History of Islam

History of Islam
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The history of Islam concerns the religion of Islam and its adherents, Muslims. "Muslim" is an Arabic word meaning "one
who submits to God". Muslims and their religion have greatly impacted the political, economic, and military history of the
Old World, especially the Middle East, where its roots lie. Though it is believed by non-Muslims to have originated in Mecca
and Medina, Muslims believe that the religion of Islam has been present since the time of the prophet Adam. Muslims
believe that prophets Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, among others, were all Islamic prophets, and they have equal veneration
in the Qur'an. The Islamic world expanded to include people of the Islamic civilization, inclusive of non-Muslims living in
that civilization.
A century after the death of last Islamic prophet Muhammad, the Islamic empire extended from Spain in the west to Indus in
the east. The subsequent empires such as those of the Abbasids, Fatimids, Almoravids, Seljukids, Ajuuraan, Adal and
Warsangali in Somalia, Mughals in India and Safavids in Persia and Ottomans were among the influential and distinguished
powers in the world. The Islamic civilization gave rise to many centers of culture and science and produced notable
scientists, astronomers, mathematicians, doctors, nurses and philosophers during the Golden Age of Islam. Technology
flourished; there was investment in economic infrastructure, such as irrigation systems and canals; and the importance of
reading the Qur'an produced a comparatively high level of literacy in the general populace.
In the later Middle Ages, destructive Mongol invasions from the East, and the loss of population in the Black Death, greatly
weakened the traditional centre of the Islamic world, stretching from Persia to Egypt, and the Ottoman Empire was able to
conquer most Arabic-speaking areas, creating an Islamic world power again, although one that was unable to master the
challenges of the Early Modern period.
Later, in modern history (18th and 19th centuries), many Islamic regions fell under the influence of European Great powers.
After the First World War, Ottoman territories (a Central Powers member) were partitioned into several nations under the
terms of the Treaty of Svres.
Although affected by ideologies such as socialism and secularism during much of the 20th century, the Islamic identity and
the dominance of Islam on political issues intensified during the early 21st century. Global interests in Islamic regions,
international conflicts and globalization changed the type of Islamic influence on the contemporary world.
[1]
In the
contemporary period, a set of ideologies holding interpretations of Islamic texts that advocate the unification of religion and
state has spread, but the ideology has been criticized.
Contents
1 Major periods
2 Islamic origins
3 City-states and Imperial period
4 Universal period and decentralization
4.1 Islamic Golden Age
4.2 Regional powers
4.3 Fatimid Empire
4.4 Berbers and Iberian Umayyads
4.5 The Crusades
4.6 Mongol invasions
4.7 The Mamluks
4.8 Africa
4.9 Horn of Africa
4.10 Asia and the Far East
4.11 Southeast Asia
5 Fragmentation period
History of Islam - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Islam
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5.1 Three Early Modern empires
5.2 Mughal Empire
5.3 Safavid Empire
5.4 Salafi
5.5 Ottoman Empire
5.6 Modern history
5.7 National period
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References and further reading
9 External links
Major periods
The Islamic state and Muslim's system of government evolved through various stages.
[2]
The precise dates of various periods
in history are more or less arbitrary. The City-state period lasted from 620s to 630s. The Imperial period lasted from 630s to
750s. The Universal period lasted from 750s to around 900s. These correspond to the early period of post-classical history.
The "Decentralization" period lasted from around 900s to the early 1500s. This correspond to the high period and late period
of post-classical history. The "Fragmentation" period lasted from around 1500s to the late 1910s. The contemporary period,
referred to as the National period, lasted from 1910s into the twenty-first century.
Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details.
Islamic origins
In pre-Islamic Arabia, Arab people lived on the Arabian Plate. In the south of Hedjaz (principal religious and commercial
center of post-classical Arabia), the Arabic tribe of Quraysh (Adnani Arabs), to which Muhammad belonged, had been in
existence. Near Mecca, the tribe was increasing in power. The Quraysh were the guardians of the Kaaba within the town of
Mecca and was the dominant tribe of Mecca upon the appearance of Islam. The Kaaba, at the time, was used as an important
pagan shrine. It brought revenues to Mecca because of the multitude of pilgrims that it attracted. Muhammad was born into
the Banu Hashim tribe of the Quraysh clan,
[3]
a branch of the Banu Kinanah tribe, descended from Khuzaimah and derived
its inheritance from the Khuza'imah (House of Khuza'a).
According to the traditional Islamic view, the Qur'an (Koran) began with revelations to Muhammad (when he was 40 years
old) in 610. The history of the Qur'an began when its verses were revealed to the Sahabah during Muhammad's life. The rise
of Islam began around the time Muslims took flight in the Hijra, moving to Medina. With Islam, blood feuds among the
Arabs lessened. Compensation was paid in money rather than blood and only the culprit was executed.
In 628, the Makkah tribe of Quraish and the Muslim community in Medina signed a truce called the Treaty of Hudaybiyya
beginning a ten-year period of peace. War returned when the Quraish and their allies, the tribe of 'Bakr', attacked the tribe of
'Khuza'ah', who were Muslim allies. In 630, Muslims conquered Mecca. Muhammad died in June 632. The Battle of
Yamama was fought in December of the same year, between the forces of the first caliph Abu Bakr and Musailima.
City-states and Imperial period
After Muhammad died, a series of Caliphs governed the Islamic state: Abu Bakr (632-634), Umar ibn al-Khattab (Umar ,
634-644), Uthman ibn Affan, (644-656), and Ali ibn Abi Talib (656-661). These leaders are known as the "Rashidun" or
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Muhammad Kaaban
Nakka Osman, Istanbul
(1595)
(Ed., note artists began
representing the veil-covered
face of Muhammad from the
16th century onwards)
"rightly guided" Caliphs in Sunni Islam. They oversaw the initial phase of the Muslim
conquests, advancing through Persia, Egypt, the Middle East and North Africa.
Umar improved the administration and built cities like Basra and canal and irrigation
networks. To be close to the poor, Umar lived in a simple mud hut without doors and walked
the streets every evening. After consulting with the poor, Umar established the first welfare
state Bayt al-mal.
[4][5][6]
The Bayt al-mal or the welfare state was for the Muslim and
non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-mal ran for
hundreds of years under the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century and continued through the
Umayyad period and well into the Abbasid era. Umar also introduced child benefit for the
children and pensions for the elderly.
[7][8][9][10]
The expansion of the state, was partially
terminated between 638639 during the years of great famine and plague in Arabia and
Levant respectively. During Umars reign, within 10 years Levant, Egypt, Cyrenaica,
Tripolitania, Fezzan, Eastern Anatolia, almost the whole of Sassanid Persian Empire
including Bactria, Persia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Caucasus and Makran were incorporated into
Islamic State. When Umar was assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was
met with increasing opposition. The Qur'an was standardized during this time.
Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and
taxed heavily to finance the ByzantineSassanid Wars, often aided Muslims to take over their
lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests.
[11][12]
As new areas joining the Islamic state, they also benefited from free trade, while trading with
other areas in the Islamic state, so as to encourage commerce, in Islam trade is not taxed,
wealth is taxed.
[13]
The Muslims paid Zakat on their wealth to the poor. Since the Constitution of Medina, was drafted by the
Islamic prophet Muhammad the Jews and the Christians continued to use their own laws in the Islamic State and had their
own judges.
[14][15][16]
Therefore they only paid for policing for the protection of their property. To assist in the quick
expansion of the state, the Byzantine and the Persian tax collection systems were maintained and the people paid a poll tax
lower than the one imposed under the Byzantines and the Persians.
In 639, Muawiyah I was appointed as the governor of Syria after the previous governor Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah died in a
plague along with 25,000 other people.
[17][18]
To stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea during the ArabByzantine
wars, in 649 Muawiyah I set up a navy; manned by Monophysitise Christians, Copts and Jacobite Syrian Christians sailors
and Muslim troops. This resulted in the defeat of the Byzantine navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655, opening up the
Mediterranean.
[19][20][21][22][23]
When Umar was assassinated in 644, Uthman ibn Affan became the next caliph. As it is well known that Arabic language is
written without vowels, and when Qur'an reached the non-Arabic speakers, people began having different dielects and
phonics which was changing the exact meaning of verses in the Qur'an. This was brought to the notice of Uthman ibn Affan.
Begun in the time of Uthman ibn Affan, the compilation of the Qur'an was finished sometime between 650 and 656, Uthman
sent copies to the different centers of the expanding Islamic empire. From then on, thousands of Muslim scribes began
copying the Qur'an.
[24]
The Qur'an and Muhammad talked about racial equality and justice as in the Farewell Sermon.
[25][26][27][28][29][30][31]
Tribal
and nationalistic differences were discouraged. But after Muhammad's passing the old tribal differences between the Arabs
started to resurface. Following the RomanPersian Wars and the ByzantineSassanid Wars deep rooted differences between
Iraq, formally under the Persian Sassanid Empire and Syria formally under the Byzantine Empire also existed. Each wanted
the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in their area.
[32]
Previously, the second caliph, Umar, was very firm
on the governors and his spies kept an eye on the governors. If he felt that a governor or a commander was becoming
attracted to wealth or did not meet the required administrative standards, he had him removed from his position.
[33]
Early Muslim armies stayed in encampments away from cities because Umar feared that they may get attracted to wealth and
luxury. In the process, they may get away from the worship of God and become attracted to wealth and start accumulating
wealth and establishing dynasties.
