bozi district
("@ 3onduli district )"@ 0ungwe district
("B =gorongoro district
89
7.17.1 *d(anta$es
( ,t is eas to use and make reference when location is known
) ,t classifies information into readil identifiable groups
4 #uitable for companies that have several branches spread over different parts of the world, or a
countr, for e+ample oil companies, commercial banks, etc
7.17.2 "isad(anta$es
( Possibilit of error in filing where knowledge of geograph is lacking or weak for filing clerks
) 7eographical location, must be known in addition to the correspondents name
4 &dditional inde+ is necessar for occasional reference
5 #imilarit of names in different areas can create problems in filing
6 'iling clerks ma not be familiar with locations
8 Onl some of a firmDs activities ma be carried out according to geographical location but not
everthing
7.1: -hrono#o$ica# Fi#in$ S+ste&
2ocuments are arranged according to date of receipt in numerical order. *he sstem is useful in
small business concerns where not man records to maintain. *his method of filing has
unlimited scope for e+pansion, but related records ma be separated b other records.
!hronological filing is often used when filing invoices, orders, circulars, pament vouchers etc.
,t is also, often used to organize individual records within a particular file, even when the file
itself is classified under a different sstem.
=ote: *he sstem is used absolutel but is the usual method of filing papers inside each
folder:file. *he oldest papers are found at the bottom of the file while the most recent on top.
.erits
#orting is eas and quick where material filed is of a small quantit
,t is eas to make reference in a file when date is known
Provides unlimited scope for e+pansion
7.1:.1 "e&erits
( Ensuitable when there are man documents to file .especiall in large organizations/
) 0elated documents are easil separated .e.g. incoming letters might become separated from
outgoing ones, where the sstem is strictl followed/.
4 ,t takes much time to arrange documents according to dates.
8@
7.1<.0 Nu&erica# Fi#in$ S+ste&
-ach file or record is allocated a number and then placed in numerical order. =ew documents
.files/ are given a consecutive number.
*his involves the storage of information in sequential order, starting from the lowest and
proceeding to the highest number.
*his is an indirect classification in the sense that it needs a separate inde+ .a list of file titles or
names arranged in alphabetical order and giving file numbers as reference/.
*his sstem is particularl useful for large filing sstems or where documents are alread
numbered, e.g. hospital records, numbered forms .invoices, orders, receipts, drawings, maps
etc/.
,t is eas to e+pand since a new file opened is given a consecutive number. *his filing includes
straight numeric, decimal and chronological sstem.
7.1<.1 .erits
( ,t is eas to follow numbers when filing and there is a greater accurac in filing
) 'ile numbers ma be used as a reference on correspondence
4 *he inde+ ma be used for other purposes e.g. a mailing list
5 Provide unlimited scope for e+pansion, a new file can be given a consecutive number
6 <unior clerks can understand it easil
8 'iles are easil found and difficult to misplace
7.1<.2 "e&erits
( 0eference: to a inde+ causes a dela in locating files. *he need to refer to an inde+ ma cause
delas in locating files
) 3ore costl in materials and time taken to maintain the sstem
4 *ransposition of figures can be serious in misplacing papers and files
5 *he inde+ ma need to be constantl up dated if the sstem is e+panding
6 'iling and finding is indirect
8B
7.1<.0 *ssi$n&ent
1roup assi$n&ent
Esin$ a#pha/etica# fi#in$ s+ste& c#assif+ a#pha/etica##+ the fo##o%in$ re$ions of Tan,ania
1 Tan$a
2 Ki#i&anGaro
0 Shin+an$a
3 Ta/ora
6 Ru(u&a
7 Ru2%a
: Ka$era
< "odo&a
= Ki$o&a
10 .%an,a
9C
'ile sstems continued
LESSON 2
7.1=.0 Su/Gect Fi#in$ S+ste&
'iles are arranged alphabeticall b subject or topic. *he main subject can be subdivided into
more specific topics, also arranged alphabeticall.
#ubject filing is appropriate when the subjects are well known and a good subject inde+ is
necessar.
*he tpe of records that are easil classified according to subjects includes: "
0ecords that contain information on policies, products advertising, research, general
correspondence on certain matters given topics. *he method is back as a combination such as
alphabetical or numerical where papers are filed according to topics.
7.1=.1 Fi#in$ &anua# is often essentia# and shou#d co(er the three /asic parts9
( Provide written instructions on filing practices, when to open new files, when to close files,
when to establish a name inde+, how to deal with secrete files, etc.
) #ubject outlines, which present the major groups, divided and subdivided in certain logical
manner. ,n some cases also definition of terms are given in order to avoid an ambiguit.
4 &n alphabetical relative inde+ provided to simplif the task of searching for the files. 1ike a
book where one has the table of contents at the beginning and an alphabetical inde+ at the back
of the book, so all the various topics at different levels are arranged in strictl alphabetical
order to simplif the search for the files.
7.1=.2 *d(anta$es
( ,t is eas to make reference where the subject is known
) -as to e+pand, there is no limitation of subjects
7.1=.0 "isad(anta$es
( 2ocuments ma be misfiled when the fit under more than one heading
) =eeds a good cross"referencing sstem and careful selection of file titles
4 Esers need a thorough knowledge of their organization
5 ,t is likel that a single paper can fit into more than one heading. *his can cause confusion in
filing.
6 =eed a well"trained senior staff to do the job of filing or supervision of junior clerks
8 ,t needs great care in selecting the titles for files
9 *he sstem is not suitable for provision of miscellaneous papers
9(
7.1=.0 .icrofi#&in$
,s a method of retaining or keeping information b photographic records to reduce them when
needed.
*he records are micro"photographed and kept either on roll film, microfiche, a perjure card or
jacket. $hen needed for reference, the negative is shown on the screen, or a cop is made
3icrofilming is onl important when a great multitude of permanent records must be kept e.g.
in office of registrar of births, records of rainfall etc.
7.1=.3 .erits
( ,t saves space and weight" bulk files are replaced b compact cartons of films
) 2ocuments can be sent abroad microfilming reduces cost of postage if information has been:to
be sent b e+pensive airmail
4 *here is little chance of misplacing or misfiling records
5 & film is more durable than paper and provides a much more permanent record. .'ilm is more
resistant to wear and tear than paper/
6 'ilm can be enlarged on the paper, thus providing quick and, more accurate duplicate copies of
the original documents
8 -conom in filing equipment as well a floor space
9 3icrofilmed information cannot be altered, suitable for storing legal information
@ Eseful for storing documents for a long time
7.1=.6 "e&erits
( 0etrieval is relativel slow because the film has to be viewed through the reader .a machine
which projects the film on the screen/
) =o inde+ing is possible and thus location of a particular frame ma be difficult causing dela
and frustration
4 3icrofilmed information cannot be updated, since sometimes corrections and insertions are
necessar
5 *here is a great loss in case of one film is lost as one film will be keeping so man documents
6 ,n case of poor processing with stale chemicals, the film ma be unreadable or damaged
8 =eed e+pensive equipment
9)
'igure (6: 3icrofilming
7.20 -o&puteri,ed Fi#in$ S+ste&
!omputer 2ata #torage and 0etrieval
Muicker and occup considerabl less space reduce the need for paper files
2ata is mainl stored electronicall in flopp disks, magnetic tape, hard discs, optical discs
!2"0O3, or $O03 write once read man etc
7B20.1 .erits
( #peed of retrieval
) #aving office space
4 0educed paper work
5 ,nteraction with other data, e.g. mainframe computer, and other services such as fa+
6 -ase of access to centralized records through a network sstem
8 Provide greater securit using password
9 'iles are not removed when access is made to them
94
7.20.1 "e&erits
( !ost of acquiring equipment is high
) !ost and time taken o print out copies when it is necessar to work awa from the terminal
4 *ime taken to input data and verif it keboard, for sstems which do not use optical character
recognition .O!0/, O!0 converts te+t and graphics into images for computer storage and
eliminates the need for keing in data
5 *he danger of operator accidentall erasing data from the memor of computer
6 *he problems incurred when there is a power cut or a sstem break down
7.21 Fi#in$ S+ste&
#ecretaries are often responsible for managing the filing sstem especiall in smaller
organizations> it is therefore desirable that ou know common rules for creating storing,
tracking, retrieving and disposing of files.
95
WEEK 11
LESSON 1
7.21.1 * c#ass acti(it+ an e+ercise on record management and filing
*his e+ercise has to be done in class during the class. &llocate one hour .8C minutes/ for doing the
e+ercise and fort five minutes for making corrections in class. 'urthermore, allow for challenges
faced in the topic and together discus those areas not well understood in case time allows
E;ercise
(. &rrange the following in alphabetical order
Gatanga, Gatanga, P3, Gatanga, $,3. ,2audi Gatanga
). $h do we file% $hat are the requirement of a filing sstem:
4. =ame the five"classification filing methods and give e+amples of the tpe of work which are
most suitable to be filed under each method
5. Aou are starting a new filing sstem. $hat factors would ou take into account in choosing the
method of classification to use%
6. 2raw up simple rules for a new emploee who under our supervision will deal with the filing
of correspondences
8. $hat are the different functions of a registr%
9. $hat are the common problems of registries and list of the causes% &n five .6/
96
LESSON 2
7.22 Recordin$ fi#e &o(e&ents
$hen a file is taken from storage, there must be a method of showing where it has gone so that
other people can find it quickl
7.21.2 Fi#e &o(e&ent card !out card' !paper transfer s#ip'
2etails such as file name, date borrowed, b whom and date returned are recorded pm card which is
placed where the file is normall kept, or in a card inde+ bo+ for out files.
E;a&p#e of out card )fi#e &o(e&ent card.
'ile =o. Borrowed b 2epartment 2ate Borrowed 2ate returned
B (@ 3. Gomba #ales 4C:9:C4 ):@:C4
< B *. Paska &ccount )@:9:C4 4C:9:C4
'igure (8: 'ile movement card .out card/ .Paper transfer slip/
,s the method of showing where it has gone so that other people can find quickl.
7.22.1 Fi#e &o(e&ent re$ister
& single book recording all details of file movement.