[34][35][36][37]
"Wealth and children are [but] adornment of the worldly life. But the
enduring good deeds are better to your Lord for reward and better for [one's] hope." Qur'an 18:46
[38]
"O you who have
believed, let not your wealth and your children divert you from remembrance of Allah . And whoever does that - then those
are the losers." Qur'an 63:9
[39]
Staying in these encampments away from the cities also ensured that there was no stress on
the population and also that the populations remained autonomous and kept their own judges and representatives. Some of
these encampments later grew into cities themselves, like Basra and Kufa in Iraq and Fustat in Egypt.
[40]
Some cities also
had agreements with the Muslims, such as during the Siege of Jerusalem in 637 CE.
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As Uthman ibn Affan became very old, Marwan I a relative of Muawiyah I slipped into the vacuum and became his secretary
and slowly assumed more control and relaxed some of these restrictions. Marwan I had previously been excluded from
positions of responsibility. In 656, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr the son of Abu Bakr and the adopted son of Ali ibn Abi Talib
and the great grandfather of Ja'far al-Sadiq showed some Egyptians, the house of Uthman ibn Affan. Later the Egyptians
ended up killing Uthman ibn al-Affan.
[41]
Ali then assumed the position of caliph and moved the capital to Kufa in Iraq.
Muawiyah I the governor of Syria, a relative of Uthman ibn al-Affan and Marwan I wanted the culprits arrested. Marwan I
manipulated every one and created conflict. This later resulted in the first civil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated
by Kharijites in 661. Six months later in 661, in the interest of peace, Hasan ibn Ali, highly regarded for his wisdom and as a
peacemaker, the fifth Rightly Guided Caliphs for the Sunnis and the Second Imam for the Shias and the grandson of
Muhammad, made a peace treaty with Muawiyah I. In the HasanMuawiya treaty, Hasan ibn Ali handed over power to
Muawiya on the condition that he be just to the people and keep them safe and secure and after his death he does not
establish a dynasty.
[42][43]
This brought to an end the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs for the Sunnis and Hasan ibn Ali was
also the last Imam for the Shias to be a Caliph. Following this, Muawiyah broke the conditions of the agreement and began
the Umayyad dynasty, with its capital in Damascus.
[44]
After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out
again in a civil war known as the "Second Fitna". After making every one else fight,
[45]
the Umayyad dynasty later fell into
the hands of Marwan I who was also an Umayyad. The Umayyads conquered the Maghrib, the Iberian Peninsula,
Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh.
[46]
After the peace treaty with Ali's son, Hasan ibn Ali, and the suppression of the revolt of the Kharijites,
[47]
Muawiyah I
proclaimed himself Caliph in 661 and began consolidating power.
[48]
In 663, a new Kharijite revolt resulted in the death of
their chief.
[48]
In 664, Muawiyah and Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan reached an agreement: the Caliph recognised Ziyad as a brother
and appointed him governor at Basra. Ziyad took the name ibn Abi Sufyan. Muawiyah arranged for his son Yazid I to be
appointed caliph on his death, which came in 680. Husayn ibn Ali, by then Muhammad's only living grandson, refused to
swear allegiance to Yazid. He was killed in the Battle of Karbala the same year, an event still mourned by Muslims on the
Day of Ashura. Unrest continued in the Second Fitna, but Muslim rule was extended under Muawiyah to Rhodes, Crete,
Kabul, Bukhara, and Samarkand, and expanded in North Africa. In 664, Arab armies conquered Kabul,
[49]
and in 665 pushed
into the Maghreb.
[50]
Succession and Umayyad accession
Consult particular article for details
The Umayyad dynasty (or Ommiads), whose name derives from Umayya ibn Abd Shams, the great-grandfather of the first
Umayyad caliph, ruled from 661 to 750. Although the Umayyad family came from the city of Mecca, Damascus was the
capital. After the death of Abdu'l-Rahman ibn Abu Bakr in 666,
[51][52]
Muawiyah I consolidated his power. Muawiyah I
moved his capital to Damascus from Medina, which led to profound changes in the empire. In the same way, at a later date,
the transfer of the Caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad marked the accession of a new family to power.
As the state grew, the state expenses increased. Additionally the Bayt al-mal and the Welfare State expenses to assist the
Muslim and the non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled, increased, the Umayyads asked the new
converts (mawali) to continue paying the poll tax. The Umayyad rule, with its wealth and luxury also seemed at odds with
the Islamic message preached by Muhammad.
[53][54][55]
All this increased discontent.
[56][57]
The descendants of
Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the
Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of the general Abu Muslim, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750, which
moved the capital to Baghdad.
[58]
A branch of the Ummayad family fled across North Africa to Al-Andalus, where they
established the Caliphate of Crdoba, which lasted until 1031 before falling due to the Fitna of al-Andalus. The Bayt al-mal,
the Welfare State then continued under the Abbasids.
At its largest extent, the Umayyad dynasty covered more than 5,000,000 square miles (13,000,000 km
2
) making it one of the
largest empires the world had yet seen,
[59]
and the fifth largest contiguous empire ever. After the Umayyads were overthrown
by the Abbasid Caliphate, they fled across North Africa to Al-Andalus, where they established the Caliphate of Crdoba,
which lasted until 1031 with the Fitna of al-Andalus.
Muawiyah beautified Damascus, and developed a court to rival that of Constantinople. He expanded the frontiers of the
empire, reaching the edge of Constantinople at one point, though the Byzantines drove him back and he was unable to hold
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The Mosque of Uqba (Great Mosque
of Kairouan), founded by the
Umayyad general Uqba Ibn Nafi in
670 AD, is the oldest and most
prestigious mosque in the Muslim
West; its present form dates from the
9th century, Kairouan, Tunisia.
Dome of the Rock
The Mosque of Omar, on Ash-Haram
Al-Sharif (the Temple Mount), built
by Abd al-Malik; completed at the
end of the Second Fitna.
any territory in Anatolia. Sunni Muslims credit him with saving the fledgling Muslim
nation from post-civil war anarchy. However, Shia Muslims accuse him of instigating
the war, weakening the Muslim nation by dividing the Ummah, fabricating
self-aggrandizing heresies
[60]
slandering the Prophet's family
[61]
and even selling his
Muslim critics into slavery in the Byzantine empire.
[62]
One of Muawiyah's most
controversial and enduring legacies was his decision to designate his son Yazid as his
successor. According to Shi'a doctrine, this was a clear violation of the treaty he made
with Hasan ibn Ali.
In 682 AD Yazid restored Uqba ibn Nafi as the governor of North Africa. Uqba won
battles against the Berbers and Byzantines.
[63]
From there Uqba marched thousands
of miles westward towards Tangier, where he reached the Atlantic coast, and then
marched eastwards through the Atlas Mountains.
[64]
With about 300 cavalrymen, he
proceeded towards Biskra where he was ambushed by a Berber force under Kaisala.
Uqba and all his men died fighting. The Berbers attacked and drove Muslims from
north Africa for a period.
[65]
Weakened by the civil wars the Umayyad lost
supremacy at sea, and had to abandon the islands of Rhodes and Crete. Under the rule
of Yazid I, some Muslims in Kufa began to think that if Husayn ibn Ali the descendent of Muhammad was their ruler, he
would have been more just. He was invited to Kufa but was later betrayed and killed. Later this concept was taken one step
further and they started thinking, what if history took a different course and Ali was the first caliph and these ideas were later
adopted by some Shia and institutionalised by the Safavids.
The period under Muawiya II was marked by civil wars (Second Fitna). This would
ease in the reign of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, a well-educated and capable ruler.
Despite the many political problems that impeded his rule, all important records were
translated into Arabic. In his reign, a currency for the Muslim world was minted. This
led to war with the Byzantine Empire under Justinian II (Battle of Sebastopolis) in
692 in Asia Minor. The Byzantines were decisively defeated by the Caliph after the
defection of a large contingent of Slavs. The Islamic currency was then made the
exclusive currency in the Muslim world. He reformed agriculture and commerce. Abd
al-Malik consolidated Muslim rule and extended it, made Arabic the state language,
and organized a regular postal service.
Al-Walid I began the next stage of Islamic conquests. Under him the early Islamic
empire reached its farthest extent. He reconquered parts of Egypt from the Byzantine
Empire and moved on into Carthage and across to the west of North Africa. Muslim
armies under Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and began to conquer
Spain using North African Berber armies. The Visigoths of Spain were defeated when
the Umayyad conquered Lisbon. Spain was the farthest extent of Islamic control of
Europe (they were stopped at the Battle of Tours). In the east, Islamic armies under Muhammad bin Qasim made it as far as
the Indus Valley. Under Al-Walid, the caliphate empire stretched from Spain to India. Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf played a crucial
role in the organization and selection of military commanders. Al-Walid paid great attention to the expansion of an organized
military, building the strongest navy in the Umayyad era., This tactic was crucial for the expansion to Spain. His reign is
considered to be the apex of Islamic power.
Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik was hailed as caliph the day al-Walid died. He appointed Yazid ibn al-Muhallab governor of
Mesopotamia. Sulayman ordered the arrest and execution of the family of al-Hajjaj, one of two prominent leaders (the other
was Qutayba ibn Muslim) who had supported the succession of al-Walid's son Yazid, rather than Sulayman. Al-Hajjaj had
predeceased al-Walid, so he posed no threat. Qutaibah renounced allegiance to Sulayman, though his troops rejected his
appeal to revolt. They killed him and sent his head to Sulayman. Sulayman did not move to Damascus on becoming Caliph,
remaining in Ramla. Sulayman sent Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik to attack the Byzantine capital (siege of Constantinople). The
intervention of Bulgaria on the Byzantine side proved decisive. The Muslims sustained heavy losses. Sulayman died
suddenly in 717.
Yazid II came to power on the death of Umar II. Yazid fought the Kharijites, with whom Umar had been negotiating, and
killed the Kharijite leader Shawdhab. In Yazid's reign, civil wars began in different parts of the empire.
[66]
Yazid expanded
the Caliphate's territory into the Caucasus, before dying in 724. Inheriting the caliphate from his brother, Hisham ibn Abd
al-Malik ruled an empire with many problems. He was effective in addressing these problems, and in allowing the Umayyad
empire to continue as an entity. His long rule was an effective one, and renewed reforms introduced by Umar II. Under
Hisham's rule, regular raids against the Byzantines continued. In North Africa, Kharijite teachings combined with local
restlessness to produce the Berber Revolt. He was also faced with a revolt by Zayd ibn Ali. Hisham suppressed both revolts.
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Islamic States
Universal Golden period
Eastern hemisphere's States and Empires (820)
Abbasid Caliphate
Aghlabids
Idrisid dynasty
Multan
Sultans of Sindh
Iberian Umayyads
Decentralized territory
The Abbasids continued to gain power in Khurasan and Iraq. However, they were not strong enough to make a move yet.
Some were caught and punished or executed by eastern governors. The Battle of Akroinon, a decisive Byzantine victory, was
during the final campaign of the Umayyad dynasty.
[67]
Hisham died in 743.
Al-Walid II saw political intrigue during his reign. Yazid III spoke out against his cousin Walid's "immorality" which
included discrimination on behalf of the Banu Qays Arabs against Yemenis and non-Arab Muslims, and Yazid received
further support from the Qadariya and Murji'iya (believers in human free will).
[68]
Walid was shortly thereafter deposed in a
coup.
[69]
Yazid disbursed funds from the treasury and acceded to the Caliph. He explained that he had rebelled on behalf of
the Book of Allah and the Sunna. Yazid reigned for only six months, while various groups refused allegiance and dissident
movements arose, after which he died. Ibrahim ibn al-Walid, named heir apparent by his brother Yazid III, ruled for a short
time in 744, before he abdicated. Marwan II ruled from 744 until he was killed in 750. He was the last Umayyad ruler to rule
from Damascus. Marwan named his two sons Ubaydallah and Abdallah heirs. He appointed governors and asserted his
authority by force. Anti-Umayyad feeling was very prevalent, especially in Iran and Iraq. The Abbasids had gained much
support. Marwan's reign as caliph was almost entirely devoted to trying to keep the Umayyad empire together. His death
signalled the end of Umayyad rule in the East, and was followed by the massacre of Umayyads by the Abbasids. Almost the
entire Umayyad dynasty was killed, except for the talented prince Abd al-Rahman who escaped to Spain and founded a
dynasty there.
Universal period and decentralization
Islamic Golden Age
The Abbasid dynasty rose to power in 750, consolidating the gains of the earlier Caliphates. Initially, they conquered
Mediterranean islands including the Balearics and, after, in 827 the Sicily.
[70]
The ruling party had come to power on the
wave of dissatisfaction with the Umayyads, cultivated by the Abbasid revolutionary Abu Muslim.
[71][72]
Under the Abbasids
Islamic civilization flourished. Most notable was the development of Arabic prose and poetry, termed by The Cambridge
History of Islam as its "golden age".
[73]
Commerce and industry (considered a Muslim Agricultural Revolution) and the arts
and sciences (considered a Muslim Scientific Revolution) also prospered under Abbasid caliphs al-Mansur (ruled 754
775), Harun al-Rashid (ruled 786 809), al-Ma'mun (ruled 809 813) and their immediate successors.
[74]
The capital was moved from Damascus to Baghdad, due to the
importance placed by the Abbasids upon eastern affairs in Persia
and Transoxania.
[74]
At this time the caliphate showed signs of
fracture amid the rise of regional dynasties. Although the Umayyad
family had been killed by the revolting Abbasids, one family
member, Abd ar-Rahman I, escaped to Spain and established an
independent caliphate there in 756. In the Maghreb, Harun
al-Rashid appointed the Arab Aghlabids as virtually autonomous
rulers, although they continued to recognise central authority.
Aghlabid rule was short-lived, and they were deposed by the Shiite
Fatimid dynasty in 909. By around 960, the Fatimids had
conquered Abbasid Egypt, building a capital there in 973 called
"al-Qahirah" (meaning "the planet of victory", known today as
Cairo). In Persia the Turkic Ghaznavids snatched power from the
Abbasids.
[75][76]
Abbasid influence had been consumed by the
Great Seljuq Empire (a Muslim Turkish clan which had migrated
into mainland Persia) by 1055.
[74]
Expansion continued, sometimes by force, sometimes by peaceful
proselytising.
[70]
The first stage in the conquest of India began just
before the year 1000. By some 200 (from 1193 1209) years
later, the area up to the Ganges river had fallen. In sub-Saharan
West Africa, Islam was established just after the year 1000.
Muslim rulers were in Kanem starting from sometime between
1081 to 1097, with reports of a Muslim prince at the head of Gao
as early as 1009. The Islamic kingdoms associated with Mali
reached prominence in the 13th century.
[77]
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Umayyads (Crdoba)
Idrisids (Berbers)
Rustamid (Ibdiyya of
Tahirid)
Aghlabids (Emirate of
Ifriqiya)
Tulunids/Irshkids
Qarmatians
(Carmathians)
Buyjids (Tahirids)
Alijds (Ziyarids)
Hamdanid
(Marwanid/Uqaylid)
Samanids (Greater
Khorasan)
Saffrids (Baloch)
Sajids (Shirvanshah)
Regions are approximate, consult particular article for
details.
The Abbasids developed initiatives aimed at greater Islamic unity.
Different sects of the Islamic faith and mosques, separated by
doctrine, history, and practice, were pushed to cooperate. The
Abbasids also distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by
attacking the Umayyads' moral character and administration.
According to Ira Lapidus, "The Abbasid revolt was supported
largely by Arabs, mainly the aggrieved settlers of Marw with the
addition of the Yemeni faction and their Mawali".
[78]
The Abbasids
also appealed to non-Arab Muslims, known as mawali, who
remained outside the kinship-based society of the Arabs and were
perceived as a lower class within the Umayyad empire. Islamic
ecumenism, promoted by the Abbasids, refers to the idea of unity
of the Ummah in the literal meaning: that there was a single faith.
Islamic philosophy developed as the Shariah was codified, and the
four Madhabs were established. This era also saw the rise of
classical Sufism. Religious achievements included completion of
the canonical collections of Hadith of Sahih Bukhari and others.
[79]
Islam recognized to a certain extent the validity of the Abrahamic
religions, the Qur'an identifying Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, and
"Sabi'un" or "baptists" (usually taken as a reference to the
Mandeans and related Mesopotamian groups) as "people of the
book". Toward the beginning of the high Middle Ages, the
doctrines of the Sunni and Shia, two major denominations of Islam,
solidified and the divisions of the world theologically would form.
These trends would continue into the Fatimid and Ayyubid periods.
Politically, the Abbasid Caliphate evolved into an Islamic monarchy (unitary system of government.) The regional Sultanate
and Emirate governors' existence, validity, or legality were acknowledged for unity of the state.
[80]
In the early Islamic
philosophy of the Iberian Umayyads, Averroes presented an argument in The Decisive Treatise, providing a justification for
the emancipation of science and philosophy from official Ash'ari theology; thus, Averroism has been considered a precursor
to modern secularism.
[81][82]
Golden Baghdad Abbasids
Early Middle Ages
According to Arab sources in the year 750, Al-Saffah, the founder of the Abbasid Caliphate, launched a massive rebellion
against the Umayyad Caliphate from the province of Khurasan near Talas. After eliminating the entire Umayyad family and
achieving victory at the Battle of the Zab, Al-Saffah and his forces marched into Damascus and founded a new dynasty. His
forces confronted many regional powers and consolidated the realm of the Abbasid Caliphate.
[83]
In Al-Mansur's time, Persian scholarship emerged. Many non-Arabs converted to Islam. The Umayyads actively discouraged
conversion in order to continue the collection of the jizya, or the tax on non-Muslims. Islam nearly doubled within its
territory from 8% of residents in 750 to 15% by the end of Al-Mansur's reign. Al-Mahdi, whose name means "Rightly-
guided" or "Redeemer", was proclaimed caliph when his father was on his deathbed. Baghdad blossomed during Al-Mahdi's
reign, becoming the world's largest city. It attracted immigrants from Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Persia and as far away as India and
Spain. Baghdad was home to Christians, Jews, Hindus, and Zoroastrians, in addition to the growing Muslim population. Like
his father, Al-Hadi
[84]
was open to his people and allowed citizens to address him in the palace at Baghdad. He was
considered an "enlightened ruler", and continued the policies of his Abbasid predecessors. His short rule was plagued by
military conflicts and internal intrigue.
The military conflicts subsided as Harun al-Rashid ruled.
[85]
His reign was marked by scientific, cultural and religious
prosperity. He established the library Bayt al-Hikma ("House of Wisdom"), and the arts and music flourished during his
7 of 34 30-05-2014 05:04
An Arabic manuscript written under
the second half of the Abbasid Era.
reign. The Barmakid family played a decisive advisorial role in establishing the
Caliphate, but declined during Rashid's rule.
[86]
According to signed pledges during a pilgrimage to Mecca, Al-Amin received the
Caliphate from his father Harun Al-Rashid. Al-Amin faced internal rebellions.