& register is not recommended because it is bulks, becomes dilapidated quickl and can be consulted
b onl one person at a time.
,ndividual files ma also have a file"making grid .also called a transit ladder/ printed on their cover.
2etails of the files movements, and actionerDs instructions to secretaries or filing clerks .e.g. P& ? Put
awa, ='& ? =o 'urther &ction/ are recorded on this grid.
=ame:#ection &ction required &ction taken 2ate ,nitials
Fi$ure 1:9 &n e+ample of a 'ile"making 7rid
7.22.0 Fi#e Retention Po#ic+
*akes into considerations the following factors: "
&n legal requirements for the documents to be retained
98
*he need to retain documents for auditing purposes
*he possible need for documents to be produced in their original form as evidence in a court of law.
,f the organization will be at a disadvantage if documents not produced in future
1ess important documents need not be kept for a long period
7.22.3 Fi#in$ -ode of Practice
*he following need to be observed b filing personnel
( -nsure that all paper are passed .&uthorized/ for filing
) 'ile neatl and methodicall b sorting and grouping all correspondence before filing.
4 Placing the paper on the file squarel so that all edges are perfectl straight.
5 -nsure that all the correspondence is placed in the correct file
6 &lwas close filing cabinet drawers after use for reasons of safet and securit
8 #eek to maintain efficienc and recommend an improvements
9 1ock filing cabinet before leaving the office
@ 'ile dail so that the filing sstem is up to date.
7.20.0 5o% fi#es are or$anised in a usiness Or$anisation %
,n an business firm or 3inistr, files can be organised either centrall or
departmentall:decentralised
7.20.1 -entra#i,ed fi#in$ s+ste&
&ppl to where files are kept and controlled in one room or place or head office.
7.20.2 *d(anta$es
( *here is econom in the use of equipment floor space and personnel
) 0ecords can be controlled more tightl
4 *here is uniformit in filing procedures through out the organization
5 Promote development of specialist filing staff
5 3ore effective supervisions of filing staff is possible
7.20.0 "isad(anta$es
( 2ela producing file to those who need them
) 'iling clerk lack departmental knowledge
4 &llow misplacement of records b inefficient filing clerk where filing sstem is large.
99
5 0ecords can easil get loss without holding someone responsible for the loss.
7.23. 0 "ecentra#i,e !"epart&enta#' Fi#in$ S+ste&
-ach department or branch has its own filing sstem and the staff in the department possible a
junior is responsible for it.
7.23.1 *d(anta$es
( -as and fast retrieval of document when needed.
) 0ecords are more secure than in a central filing unit
4 1ess time spend in tracing the document
5 ,t reduce complaints on dela in tracing files as central filing unit
6 *he form of the filing sstem used ma be matched precisel to the needs of the departments.
7.23.2 "isad(anta$es
( 'iling knowledge is lacking to the filing clerk
) $aste of space b filing cabinets
4 Eneconomical use of equipment, floor space and personnel .cannot be shared/
5 Aou need to make e+tra copies of documents for departments
6 1ack of uniformit of procedures and out put
8 2oes not allow free rotation or transfer of emploee
1.1: *cti(it+
Fie#d Trip
In $roupsB students are to /e ta2en to the -/e)an+ .inistr+Js re$istr+ to fa&i#iarise %ith fi#e
&o(e&ent e&phasis /ein$ the fi#e &o(e&ent re$ister and fi#e &o(e&ent cards
9@
WEEK 12
LESSON 1
7.27.0 Fi#e Inde;es
&n inde+ comprises of a list of subjects or file titles .name/ with references arranged
alphabeticall. &n inde+ help locate files quickl. 'or e+ample, if a file is classified numericall
and ou do not know its file number, ou would have difficult in locating it unless ou keep
an alphabetical list of file names ? inde+.
&n inde+ is method of making reference to document filed. ,t comprises of an alphabetical list
of subjects with references
2.27.1 The (arious for&s of inde;es are as follows:"
Page inde+
!ard inde+es
Fisible card inde+es
#trip inde+es
0otar inde+
9B
7.27.2Disi/#e -ard Inde;9F
*he cards are filed flat on top of one another in shallow tras. *he latter are housed in
metal cabinets, sliding in and out as required when a tra is withdrawn, the cards overlap.
#o that one line of entr on each card .a file little or topic/ is immediatel visible, thus
forming a one line inde+.
7.27.0 *d(anta$e of (isi/#e card Inde; over the vertical form are that:
( Offers a quicker means of reference because it permits a number of cards to be
seen at glance.
) *he card are protected b plastic trips along the lower edges, so handling does not
make them worn in the wa cards in vertical inde+ tend to become after a time.
4 -ntries can be made on the cards without removing them from the cabinet.
5 #ignals are used with a visible card inde+ to draw attention to certain facts
recorded on the cards. *his ma be done either through the use of different colours or b
position of the signals on the edge of the card
Fi$ure 1<9 Disi/#e -ard Inde;
@C
7.27.3 Strip -ard Inde;:"
& form of visible inde+ing consisting onl of strips. Onl the edges of the card appear
.thus giving the appearance of a number of trips/, the strip inde+ consist onl of strips.