General Tahir ibn Husayn rebelled and besieged Baghdad. Tahir led reinforcements to
regain positions lost by another officer. When Tahir pushed into the city, Al-Amin
sought to negotiate safe passage. Tahir agreed on the condition Al-Amin turn over his
sceptre, seal and other signs that he was caliph. Al-Amin tried to leave on a boat and
rejected warnings that he wait. Tahir's forces attacked the boat and Al-Amin was
thrown into the water. He swam to shore where he was captured and executed. His
head was placed on the Al Anbar Gate.
[87]
Regional powers
The Abbasids soon became caught in a three-way rivalry among Coptic Arabs, Indo-Persians, and immigrant Turks.
[88]
In
addition, the cost of running a large empire became too great.
[89]
The Turks, Egyptians, and Arabs adhered to the Sunnite
sect; the Persians, a great portion of the Turkic groups, and several of the princes in India were Shia. The political unity of
Islam began to disintegrate. Under the influence of the Abbasid caliphs, independent dynasties appeared in the Muslim world
and the caliphs recognized such dynasties as legitimately Muslim. The first was the Tahirid dynasty in Khorasan, which was
founded during the caliph Al-Ma'mun's reign. Similar dynasties included the Saffarids, Samanids, Ghaznavids and Seljuqs.
During this time, advancements were made in the areas of astronomy, poetry, philosophy, science, and mathematics.
[90]
High Baghdad Abbasids
Early Middle Ages
Upon Al-Amin's death, Al-Ma'mun became Caliph. Al-Ma'mun extended the Abbasid empire's territory during his reign and
dealt with rebellions.
[91]
Al-Ma'mun had been named governor of Khurasan by Harun, and after his ascension to power, the
caliph named Tahir as governor of his military services in order to assure his loyalty. Tahir and his family became entrenched
in Iranian politics and became powerful, frustrating Al-Ma'mun's desire to centralize and strengthen Caliphal power. The
rising power of the Tahirid dynasty became a threat as Al-Ma'mun's own policies alienated them and other opponents.
Al-Ma'mun worked to centralize power and ensure a smooth succession. Al-Mahdi proclaimed that the caliph was the
protector of Islam against heresy, and also claimed the ability to declare orthodoxy. Religious scholars averred that
Al-Ma'mun was overstepping his bounds in the Mihna, the Abbasid inquisition which he introduced in 833 four months
before he died.
[92]
The Ulama emerged as a force in Islamic politics during Al-Ma'mun's reign for opposing the inquisitions.
The Ulema and the major Islamic law schools took shape in the period of Al-Ma'mun. In parallel, Sunnism became defined
as a religion of laws. Doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shi'a Islam became more pronounced.
During the Al-Ma'mun regime, border wars increased. Al-Ma'mun made preparations for a major campaign, but died while
leading an expedition in Sardis. Al-Ma'mun gathered scholars of many religions at Baghdad, whom he treated well and with
tolerance. He sent an emissary to the Byzantine Empire to collect the most famous manuscripts there, and had them
translated into Arabic.
[93]
His scientists originated alchemy. Shortly before his death, during a visit to Egypt in 832, the
caliph ordered the breaching of the Great Pyramid of Giza to search for knowledge and treasure. Workers tunneled in near
where tradition located the original entrance. Al-Ma'mun later died near Tarsus under questionable circumstances and was
succeeded by his half-brother, Al-Mu'tasim, rather than his son, Al-Abbas ibn Al-Ma'mun.
As Caliph, Al-Mu'tasim promptly ordered the dismantling of al-Ma'mun's military base at Tyana. He faced Khurramite
revolts. One of the most difficult problems facing this Caliph was the ongoing uprising of Babak Khorramdin. Al-Mu'tasim
overcame the rebels and secured a significant victory. Byzantine emperor Theophilus launched an attack against Abbasid
fortresses. Al-Mu'tasim sent Al-Afshin, who met and defeated Theophilus' forces at the Battle of Anzen. On his return he
became aware of a serious military conspiracy which forced him and his successors to rely upon Turkish commanders and
8 of 34 30-05-2014 05:04
Minaret at the Great Mosque of
Samarra.
ghilman slave-soldiers (foreshadowing the Mamluk system). The Khurramiyyah were never fully suppressed, although they
slowly declined during the reigns of succeeding Caliphs. Near the end of al-Mu'tasim's life there was an uprising in Palestine,
but he defeated the rebels.
During Al-Mu'tasim's reign, the Tahirid dynasty continued to grow in power. The Tahirids were exempted from many tribute
and oversight functions. Their independence contributed to Abbasid decline in the east. Ideologically, al-Mu'tasim followed
his half-brother al-Ma'mun. He continued his predecessor's support for the Islamic Mu'tazila sect, applying brutal torture
against the opposition. Arab mathematician Al-Kindi was employed by Al-Mu'tasim and tutored the Caliph's son. Al-Kindi
had served at the House of Wisdom and continued his studies in Greek geometry and algebra under the caliph's patronage.
[94]
Al-Wathiq succeeded his father. Al-Wathiq dealt with opposition in Arabia, Syria, Palestine and in Baghdad. Using a famous
sword he personally joined the execution of the Baghdad rebels. The revolts were the result of an increasingly large gap
between Arab populations and the Turkish armies. The revolts were put down, but antagonism between the two groups grew,
as Turkish forces gained power. He also secured a captive exchange with the Byzantines. Al-Wathiq was a patron of scholars,
as well as artists. He personally had musical talent and is reputed to have composed over one hundred songs.
[95]
When Al-Wathiq died of high fever, Al-Mutawakkil succeeded him. Al-Mutawakkil's
reign is remembered for many reforms and is viewed as a golden age. He was the last
great Abbasid caliph; after his death the dynasty fell into decline. Al-Mutawakkil
ended the Mihna. Al-Mutawakkil built the Great Mosque of Samarra
[96]
as part of an
extension of Samarra eastwards. During his reign, Al-Mutawakkil met famous
Byzantine theologian Constantine the Philosopher, who was sent to strengthen
diplomatic relations between the Empire and the Caliphate by Emperor Michael III.
Al-Mutawakkil involved himself in religious debates, as reflected in his actions
against minorities. The Shi faced repression embodied in the destruction of the
shrine of Hussayn ibn Al, an action that was ostensibly carried out to stop
pilgrimages. Al-Mutawakkil continued to rely on Turkish statesmen and slave soldiers
to put down rebellions and lead battles against foreign empires, notably capturing
Sicily from the Byzantines. Al-Mutawakkil was assassinated by a Turkish soldier.
Al-Muntasir succeeded to the Caliphate on the same day with the support of the
Turkish faction, though he was implicated in the murder. The Turkish party had
al-Muntasir remove his brothers from the line of succession, fearing revenge for the
murder of their father. Both brothers wrote statements of abdication. During his reign,
Al-Muntasir removed the ban on pilgrimage to the tombs of Hassan and Hussayn and
sent Wasif to raid the Byzantines. Al-Muntasir died of unknown causes. The Turkish
chiefs held a council to select his successor, electing Al-Musta'in. The Arabs and
western troops from Baghdad were displeased at the choice and attacked. However,
the Caliphate no longer depended on Arabian choice, but depended on Turkish support. After the failed Muslim campaign
against the Christians, people blamed the Turks for bringing disaster on the faith and murdering their Caliphs. After the
Turks besieged Baghdad, Al-Musta'in planned to abdicate to Al-Mu'tazz but was put to death by his order. Al-Mu'tazz was
enthroned by the Turks, becoming the youngest Abbasaid Caliph to assume power.
Al-Mu'tazz proved too apt a pupil of his Turkish masters, but was surrounded by parties jealous of each other. At Samarra,
the Turks were having problems with the "Westerns" (Berbers and Moors), while the Arabs and Persians at Baghdad, who
had supported al-Musta'in, regarded both with equal hatred. Al-Mu'tazz put his brothers Al-Mu'eiyyad and Abu Ahmed to
death. The ruler spent recklessly, causing a revolt of Turks, Africans, and Persians for their pay. Al-Mu'tazz was brutally
deposed shortly thereafter. Al-Muhtadi became the next Caliph. He was firm and virtuous compared to the earlier Caliphs,
though the Turks held the power. The Turks killed him soon after his ascension. Al-Mu'tamid followed, holding on for 23
years, though he was largely a ruler in name only. After the Zanj Rebellion, Al-Mu'tamid summoned al-Muwaffak to help
him. Thereafter, Al-Muwaffaq ruled in all but name. The Hamdanid dynasty was founded by Hamdan ibn Hamdun when he
was appointed governor of Mardin in Anatolia by the Caliphs in 890. Al-Mu'tamid later transferred authority to his son,
al-Mu'tadid, and never regained power. The Tulunids became the first independent state in Islamic Egypt, when they broke
away during this time.
Al-Mu'tadid ably administered the Caliphate. Egypt returned to allegiance and Mesopotamia was restored to order. He was
tolerant towards Shi'i, but toward the Umayyad community he was not so just. Al-Mu'tadid was cruel in his punishments,
some of which are not surpassed by those of his predecessors. For example, the Kharijite leader at Mosul was paraded about
Baghdad clothed in a robe of silk, of which Kharijites denounced as sinful, and then crucified. Upon Al-Mu'tadid's death, his
son by a Turkish slave-girl, Al-Muktafi, succeeded to the throne.
Al-Muktafi became a favorite of the people for his generosity, and for abolishing his father's secret prisons, the terror of
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High Abbasids
Jurisprudence
Four constructions of Islamite law
Abu Hanifa (Iraq teacher)
Malik bin Anas (Medina
Imam)
Muhammad ibn Idris
ash-Shafi`i (Egyptian Iman)
Ahmad ibn Hanbal (Baghdad
teacher)
Early Abbasids
Literature and Science
Hunayn ibn Ishaq, physician,
Greek translator;
Ibn Fadlan, explorer;
Al Battani, astronomer;
Tabari, historian and
theologian;
Al-Razi, philosopher, medic,
chemist;
Al-Farabi, chemist and
philosopher;
Abu Nasr Mansur,
mathematician;
Alhazen, mathematician;
Al-Biruni, mathematician,
astronomer, physicist;
Omar Khayym, poet,
mathematician, and
astronomer;
Mansur Al-Hallaj, Sufism
mystic, writer and teacher
Mediterrean Region
and the States of the Crusades
Baghdad. During his reign, the Caliphate overcame threats such as the
Carmathians. Upon Al-Muktafi's death, the vazir next chose Al-Muqtadir.
Al-Muqtadir's reign was a constant succession of thirteen Vazirs, one rising on
the fall or assassination of another. His long reign brought the Empire to its
lowest ebb. Africa was lost, and Egypt nearly. Mosul threw off its dependence,
and the Greeks raided across the undefended border. The East continued to
formally recognise the Caliphate, including those who virtually claimed
independence.
At the end of the Early Baghdad Abbasids period, Empress Zoe Karbonopsina
pressed for an armistice with Al-Muqtadir and arranged for the ransom of the
Muslim prisoner
[97]
while the Byzantine frontier was threatened by Bulgarians.
This only added to Baghdad's disorder. Though despised by the people,
Al-Muqtadir was again placed in power after upheavals. Al-Muqtadir was
eventually slain outside the city gates, whereupon courtiers chose his brother
al-Qahir. He was even worse. Refusing to abdicate, he was blinded and cast into
prison.
His son Ar-Radi took over only to experience a cascade of misfortune. Praised
for his piety, he became the tool of the de facto ruling Minister, Ibn Raik (amir
al-umara; 'Amir of the Amirs'). Ibn Raik held the reins of government and his
name was joined with the Caliph's in public prayers. Around this period, the
Hanbalis, supported by popular sentiment, set up in fact a kind of 'Sunni
inquisition'. Ar-Radi is commonly regarded as the last of the real Caliphs: the last
to deliver orations at the Friday service, to hold assemblies, to commune with
philosophers, to discuss the questions of the day, to take counsel on the affairs of
State; to distribute alms, or to temper the severity of cruel officers. Thus ended
the Early Baghdad Abbasids.
In the late mid-930s, the Ikhshidids of Egypt carried the Arabic title "Wali"
reflecting their position as governors on behalf of the Abbasids, The first
governor (Muhammad bin Tughj Al-Ikhshid) was installed by the Abbasid
Caliph. They gave him and his descendants the Wilayah for 30 years. The last
name Ikhshid is Soghdian for "prince".
Also in the 930s, Al ibn Byah and his two younger brothers, al-Hassan and
Amad founded the Byid confederation. Originally a soldier in the service of
the Ziyrds of abaristn, Al was able to recruit an army to defeat a Turkish
general from Baghdad named Yqt in 934. Over the next nine years the three
brothers gained control of the remainder of the caliphate, while accepting the
titular authority of the caliph in Baghdad. The Byids made large territorial
gains. Fars and Jibal were conquered. Central Iraq submitted in 945, before the
Byids took Kermn (967), Oman (967), the Jazra (979), abaristn (980), and
Gorgan (981). After this the Byids went into slow decline, with pieces of the
confederation gradually breaking off and local dynasties under their rule
becoming de facto independent.
[98]
Middle Baghdad Abbasids
Early High Middle Ages
At the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Caliphate had
become of little importance. The amir al-umara Bajkam contented
himself with dispatching his secretary to Baghdad to assemble local
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Regional States, ca. 1180.
Almohad
Dominion
Kingdom of Sicily
Fatimid Caliphate
Abbasid Caliphate
Sm. Turkic states
Crusader states
Komnenian
Byzantines
Kingdom of Hungary
Significant Middle Abbasid
Muslims
Ibn Rushd (Averoes),
philosopher;
al-Farabi, Persian (Soghdian)
philosopher;
Al-Mutanebbi, Arabic poet;
Abu Ali Husain ibn Abdallah
ibn Sina (Avicenna), physician,
philosopher, and scientist
dignitaries to elect a successor. The choice fell on Al-Muttaqi. Bajkam
was killed on a hunting party by marauding Kurds. In the ensuing
anarchy in Baghdad, Ibn Raik persuaded the Caliph to flee to Mosul
where he was welcomed by the Hamdanids. They assassinated Ibn Raik.
Hamdanid Nasir al-Dawla advanced on Baghdad, where mercenaries and
well-organised Turks repelled them. Turkish general Tuzun became amir
al-umara. The Turks were staunch Sunnis. A fresh conspiracy placed the
Caliph in danger. Hamdanid troops helped ad-Daula escape to Mosul and
then to Nasibin. Tuzun and the Hamdanid were stalemated. Al-Muttaqi
was at Ar Raqqah, moving to Tuzun where he was deposed. Tuzun
installed the blinded Caliph's cousin as successor, with the title of
Al-Mustakfi. With the new Caliph, Tuzun attacked the Buwayhid dynasty
and the Hamdanids. Soon after, Tuzun died, and was succeeded by one of
his generals, Abu Ja'far. The Buwayhids then attacked Baghdad, and Abu
Ja'far fled into hiding with the Caliph. Buwayhid Sultan Muiz ud-Daula
assumed command forcing the Caliph into abject submission to the Amir.
Eventually, Al-Mustakfi was blinded and deposed. The city fell into
chaos, and the Caliph's palace was looted.
[99]
Once the Buwayhids controlled Baghdad, Al-Muti became caliph. The office was
shorn of real power and Shi'a observances were established. The Buwayhids held
on Baghdad for over a century. Throughout the Buwayhid reign the Caliphate
was at its lowest ebb, but was recognized religiously, except in Iberia. Buwayhid
Sultan Mu'izz al-Dawla was prevented from raising a Shi'a Caliph to the throne
by fear for his own safety, and fear of rebellion, in the capital and beyond.
[100]
The next Caliph, Al-Ta'i, reigned over factional strife in Syria among the
Fatimids, Turks, and Carmathians. The Hideaway dynasyty also fractured. The
Abbasid borders were the defended only by small border states. Baha' al-Dawla,
the Buyid amir of Iraq, deposed al-Ta'i in 991 and proclaimed al-Qadir the new
caliph.
[101]
During al-Qadir's Caliphate, Mahmud of Ghazni looked after the empire. The
great Mahmud of Ghazni, of Eastern fame, was friendly towards the Caliphs, and
his victories in the Indian Empire were accordingly announced from the pulpits
of Baghdad in grateful and glowing terms. Al-Qadir fostered the Sunni struggle
against Shiism and outlawed heresies such as the Baghdad Manifesto and the doctrine that the Qu'ran was created. He
outlawed the Mutazila, bringing an end to the development of rationalist Muslim philosophy. During this and the next
period, Islamic literature, especially Persian literature, flourished under the patronage of the Buwayhids.
[102]
By 1000 the
global Muslim population had climbed to about 4 per cent of the world total compared to the Christian population of 10 per
cent.
During Al-Qa'im's reign, the Buwayhid ruler often fled the capital and the Seljuq dynasty gained power. Toghrl overran
Syria and Armenia. He then made his way into the Capital, where he was well-received both by chiefs and people. In
Bahrain, the Qarmatian state collapsed in Al-Hasa. Arabia recovered from the Fatimids and again acknowledged the spiritual
jurisdiction of the Abbasids. Al-Muqtadi was honored by the Seljuq Sultan Malik-Shah I, during whose reign the Caliphate
was recognized throughout the extending range of Seljuq conquest. The Sultan was critical of the Caliph's interference in
affairs of state, but died before deposing the last of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids.
[103]
Late Baghdad Abbasids
Late High Middle Ages
The Late Baghdad Abbasids reigned from the beginning of the Crusades to the Seventh Crusade. The first Caliph was
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Al-Aqsa Mosque
Plan of Al-Aqsa
Mosque, year 985

Dome of Al Aqsa
Mousque
Al-Mustazhir. He was politically irrelevant, despite civil strife at home
and the First Crusade in Syria. Raymond IV of Toulouse attempted to
attack Baghdad, losing at the Battle of Manzikert. The global Muslim
population climbed to about 5 per cent as against the Christian population
of 11 per cent by 1100. Jerusalem was captured by crusaders who
massacred its inhabitants. Preachers travelled throughout the caliphate
proclaiming the tragedy and rousing men to recover the Al-Aqsa Mosque
from the Franks (European Crusaders). Crowds of exiles rallied for war
against the infidel. Neither the Sultan nor the Caliph sent an army
west.
[104]
Al-Mustarshid achieved more independence while the sultan Mahmud II
of Great Seljuq was engaged in war in the East. The Banu Mazyad
(Mazyadid State) general, Dubays ibn Sadaqa
[105]
(emir of Al-Hilla),
plundered Bosra and attacked Baghdad together with a young brother of the sultan, Ghiyath ad-Din Mas'ud. Dubays was
crushed by a Seljuq army under Zengi, founder of the Zengid dynasty. Mahmud's death was followed by a civil war between
his son Dawud, his nephew Mas'ud and the atabeg Toghrul II. Zengi was recalled to the East, stimulated by the Caliph and
Dubays, where he was beaten. The Caliph then laid siege to Mosul for three months without success, resisted by Mas'ud and
Zengi. It was nonetheless a milestone in the caliphate's military revival.