-ach entr is recorded on separate strip which is housed in a frame.
*he frame are hinged and information can be seen clearl without an need to search for
the page or cards.
,s useful for providing a list of brief items that must be available for frequent reference.
*hus the names, addresses, telephone numbers, account numbers etc ma be inde+ed in
this wa giving speed reference to thousands of items.
7.23.6 Rotar+ Inde;9F
*he cards are fi+ed to the spindle of a drum. B turning the spindle an card can be
turned up for inspection. & rotar card inde+ is also known as a wheel inde+.
#everal thousand of cards can be housed on one compact drum.
-ntries can be made on the cards without removing them from the inde+
0eferences can be made speedil, unlike the card inde+ which can be difficult to use if
the drawer is ver full.
@(
Fi$ure 209 Whee# Inde;
@)
LESSON 2
7.26.0 .ethods of housin$ Fi#es
;ousing of files refers to the various methods of storing files in different equipments .eg
cabinets etc/ and the stles in which the files are kept inside the equipments
'ile storage sstems and -quipment.
7.26.1 *here are three main tpes of stora$e s+ste&, which are:"
( 2ocument sstems for paper records
) -lectronic sstems
4 3icrofilm sstems
7.26.2 "ocu&ent S+ste&s .for paper 0ecords/
( Portable storage equipment
3anila folders
#pring files
Fertical suspension files
1ateral files
;orizontal files
Bo+ files
1ever ? arch files
0ing binders
!oncertina files.
7.26.0 Non Porta/#e Stora$e E@uip&ent
#helves
!upboards
!abinets
7.26.3 Dertica# Fi#in$
'iles are arranged verticall upright one behind the other .=orth ? #outh/
@4
7.26.6 .erits
( *he file is more compact and there is less chance of losing document, particularl
if files are suspended
) Paper can be inserted and replace without removing the file
4 *itles can be read clearl
5 !abinet has greater protection from fire N dust.
7.26.7 "e&erits
( -+tra space is required for opening drawers
) 3ore -+pensive equipment is used .cabinet/
4 Onl one person at a time can have access to a filing cabinet.
7.26.: Latera# Fi#in$
& sstem of storing files side b side like books on a shelf
7.26.< .erits
( #aving space as there is not need to allow for opening drawers
) !an be built up higher than vertical cabinets
4 !an be accommodated in alcoves ! would no be suitable for vertical cabinets
5 1arger range of files can be viewed at one time.
*cti(it+
* #ecturer has to co&e in c#ass %ith different t+pes of fi#es and de&onstrate on ho%
docu&ents are fi#ed. Students are a#so $i(en a chance practice
@5
9.C
@6
9.(
@8
Re(ision Cuestions
Office #a+out
@9
( $hat do ou understand b office laout% 1ist and discuss the
principles of a good laout
) #tate and e+plain the objectives and principles of office laout
4 $hat are the factors to consider for the right tpe of office
accommodation%
5 $hat are the advantages and disadvantages of open and closed
offices
Record .ana$e&ent and Fi#in$
(. $hat are records in the manner of record management%
). -+plain the significance of 0ecords
4. 2efine record management. #tate and describe the scope of record management
5. $hat do ou understand b filing% $hat are the features of a good filing sstem
6. 2iscuss the different methods of filing
8. $rite short notes on centralised and decentralised filing
9. 2ifferentiate between ;orizontal and Fertical filing sstems
@. $rite short notes on
1ateral filing
#uspension filing
Fisible card inde+
!entralised v:s decentralised filing
B 2escribe an five functions of a registr
(C 2escribe an five merits and an five demerits of computer
filing sstem
Inde;in$
(. $hat do ou understand b inde+ing% 7ive its importance%
@@
). 1ist the objectives of inde+ing
4. $hat are the main characteristics of a good inde+ing sstem%
5. $rite short notes on card inde+ing%
6. $hat is card inde+ing% $hat are its advantages% #tate the various uses to which
!ard inde+ing can be put
8. 2istinguish between filing and inde+ing
9. 2iagrammaticall e+plain what is the 'ile 3ovement !ard
Office .achines and E@uip&ents
(. $hat is office mechanisation% $hat are its objectives and disadvantages of office
machines%
). $hat are the factors to consider when buing machines%
4. $hen are machines economical%
5. 1ist three machines used in general office
6. =ame the machines used in accounts section
8. 3ention the office an ten equipment .(C/ which ou know.