[106]
After the siege of Damascus (1134),
[107]
Zengi undertook operations in Syria. Al-Mustarshid attacked sultan Mas'ud of
western Seljuq and was taken prisoner. He was later found murdered.
[108]
His son, Al-Rashid failed to gain independence
from Seljuq Turks. Zengi, because of the murder of Dubays, set up a rival Sultanate. Mas'ud attacked; the Caliph and Zengi,
hopeless of success, escaped to Mosul. The Sultan regained power, a council was held, the Caliph was deposed, and his
uncle, son of Al-Muqtafi, appointed as the new Caliph. Ar-Rashid fled to Isfahan and was killed by Hashshashins.
[109]
Continued disunion and contests between Seljuq Turks allowed al-Muqtafi to maintain control in Baghdad and to extend it
throughout Iraq. In 1139, al-Muqtafi granted protection to the Nestorian patriarch Abdisho III. While the Crusade raged, the
Caliph successfully defended Baghdad against Muhammad II of Seljuq in the Siege of Baghdad (1157). The Sultan and the
Caliph dispatched men in response to Zengi's appeal, but neither the Seljuqs, nor the Caliph, nor their Amirs, dared resist the
Crusaders.
The next caliph, Al-Mustanjid, saw Saladin extinguish the Fatimid dynasty after 260 years, and thus the Abbasids again
prevailed. Al-Mustadi reigned when Saladin become the sultan of Egypt and declared allegiance to the Abbasids.
An-Nasir, "The Victor for the Religion of God", attempted to restore the Caliphate to its ancient dominant role. He
consistently held Iraq from Tikrit to the Gulf without interruption. His forty-seven year reign was chiefly marked by
ambitious and corrupt dealings with the Tartar chiefs, and by his hazardous invocation of the Mongols, which ended his
dynasty. His son, Az-Zahir, was Caliph for a short period before his death and An-Nasir's grandson, Al-Mustansir, was made
caliph.
Al-Mustansir founded the Mustansiriya Madrasah. In 1236 gedei Khan commanded to raise up Khorassan and populated
Herat. The Mongol military governors mostly made their camp in Mughan plain, Azerbaijan. The rulers of Mosul and
Cilician Armenia surrendered. Chormaqan divided the Transcaucasia region into three districts based on military
hierarchy.
[110]
In Georgia, the population were temporarily divided into eight tumens.
[111]
By 1237 the Mongol Empire had
subjugated most of Persia, excluding Abbasid Iraq and Ismaili strongholds, and all of Afghanistan and Kashmir.
[112]
Al-Musta'sim was the last Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad and is noted for his opposition to the rise of Shajar al-Durr to the
Egyptian throne during the Seventh Crusade. To the east, Mongol forces under Hulagu Khan swept through the Transoxiana
and Khorasan. Baghdad was sacked and the caliph deposed soon afterwards. The Mamluk sultans and Syria later appointed a
powerless Abbasid Caliph in Cairo.
Cairo Abbasid Caliphs
Abbasid "shadow" caliph of Cairo
Late Middle Ages
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The Al-Hakim Mosque
Cairo, Egypt; south of Bab Al-Futuh
"Islamic Cairo" building was named
after Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, built
by Fatimid vizier Gawhar Al-Siqilli,
and extended by Badr al-Jamali.
The Abbasid "shadow" caliph of Cairo reigned under the tutelage of the Mamluk sultans and nominal rulers used to
legitimize the actual rule of the Mamluk sultans. All the Cairene Abbasid caliphs who preceded or succeeded Al-Musta'in
were spiritual heads lacking any temporal power. Al-Musta'in was the only Cairo-based Abbasid caliph to even briefly hold
political power. Al-Mutawakkil III was the last "shadow" caliph. In 1517, Ottoman sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluk
Sultanate, and made Egypt part of the Ottoman Empire.
[113][114]
Fatimid Empire
The Fatimids originated in Ifriqiya (modern-day Tunisia and eastern Algeria). The
dynasty was founded in 909 by Abdullh al-Mahd Billah, who legitimised his claim
through descent from Muhammad by way of his daughter Ftima as-Zahra and her
husband Al ibn-Ab-Tlib, the first Sha Imm, hence the name al-Ftimiyyn
"Fatimid".
[115]
The Fatamids and the Zaydis at the time, used the Hanafi
jurisprudence, as did most Sunnis.
[116][117][118]
Abdullh al-Mahdi's control soon extended over all of central Maghreb, an area
consisting of the modern countries of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, which he
ruled from Mahdia, his capital in Tunisia.
[119]
The Fatimids entered Egypt in the late 10th century, conquering the Ikhshidid dynasty
and founding a capital at al-Qhira(Cairo) in 969.
[120]
The name was a reference to
the planet Mars, "The Subduer", which was prominent in the sky at the moment that
city construction started. Cairo was intended as a royal enclosure for the Fatimid
caliph and his army, though the actual administrative and economic capital of Egypt
was in cities such as Fustat until 1169. After Egypt, the Fatimids continued to conquer surrounding areas until they ruled
from Tunisia to Syria and even crossed the Mediterranean into Sicily and southern Italy.
Under the Fatimids, Egypt became the center of an empire that included at its peak North Africa, Sicily, Palestine, Lebanon,
Syria, the Red Sea coast of Africa, Yemen and the Hejaz.
[121]
Egypt flourished, and the Fatimids developed an extensive
trade network in both the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. Their trade and diplomatic ties extended all the way to China
and its Song Dynasty, which determined the economic course of Egypt during the High Middle Ages.
Unlike other governments in the area, Fatimid advancement in state offices was based more on merit than heredity. Members
of other branches of Islam, including Sunnis, were just as likely to be appointed to government posts as Shiites. Tolerance
covered non-Muslims such as Christians and Jews; they took high levels in government based on ability.
[122]
There were,
however, exceptions to this general attitude of tolerance, notably Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.
The Fatimid palace was in two parts. It was in the Khan el-Khalili area at Bin El-Quasryn street.
[123]
Fatimid caliphs
Early and High Middle Ages
Also see: Cairo Abbasid Caliphs (above)
During the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Fatimid Caliphs claimed spiritual supremacy not only in Egypt,
but also contested the religious leadership of Syria. At the beginning of the Abbasid realm in Baghdad, the Alids faced severe
13 of 34 30-05-2014 05:04
The interiors of the Alhambra in
Granada, Spain decorated with
arabesque designs.
persecution by the ruling party as they were a direct threat to the Caliphate. Owing to the Abbasid inquisitions, the
forefathers opted for concealment of the Dawa's existence. Subsequently, they traveled towards the Iranian Plateau and
distanced themselves from the epicenter of the political world. Al Mahdi's father, Al Husain al Mastoor returned to control
the Dawa's affairs. He sent two Dai's to Yemen and Western Africa. Al Husain died soon after the birth of his son, Al Mahdi.
A system of government helped update Al Mahdi on the development which took place in North Africa.
[124]
Al Mahdi established the first Imam of the Fatimid dynasty. He claimed genealogic origins dating as far back as Fatimah
through Husayn and Ismail. Al Mahdi established his headquarters at Salamiyah and moved towards north-western Africa,
under Aghlabid rule. His success of laying claim to being the precursor to the Mahdi was instrumental among the Berber
tribes of North Africa, specifically the Kutamah tribe. Al Mahdi established himself at the former Aghlabid residence at
Raqqadah, a suburb of Al-Qayrawan in Tunisia. At the time of his death he had extended his reign to Morocco of the Idrisids,
as well as Egypt itself. In 920, Al Mahdi took up residence at the newly established capital of the empire, Al-Mahdiyyah.
After his death, Al Mahdi was succeeded by his son, Abu Al-Qasim Muhammad Al-Qaim, who continued his expansionist
policy.
[125]
Berbers and Iberian Umayyads
The Arabs, under the command of the Berber General Tarik ibn Ziyad, first began
their conquest of southern Spain or al-Andalus in 711. A raiding party led by Tarik
was sent to intervene in a civil war in the Visigothic kingdom in Hispania. Crossing
the Strait of Gibraltar (named after the General), it won a decisive victory in the
summer of 711 when the Visigothic king Roderic was defeated and killed on July 19
at the Battle of Guadalete. Tariq's commander, Musa bin Nusair crossed with
substantial reinforcements, and by 718 the Muslims dominated most of the peninsula.
Some later Arabic and Christian sources present an earlier raid by a certain rif in
710 and also, the Ad Sebastianum recension of the Chronicle of Alfonso III, refers to
an Arab attack incited by Erwig during the reign of Wamba (67280). The two large
armies may have been in the south for a year before the decisive battle was
fought.
[126]
The rulers of Al-Andalus were granted the rank of Emir by the Umayyad Caliph
Al-Walid I in Damascus. After the Abbasids came to power, some Umayyads fled to
Muslim Spain to establish themselves there. By the end of the 10th century, the ruler
Abd al-Rahman III took over the title of Emir of Crdoba(912-961).
[127]
Soon after,
the Umayyads went on developing a strengthened state with its capital as Crdoba.
Al-Hakam II succeeded to the Caliphate after the death of his father Abd ar-Rahman
III in 961. He secured peace with the Christian kingdoms of northern Iberia,
[128]
and
made use of the stability to develop agriculture through the construction of irrigation
works.
[129]
Economic development was also encouraged through the widening of streets and the building of markets. The
rule of the Caliphate is known as the heyday of Muslim presence in the peninsula.
[130]
The Umayyad Caliphate collapsed in 1031 due to political divisions and civil unrest during the rule of Hicham II who was
ousted because of his indolence.
[131]
Al-Andalus then broke up into a number of states called taifa kingdoms (Arabic, Muluk
al-aw'if; English, Petty kingdoms). The decomposition of the Caliphate into those petty kingdoms weakened the Muslims
in the Iberian Peninsula vis--vis the Christian kingdoms of the north. Some of the taifas, such as that of Seville, were forced
to enter into alliances with Christian princes and pay tributes in money to Castille.
[132]
Emirs of Crdoba
Abd al-Rahman I and Bedr (a former Greek slave) escaped with their lives after the popular revolt known as the Abbasid
Revolution. Rahman I continued south through Palestine, the Sinai, and then into Egypt. Rahman I was one of several
surviving Umayyad family members to make a perilous trek to Ifriqiya at this time. Rahman I and Bedr reached modern day
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The exterior of the Mezquita.
Morocco near Ceuta. Next step would be to cross to sea to al-Andalus, where Rahman I could not have been sure whether he
would be welcome. Following the Berber Revolt (740s), the province was in a state of confusion, with the Ummah torn by
tribal dissensions among the Arabs and racial tensions between the Arabs and Berbers. Bedr lined up three Syrian
commanders Obeid Allah ibn Uthman and Abd Allah ibn Khalid, both originally of Damascus, and Yusuf ibn Bukht of
Qinnasrin and contacted al-Sumayl (then in Zaragoza) to get his consent, but al-Sumayl refused, fearing Rahman I would try
to make himself emir. After discussion with Yemenite commanders, Rahman I was told to go to al-Andalus. Shortly
thereafter, he set off with Bedr and a small group of followers for Europe. Abd al-Rahman landed at Almucar in
al-Andalus, to the east of Mlaga.
During his brief time in Mlaga, he quickly amassed local support. News of the prince's arrival spread throughout the
peninsula. In order to help speed his ascension to power, he took advantage of the feuds and dissensions. However, before
anything could be done, trouble broke out in northern al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman and his followers were able to control
Zaragoza. Rahman I fought to rule al-Andalus in a battle at the Guadalquivir river, just outside of Crdoba on the plains of
Musarah (Battle of Musarah). Rahman I was victorious, chasing his enemies from the field with parts of their army. Rahman
I marched into the capital, Crdoba, fighting off a counterattack, but negotiations ended the confrontation. After Rahman I
consolidated power, he proclaimed himself the al-Andalus emir. Rahman I did not claim the Muslim caliph, though.
[133]
The
last step was to have al-Fihri's general, al-Sumayl, garroted in Crdoba's jail. Al-Andalus was a safe haven for the house of
Umayya that managed to evade the Abbasids.
[134]
In Baghdad, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur had planned to depose the emir. Rahman I and his army confronted the Abbasids,
killing most of the Abbasid army. The main Abbasid leaders were decapitated, their heads preserved in salt, with identifying
tags pinned to their ears. The heads were bundled in a gruesome package and sent to the Abbasid caliph who was on
pilgrimage at Mecca. Rahman I quelled repeated rebellions in al-Andalus. He began the building of the great mosque
[cordova], and formed ship-yards along the coast; he is moreover said to have been the first to transplant the palm and the
pomegranate into the congenial climate of Spain: and he encouraged science and literature in his states. This good king died
on the 29th of September, 788, after a reign of thirty-four years and one month.
[135][136]
Rahman I's successor was his son Hisham I. Born in Crdoba, he built many mosques
and completed the Mezquita. He called for a jihad that resulted in a campaign against
the Kingdom of Asturias and the County of Toulouse; in this second campaign he was
defeated at Orange by William of Gellone, first cousin to Charlemagne. His successor
Al-Hakam I came to power and was challenged by his uncles, other sons of Rahman
I. One, Abdallah, went to the court of Charlemagne in Aix-la-Chapelle to negotiate
for aid. In the mean time Crdoba was attacked, but was defended. Hakam I spent
much of his reign suppressing rebellions in Toledo, Saragossa and Mrida.
[137]
Abd ar-Rahman II succeeded his father and engaged in nearly continuous warfare
against Alfonso II of Asturias, whose southward advance he halted. Rahman II
repulsed an assault by Vikings who had disembarked in Cadiz, conquered Seville
(with the exception of its citadel) and attacked Crdoba. Thereafter he constructed a
fleet and naval arsenal at Seville to repel future raids. He responded to William of
Septimania's requests of assistance in his struggle against Charles the Bald's
nominations.
[138]
Muhammad I's reign was marked by the movements of the Muladi (ethnic Iberian
Muslims) and Mozarabs (Muslim-Iberia Christians). Muhammad I was succeeded by his son Mundhir I. During the reign of
his father, Mundhir I commanded military operations against the neighbouring Christian kingdoms and the Muladi rebellions.
At his father's death, he inherited the throne. During his two-year reign, Mundhir I fought against Umar ibn Hafsun. He died
in 888 at Bobastro, succeeded by his brother Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi.
Umawi showed no reluctance to dispose of those he viewed as a threat. His government was marked by continuous wars
between Arabs, Berbers and Muladi. His power as emir was confined to the area of Crdoba, while the rest had been seized
by rebel families. The son he had designated as successor was killed by one of Umawi's brothers. The latter was in turn
executed by Umawi's father, who named as successor Abd ar-Rahman III, son of the killed son of Umawi.
[139][140][141]
Caliphs at Crdoba
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Saladin and Guy of Lusignan after the
Battle of Hattin
List of Crusades
Early period
First Crusade 10951099
Second Crusade 11471149
Third Crusade 11871192
Low Period
Fourth Crusade 12021204
Fifth Crusade 12171221
Sixth Crusade 12281229
Late period
Seventh Crusade 12481254
Eighth Crusade 1270
Ninth Crusade 12711272
Rahman III to help in his fight against the invasion by the Fatimids claimed the Caliphate in opposition to the generally
recognized Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad.
[142]
Almoravid Ifriqiyah and Iberia
Ifriqiyah, Iberian
Almohad caliphs
The Crusades
Beginning in the 8th century, the Iberian Christian kingdoms had begun the
Reconquista aimed at retaking Al-Andalus from the Moors. In 1095, Pope Urban II,
inspired by the conquests in Spain by Christian forces and implored by the eastern
Roman emperor to help defend Christianity in the East, called for the First Crusade
from Western Europe which captured Odessa, Antioch, County of Tripoli and
Jerusalem.
[143]
In the early period of the Crusades, the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem emerged and
for a time controlled Jerusalem. The Kingdom of Jerusalem and other smaller
Crusader kingdoms over the next 90 years formed part of the complicated politics of
the Levant, but did not threaten the Islamic Caliphate nor other powers in the region.
After Shirkuh ended Fatimid rule in 1169, uniting it with Syria, the Crusader
kingdoms were faced with a threat, and his nephew Saladin reconquered most of the
area in 1187, leaving the Crusaders holding a few ports.
[144]
In the Third Crusade armies from Europe failed to recapture Jerusalem, though
Crusader states lingered for several decades, and other crusades followed. The
Christian Reconquista continued in Al-Andalus, and was eventually completed with
the fall of Granada in 1492. During the low period of the Crusades, the Fourth
Crusade was diverted from the Levant and instead took Constantinople, leaving the
Eastern Roman Empire (now the Byzantine Empire) further weakened in their long
struggle against the Turkish peoples to the east. However, the crusaders did manage to
damage Islamic caliphates; according to William of Malmesbury, preventing them
from further expansion into Christendom
[145]
and being targets of the Mamluks and
the Mongols.
Ayyubid dynasty
The Ayyubid dynasty was founded by Saladin and centered in Egypt. In 1174, Saladin proclaimed himself Sultan and
conquered the Near East region. The Ayyubids ruled much of the Middle East during the 12th and 13th centuries, controlling
Egypt, Syria, northern Mesopotamia, Hejaz, Yemen, and the North African coast up to the borders of modern-day Tunisia.
After Saladin, his sons contested control over the sultanate, but Saladin's brother al-Adil eventually established himself in
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The Mongol ruler, Ghazan,
studying the Quran.
1200. In the 1230s, Syria's Ayyubid rulers attempted to win independence from Egypt and remained divided until Egyptian
Sultan as-Salih Ayyub restored Ayyubid unity by taking over most of Syria, excluding Aleppo, by 1247. In 1250, the dynasty
in the Egyptian region was overthrown by slave regiments. A number of attempts to recover it failed, led by an-Nasir Yusuf
of Aleppo. In 1260, the Mongols sacked Aleppo and wrested control of what remained of the Ayyubid territories soon
after.
[146]
Sultans of Egypt
Sultans and Amirs of Damascus
Emirs of Aleppo
Mongol invasions
After the Crusades the Mongols invaded in the 13th century, marking the end of the
Islamic Golden Age. Some historians assert that the eastern Islamic world never fully
recovered. Under the leadership of Genghis Khan, The Mongols put an end to the
Abbasid era. The Mongol invasion of Central Asia began in 1219 at a huge cost in
civilian life and economic devastation. The Mongols spread throughout Central Asia and
Persia: the Persian city of Isfahan had fallen to them by 1237.
[147]
With the election of Khan Mongke in 1251, Mongol targeted the Abbasid capital,
Baghdad. Mongke's brother, Hulegu, was made leader of the Mongol Army assigned to
the task of subduing Baghdad. The fall of Bagdhad in 1258 destroyed what had been the
largest city in Islam. The last Abbasid caliph, al-Musta'sim, was captured and killed; and
Baghdad was ransacked and destroyed. The cities of Damascus and Aleppo fell in 1260.