Office
(. 2efine an office. 2iscuss the functions of an office
). $hat is a business and its functions
4. &n office is ver important in an business organization commentK. !omment%
5. 2escribe the tpe of work performed in an office ou know
Office safet+ and securit+
@B
(. $hat does it meant b office safet% 2iscuss the causes of accidents at the
working places
). $hat is meant b office securit% -+plain various securit measures to be taken
b office management
4. $rite short notes on the following
i Fentilation
ii 1ight
iii #anitation
5 $hat does it means b having a good working environment%
Office or$anisation
(. $hat do ou understand b the term organisation%
). -+plain the principles of office organisation
4. ,n order to fulfil his duties effectivel what organisational skills and qualities does
an office manager need%
5. 2escribe the guidelines regarding the location of the departments in an office
,=*0O2E!*,O= &=2 B&!G70OE=2 *O *;- P0OB1-3
Inc#usion in Education -onte;t
BC
,n educational conte+t, inclusion is referred to as an attempt to provide education to
students with and without special needs in the same environment. ,n light of this, all
students are provided with conducive environments to enable them stud better. Based on
the basics of inclusion to e+clude students described as having special needs from the
main stream is injustice to all students .$hitetaker, (BB@/. ,n this regard, those who
administer and those who teach have to recognize and value changes necessar for
students to make their personal and unique contributions be valued equall in the
education institutions .$hitetaker et al, (BB@/. *his calls for a plan for inclusion of ever
student into the local mainstream and communit in which he:she lives. E=-#!O has
been activel struggling to ensure that inclusion is broadl accepted in all educating
communities> this has been associated with endorsement of inclusive approach schooling
in order to support the development of special needs education as an integral part of all
education programmes .E=-#!O, (BB5/.
,nclusion draws attention to the qualit of the mainstream school conte+t as a whole and
for all children, not just with special needs. &ccording to 'irst and Pearpoint .(B9)/,
inclusion is being with one another including how we deal with diversit and how we
deal with differences in the communit. &ccording to ;all .(BB)/, inclusion is the
presence of all learners in one shared education communit. ,n light of this, inclusive
education is a set of principles, which ensures that the students with special needs are
viewed valued and needed members of the school communit in ever aspect.
'urthermore &inscow .(BB4/ observed that the special needs task is restructured as a
process of schools improvement. ,n this regard, ;ergart .(BB4/ points out that an
B(
effective school is an abstraction therefore moving towards developing inclusive schools
needs to be e+amined in terms of the multi"faced impact on individuals, especiall all the
students in whose interest, ostensibl, the changes have been made.
*herefore, inclusive education ethos should be concerned with more than the acquisition
of subject knowledge. -ducation should equip children sociall, emotionall for living
harmoniousl with people different from themselves. *he #alamanca !onference of (BB5
outlined that, inclusive education is based on the principle that schools should
accommodate all children regardless of their phsical, intellectual, social, emotional,
linguistic and other conditions. *he need for inclusive education arises precisel because
it is now well understood that most children with special needs can with motivation and
effort on the part of teaching institution become an integral part of those institutions.
Inc#usi(e Education Pro$ra&&e in Tan,ania
,n (B@@ the Enited =ations -ducation #cientific and !ultural Organization .E=-#!O/
initiated the development of a project known as I#pecial =eeds in the classroomD so as to
help ordinar schools to respond positivel to pupilsD diversit. *his was initiated in order
to provide compulsor education for all children in the population, integrating students
with disabilities into ordinar schools and upgrade teacher training as a means of
achieving the above two initiatives.
B)
*herefore, in (BB@ *anzania adopted the programme as a project through the financial
support of E=-#!O. *he project started with two primar #chools in *emeke
3unicipalit in 2ar"es"#alaam. *oda two other bodies have joined in, that is the
#alvation &rm and the *anzania &ssociation for 3entall ;andicapped .*&;3/. *hese
three bodies have trained the personnel and introduced inclusive education services in
nine regions including 2ar"es"#alaam, !oast, 3orogoro, ,ringa, 0ukwa, 3bea and
0uvuma. &lso technical support has been e+tended to Oanzibar for the establishment of
inclusive education .3o-!, )CC6/.
Inc#usion in road -onte;t
*o e+clude students described as having special needs from the mainstream local schools
and colleges is an injustice to all students .$hitaker, (BB@:)/. #uch an injustice demands
that societies look more creativel at the wa the operate within the educational sstems
as the now e+ist and begin to change legislations and practices when teaching different
students. *herefore, there is a need to start articulating a vision for the future which will
influence the wider political structures and encourage the growth for local mainstream
schools and colleges in which ever student belongs, in which ever student is activel
encouraged to contribute, and in which those contributions are received and valued for
their richness and diversit.
Based on the above arguments, 'erguson .(BBC/ concludes that those who administer and
those who teach have to recognize and value changes necessar for students to make their
personal and unique contributions for the benefit the whole school. *hus, the difference
should not be sacrificed at the altar of the artificial and often arbitrar standardization of
B4
students. *his calls for a plan for the inclusion of ever student to be supported into their
local mainstream. 'urthermore, provision of support that is valued and so effective to
enable students of all categories in inclusive schools to be able to stud in a conducive
environment.
;owever, ;ansen .(BBB/ observes that not all mainstream schools and colleges are
organized in such a wa to ensure the smooth integration of previousl e+cluded students.
*his is because not all mainstream schools and colleges appreciate the benefits of
inclusion and not all mainstream schools and colleges appreciate contributions of their
e+isting students. $hitaker et al., .(BB@/ argues that mainstream educational sstems
have to be improved and made more welcoming and offer more hospitalit to all students
and not dumping. *he presence of all students in the same class is the first step in the
eradication of irrational fears about differences ? differences which are, at present, used
as license to e+clude students from meaningful friendships and participation at local
schools.
E=-#!O has been activel struggling to ensure that inclusion is at large in all schools
and colleges. 'or e+ample, the E=-#!O #alamanca statement called for the international
communit to endorse the approach of inclusive schooling and to support the
development of special needs education as an integral part of all education programmes
.E=-#!O, (BB5/. ,t is appealing to the Enited =ations and its specialized agencies to
strengthen their inputs for technical co"operation and improve their networking for more
efficient support to integrated special needs provision. *hus, non governmental
B5
organizations are asked to strengthen their collaboration with official bodies and become
more involved in all aspects of inclusive education.
Se$re$ation in Education
#egregation in education is e+clusion from the mainstream in separate settings without a
time limit or an integration plan .=,&!-, (BB)'. ,t is also education under separate
management from the main stream. *his description applies to special schools and can
also appl to special units in ordinar schools when the are run separatel from ever
da life of the school, when the student are not members of the appropriate class for their
age group and when there is no integration plan. *ime spent out of the ordinar
classroom for appropriate individuals or group work on a part" time basis is not
segregation. &n form of time"out from the ordinar classroom does not affect a studentsD
entitlement to full membership of the mainstream.
Parents who have students in separate special schools because local policies make that
the onl option can still support a goal to end segregation. &ccording to Barton .(BB@:6/,
working towards a de"segregated education sstem is working towards a better education
for all students, and thus the benefits of integration appl to all students, those with and
those who do not have learning difficulties. *his is enforced b the integration charter
statement that>
$e full support an end to all segregated education on the grounds of learning difficult
as a polic commitment for a given countr. *hus we see the ending of segregation in
education as a human rights issue which belongs within equal opportunities policies
.!,#-, (BB@/.
B6
*he charter believes that all children share equal value and status. ,n light of this, the
e+clusion of students from the mainstream because of learning difficult is devaluation
and is discriminating. *he charter does not accept that segregating students with learning
difficulties in special schools can be classed as positive discrimination on the grounds
that the separation is for their benefit. *here is no compelling bod of evidence to suggest
that segregated special education has significant benefits for students compared with
ordinar school placements with appropriate support. On the contrar, &merican research
shows that all children do better academicall and sociall in ordinar schools.
*hus, segregation in education is a major cause of societDs widespread prejudice against
adults with learning difficulties. 2e"segregating special education is therefore a crucial
first step in helping to change discriminator attitudes, geared at creating greater
understanding and developing a fairer societ. *he charter hesitates that efforts to
increase participation of people with learning difficulties in learning communit life will
be seriousl jeopardized unless segregated education is reduced and ultimatel ended
.=,&!-, (B@:)5/.
-#assroo& Learnin$ En(iron&ent
,nclusive education is based on the belief that learning is more likel to occur in the
classroom where there are the following factors: active involvement of learners,
negotiation of individual learning objectives, opportunities of demonstration, practice and
feedback, continuous evolution and support for learners and teachers ,n contrast with the
B8
integrated education sstem where the child is thought to be a problem, in the inclusive
education sstem it is the sstem of education provision that is seen to be a problem.
.
Phi#osophica# I&pact9 Ph+sica# and Socia# Inc#usion
Phsical and social inclusions are ver important in the philosoph of inclusion as the
make the public, including school managements, to be aware of the importance of
infrastructures in inclusive training. Phsical inclusion simpl implies being present. ,t
goes without saing that if the infrastructure is not present, then it is clear that people
with special needs cannot be included> the landscape of schools is such that even minor
mobilit or self care issues pla havoc with being there. $ills and <ackson .)CC5/ cite an
e+ample of inclusive education in &ustralian schools. =,&!- .(BBB/, views phsical
inclusion being attending the local school, plaing in the same grounding, being in the
same classroom as well as having access to specialist groups .such as art, computer,
religion / and social services such as water and medicine. *his tends to be taken for
granted with children without disabilities and indeed parents tend to be disturbed if the
B9
learn that their children are not phsicall included in an one of the e+periences
throughout the school da, week and ear.
#ocial inclusion refers to equal participation of students in social activities. *his
underpins the notion that not ever e+perience of being present is well coming or
nurturing because one can be rejected and become lonel even in a crowed classroom
and man children will know. 'urthermore, because of disabilit one fails to enjo
available social services due to barriers toward accessing them. 'or e+ample, water
being among components of social service, a person with disabilit of legs or hands will
fail to get it if it is obtained at a distance or if water outlet is placed at a position whereb
he:she can not manage to reach it. *hus, available infrastructures should be easil
accessible to all students in a school communit and that provides conducive learning
environment to all students at school.
*herefore, positive social inclusion should be encouraged at school communit. *hus, to
be positioned to nurture positive social inclusion one must look at each major events of a
da to determine the following: *he relevance to the students involved .skills:
infrastructure relevance/, the impact of the non availabilit of the infrastructure to
him:her and the impact when other students .in other group/ get the infrastructure which
he:she does not get. *his more comple+ schema ields a judgment as to the social
e+clusionar prospects of the students at schools.
The Ideo#o$ica# -onstruction of Peop#e %ith Specia# Needs
B@
*here is a clear relationship between prevailing social structures dominanc ideolog and
the wa societ handles deviants .&bbot and #apsford, (B@9/ ,n this regard, no an
attempt to develop a social theor of people with special needs can ignore the issue of
ideolog. ,deolog is characterized b a set of values or beliefs underpinning social
practices and the work process, medical intervention or the provision of welfare services.
;owever, that is not enough for b leaving it there, social consciousness can be reduced
to a pluralist vision of sets of competing ideologies. *herefore, a specific link between
social structures and ideologies b distinguishing between organic and arbitrar
ideologies is necessar .7ramsci, (B9(/.
*hus, 7ramsci .ibid/ attempted to address the issue of power and human dominant
ideolog through the development of the concept of hegemon which becomes more ill"
bracing than ideolog. !onstruction of ideolog is therefore an important step towards
providing knowledge to people that all human beings need equal treatments and basic
facilities in their lives.
arriers To%ards Inc#usion in Tan,anian Schoo#s
Barriers towards inclusion hampered effectiveness of inclusion in *anzania. 'or
e+ample, lack of political will and laws on inclusion caused leaders in power to allocate
few funds to schools under inclusion. &lthough inclusion is perceived positivel in
developing countries such as *anzania, several problems have been identified to affect
implementation. Povert, which is faced b most of the developing countries including
*anzania, affects education budget, and therefore priorit in the sector of education is
given to sections which do not conduct inclusive education. *his is due to the absence of
BB
clear laws and education policies on inclusion. *he political statement b government
leaders that education should be for all up to the primar school level .3O-!, (BB@/
does not stipulate how students with special needs should be trained.
'urthermore, the -ducation &ct .(B9@/, which advocates education for all children to be
offered within the framework of general education, does not empower stakeholders and
parents .especiall parents of students with special needs/ to full participate in providing
education for these children. 1ack of political will among political leaders also affects
peopleDs attitudes towards people with learning difficulties. Other challenges include the
e+istence of a high illiterac rate among the population. 'ew received education so the
concern for the education of people with special needs is relegated to the background and
absence of reliable statistical data to know the official number of people with special
needs, their distribution, categories, severit and enrollment figures which makes
planning and allocation of adequate resources e+tremel difficult.
Pu$u Secondar+ Schoo#9 *n Inc#usi(e Schoo#
Pugu secondar school is among the inclusive schools that are faced with a number of
socio"economic development factors .#helimo, )CC8/. &t Pugu secondar school,
students with special needs are placed in a regular school without making major changes
in the school to accommodate and support diverse needs, including the e+isting phsical
infrastructure to needs of all children. *he communit of Pugu secondar school priorit
of water scarcit as a crucial problem is in line with violation of the principles of
inclusion in schools. *herefore, solving the water problem is in line with the 3illennium
(CC
2eclaration 7oals .327/ and the national water polic .3inistr of $ater, )CC8/.
&ccording to the 3inistr of $ater .)CC8/, solving water problem in the countr will
enhance social and economic development and will maintain human rights among the
communit members. ,t will contribute to the nation and international efforts for
attaining -ducation for all .-'&/, and hence development.
RESE*R-5 .ET5O"OLO1A
Su&&ar+ of Findin$s
-auses and Effects of Scarcit+ of -#ean and Safe Water
!auses and effects of scarcit of safe and clean water are presented in the problem tree
.problem conceptual map/ as investigated in a participator manner and data collected
through participator tools.
*he stud revealed that the immediate cause of scarcit of clean and safe water was due
to the increase in population at Pugu #econdar #chool .P##/, as one respondent
.C.88P/, who have staed at P## for thirt ears B4CC narrates . Initially there were
few students about 250 but in the past 25 years the number of students increased and to
day there are about 2,000 pupils.
*he issue of the increase of population was not onl at P## but for the 2ar"es"#alam !it
and the countr at large. *hus increase in population resulted into the e+pansion of the
cit and increased water consumption and therefore decrease in the suppl of water at
(C(
P## from the main source, which is 0uvu 0iver. *his was also contributed b industries
constructed along =erere 0oad as one of the teachers
explained When I came at Puu the Pepsi industry was not yet
constructed. !"en the #ono la $boto People%s &efense 'orce camp was
not there. (hese two bi orani)ations consume a lot of water%
On the other hand it was argued that scarcit of safe and clean water at the
school could not have been a big problem if different institutions responsible and
involved in decision 3aking on issues affecting others lives. *hese include among others
3inistries of $ater and ,rrigation and that of -ducation and Focational *raining. *his is
the result of the poor relationship among different institutions on translating Policies or
weaknesses on the side of lower level government officials to channel the problem to the
higher, levels, which is also, means poor governance.
1and degradation, which is a national and international, also affects the area. *his is a
result of several human activities along and around water sources and catchments areas.
7rasses are cut for zero grazing cattle feeding on the water sources and at the same time
polluting water. *herefore, due to that students with special needs use dirt water as the
can not be be able to travel long distances to fetch water. &long with that is cutting of
trees and burn them for charcoal and horticulture agriculture along water sources. *his
results into both land degradation and pollution due to chemicals and fertilizers.
(C)
-ffects of scarcit of clean and safe water to students with special needs include spending
much mone. 0esearches revealed that, most of students come from poor families Pugu is
not the different. *herefore, affects them economicall. *his made them feel inferior and
thus lead them to truanc and dropouts. Pschologicall lead them to poor performance at
school. =ot onl that, consuming dirt water affects their health which negativel affects
them and the government as it spends much mone for their treatment.
.easures Ta2en /+ the -o&&unit+ to Ensure *(ai#a/i#it+ of -#ean and Safe Water
*he stud reveals that in order to reduce the problem three shallow wells were
constructed within the school campus and outside even though there were not able to
meet the demand of the communit. 2ue to climatical conditions, the area is dominated
with sand soils which easil loose water during dr season.
&nother measure was b provision of water through a supplier who brought tanks of
water to the school of which the cost of water varied seasonall, that is much e+pensive
during dr seasons of which a bucket is bought to *sh )CC of which a person needs at
minimal three buckets which costs *sh 8CC per da.
*he school also harvests water which is not enough for all the demand the ear round.
*his was also e+erbeted with the construction of the water reservoir near the sewage
sstem and the water was denied being used under health grounds.
(C4
The capacit+ of Pu$u -o&&unit+ to co&p#ete#+ So#(e the Pro/#e& of Scarcit+ of
-#ean and Safe Water.
Being a participator &ction 0esearch the researcherDs task wad to determine the capacit
of Pugu !ommunit to completel solve the problem of scarcit of clean and safe water
in order to enable students with special needs to have a conducive learning environment.
*herefore, the first step was to determine the amount of water in terms of liters consumed
b the communit per da and the cost.
,n this regard, the calculation includes everbod and those with special needs. ,t was
observed that the communit dail needs the (46,8CC liters of water. ;owever, (CCC
liters are available for cooking the food dail from the school water wells, which is
(.8(P of the demand. -ven though as two respondents e+plained that the water is not
sufficient as it is needed 5CCC liters per da. *herefore, the school bus the remaining
liters per *sh @C, which costs *sh )5C,CCC per da, which is 9),CCC,CCC per ear of which
the 3inistr of -ducation and Focational *raining .3oevet/ meet these e+penses and if
suppliers are not paid on time the bocott to suppl water. *his means that other items
such as students bathrooms:toilets, staffroom, dormitories dining hall ,did not have water
at all for cleaning. 2ue to the above, the situation can lead to outbreak of communicable
diseases such as tphoid, diarrhea and cholera.
(C5
*he analsis from the stud shows that (C),CCC,CCC,CCC were needed to completel solve
the problem of scarcit of water. *his implies that people in the Pugu communit are
supposed to contribute 45C,CCC each in order to construct five deep wells.
&s said earlier the stud being participator the researcher basing on the above findings
emploed a wealth"ranking tool in order to determine the wealth capabilities of people in
Pugu communit to completel solve the problem of water. 'indings were summarized in
table attachment number L.'indings shows that 96 teachers .B(.58P/ had families and
were meeting education cost of their children in primar and secondar as one of them
. C.8C/ e+plained that>
the salary I am ettin is not enouh to meet the expenses in
the family. I ha"e one child studyin at *iteemee secondary school,
which is a pri"ate institution. (herefore, I am not able to contribute (shs
+,0000 for construction of deep-water wells%.
*his was also e+pressed b one teacher . C. /, ha she was not able o realize the cost of
water until she moved o her own house outside the school compound. *herefore, he
communit was appealing to the government, non"governmental organizations, rich
people to help in curbing the problem b at least constructing five .6/ deep wells so that
the problem becomes a histor.
Reco&andations
(C6
0ecommendations for immediate actions include: 'irst, #chool management should
allocate students with special needs a tank of water to enable them to easil get this
commodit. ,n this regard, the will be able to fetch enough water for washing their
bodies and clothes as well as drinking. 'urthermore, school management should
subsidize the cost of water to enable all students from poor families to bu water at a low
price.
#econd, the infrastructure with regard to access of water to be improved to enable all
students regardless of their special needs to easil get water from tanks and wells.
'urthermore, water pipes from sources of water should be installed in the
dormitories, near classes, recreation halls and sports grounds to enable all tpes of
students to access water easil.
*hird, immediate actions are to be taken to stop human activities such as cultivation and
grazing around sources of water and water catchments areas in order to increase the
amount of water in the stud area.
'ourth, since the world is moving towards inclusive societies governments should make
sure that the inclusive schools are well equipped before bringing in students as this can
lead to e+clusion instead of inclusion.

(C8
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(()
SOLETION TREE
((4
*ppendi; 7
Source: #urve 2ata, )CC9.
$ell Being
7ood 7overnance
,mproved
water
infrastructu
res
,mproved
,nstitutional
Performances
&dequate !lean and #afe $ater
!onstruction
of deep wells

Plant *rees and
dig terraces
-ducation on
land
conservation
7ood 3oral
;app 1ife
#erve time
1ike school
Better #chool
Performance
!leanliness of people and
environment
,mproved ;ealth
-nvironment
#erve mone to
other dev issues
0educed number
of death
,mproved
&ttendance
People
engage in
land
friendl
activities
,mproved man
power
,mproved
econom
((5
((6