Plans for the conquest of Egypt were delayed due to the death of Mongke at around the
same time. The Abbasid army lost to the superior Mongol army, but the invaders were
finally stopped by Egyptian Mamluks north of Jerusalem in 1260 at the pivotal Battle of
Ain Jalut.
[148]
Ultimately, the Ilkhanate, Golden Horde, and the Chagatai Khanate - three of the four principal Mongol khanates - embraced
Islam.
[149][150][151]
In power in Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia and further east, over the rest of the 13th century gradually all
converted to Islam. Most Ilkhanid rulers were replaced by the new Mongol power founded by Timur (himself a Muslim),
who conquered Persia in the 1360s, and moved against the Delhi Sultanate in India and the Ottoman Turks in Anatolia. His
invasions were equally destructive, sacking Bagdhad, Damascus, Delhi and many other cities, with enormous loss of life.
Timur had attacked areas still recovering from the Black Death, which may have killed one third of the population of the
Middle East. The plague began in China, and reached Alexandria in Egypt in 1347, spreading over the following years to
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Eastern Mediterranean 1450
most Islamic areas. The combination of the plague and the wars left the Middle Eastern Islamic world in a seriously
weakened position. The Timurid dynasty would found many branches of Islam, including the Mughals of India.
[152][153]
The Mamluks
In 1250, the Ayyubid Egyptian dynasty was overthrown by slave regiments, and the Mamluk Sultanate was born. In the
1260s, the Mongols sacked and controlled the Islamic Near East territories. The Mamluks, who were Turkic, forced out the
Mongols (see Battle of Ain Jalut) after the final destruction of the Ayyubid dynasty. Thus they united Syria and Egypt for the
longest interval between the Abbasid and Ottoman empires (12501517).
[154]
The Mamluks experienced a continual state of
political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the "Muslim territory" (Dar al-Islam) and
"non-Muslim territory" (Dar al-Harb).
[155]
As part of their chosen role as defenders of Islamic orthodoxy, the Mamluks sponsored many religious buildings, including
mosques, madrasas and khanqahs. Though some construction took place in the provinces, the vast bulk of these projects
expanded the capital. Many Mamluk buildings in Cairo have survived to this day, particularly in Old Cairo.
[156]
Bahri Sultans
A former Mamluk slave who was born a prince, Aybak (known as Lion of Ain Jaloot) replaced the Mamluks in 1250. Aybak,
by then a general, married Shajar al-Durr, the widow of Ayyubid caliph al-Salih Ayyub. Military prestige was at the center of
Mamluk society, and it played a key role in the confrontations with the Mongol forces. After Aybak's assassination and the
accession of Qutuz in 1259, the Mamluks challenged and routed the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut in late 1260. The
Mongols were again defeated by the Mamluks at the Battle of Hims a few months later, and then driven out of Syria
altogether.
[76]
With this, the Mamluks were able to concentrate their forces and to conquer the last of the crusader territories
in the Levant.
Burji Sultans
See also: Islamic Egypt governors, Mamluks Era
The global Muslim population had reached about 8 per cent of the world total as
against the Christian population of 14 per cent by 1400.
Africa
The Umayyad conquest of North Africa continued the century of rapid Muslim
military expansion following the death of Muhammad in 632. By 640 the Arabs controlled Mesopotamia, had invaded
Armenia, and were concluding their conquest of Byzantine Syria. Damascus was the seat of the Umayyad caliphate. By the
end of 641 all of Egypt was in Arab hands.
Horn of Africa
The history of Islam in the Horn of Africa is almost as old as the faith itself. Through extensive trade and social interactions
with their converted Muslim trading partners on the other side of the Red Sea, in the Arabian peninsula, merchants and
sailors in the Horn region gradually came under the influence of the new religion.
[157]
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The Great Mosque of Kairouan also
known as the Mosque of Uqba was
established in 670 by the Arab
general and conqueror Uqba ibn Nafi,
it is the oldest mosque in the
Maghreb, situated in the city of
Kairouan, Tunisia.
Early Islamic disciples fled to the port city of Zeila in modern-day northern Somalia to seek protection from the Quraysh at
the court of the Aksumite Emperor in present-day Somalia. Some of the Muslims that were granted protection are said to
have then settled in several parts of the Horn region to promote the religion. The victory of the Muslims over the Quraysh in
the 7th century had a significant impact on local merchants and sailors, as their trading partners in Arabia had by then all
adopted Islam, and the major trading routes in the Mediterranean and the Red Sea came under the sway of the Muslim
Caliphs. Instability in the Arabian peninsula saw further migrations of early Muslim families to the Somali seaboard. These
clans came to serve as catalysts, forwarding the faith to large parts of the Horn region.
[157]
Maghreb
Kairouan in Tunisia was the first city founded by Muslims in the Maghreb. Arab
general Uqba ibn Nafi erected the city (in 670) and, in the same time, the Great
Mosque of Kairouan
[158]
considered as the oldest and most prestigious sanctuary in
the western Islamic world.
[159]
This part of Islamic territory has had independent governments during most of
Islamic history. The Idrisid were the first Arab rulers in the western Maghreb
(Morocco), ruling from 788 to 985. The dynasty is named after its first sultan Idris
I.
[160]
The Almoravid dynasty was a Berber dynasty from the Sahara flourished over a wide
area of North-Western Africa and the Iberian Peninsula during the 11th century.
Under this dynasty the Moorish empire was extended over present-day Morocco,
Western Sahara, Mauritania, Gibraltar, Tlemcen (in Algeria) and a part of what is now
Senegal and Mali in the south, and Spain and Portugal in the north.
[161]
The Almohad Dynasty or "the Unitarians", were a Berber Muslim religious power
which founded the fifth Moorish dynasty in the 12th century, and conquered all Northern Africa as far as Egypt, together
with Al-Andalus.
[162]
Great Lakes
Islam came to the Great Lakes region of South Eastern Africa along existing trade routes.
[163]
They learned from them the
manners of the Muslims and this led to their conversion by the Muslim Arabs.
Local Islamic governments centered in Tanzania (then Zanzibar). The people of Zayd were Muslims that immigrated to the
Great Lakes region. In the pre-colonial period, the structure of Islamic authority here was held up through the Ulema
(wanawyuonis, in Swahili language). These leaders had some degree of authority over most of the Muslims in South East
Africa before territorial boundaries were established. The chief Qadi there was recognized for having the final religious
authority.
[164]
West Africa
Much later, Usman dan Fodio after the Fulani War, found himself in command of the largest state in Africa, the Fulani
Empire. Dan Fodio worked to establish an efficient government grounded in Islamic laws. Already aged at the beginning of
the war, he retired in 1815 passing the title of Sultan of Sokoto to his son Muhammed Bello.
Asia and the Far East
South Asia
On the Indian subcontinent, Islam first appeared in the southwestern tip of the peninsula, in today's Kerala state. Arabs traded
with Malabar even before the birth of Muhammad. Native legends say that a group of Sahaba, under Malik Ibn Deenar,
arrived on the Malabar Coast and preached Islam. According to that legend, the first mosque of India was built by Second
Chera King Cheraman Perumal, who accepted Islam and received the name Tajudheen. He traveled to Arabia to meet
Muhammad and died on the trip back, somewhere in today's Oman. Historical records suggest that the Cheraman Perumal
Mosque was built in around 629.
[165]
Islamic rule came to India in the 8th century, when Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh. Muslim conquests expanded
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The Taj Mahal
under Mahmud and the Ghaznavids until the late 12th century, when the Ghurids
overran the Ghaznavids and extended the conquests in Northern India. Qutb-ud-din
Aybak conquered Delhi in 1206 and began the reign of the Delhi Sultanates.
[166]
In the 14th century, Alauddin Khilji extended Muslim rule south to Gujarat, Rajasthan
and Deccan. Various other Muslim dynasties also formed and ruled across India from
the 13th to the 18th century such as the Qutb Shahi and the Bahmani, but none
rivalled the power and extensive reach of the Mughal Empire at its peak.
[167]
China
In China, four Sahabas (Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas, Wahb Abu Kabcha, Jafar ibn Abu
Talib and Jahsh) preached in 616/17 and onwards after following the Chittagong
KamrupManipur route after sailing from Abyssinia in 615/16. After conquering Persia in 636, Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas went
with Sa'id ibn Zaid, Qais ibn Sa'd and Hassan ibn Thabit to China in 637 taking the complete Quran. Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas
headed for China for the third time in 650-51 after Caliph Uthman asked him to lead an embassy to China, which the Chinese
emperor received.
[168]
Southeast Asia
Islam first reached Maritime Southeast Asia through traders from Mecca in the 7th century CE,
[76]
particularly via the
western part of what is now Indonesia. Arab traders from Yeman already had a presence in Asia through trading and sea
travelling by sea, serving as intermediary traders to and from Europe and Africa. They traded not only Arabian goods but
also from Africa, India, and so on including ivory, fragrances, spices, and gold.
[169]
According to T.W. Arnold in The Preaching of Islam, by the 2nd century of the Islamic Calendar, Arab traders had been
trading with the inhabitants of Ceylon. The same argument has been told by Dr. B.H. Burger and Dr.Mr. Prajudi in Sedjarah
Ekonomis Sosiologis Indonesia (History of Socio Economic of Indonesia)
[170]
According to the atlas by geographer Al
Biruni (973 - 1048), the Indian or Indonesia Ocean used to be called the Persian Ocean. After the Western Imperialist ruled,
it is replaced Persian Ocean to be Indian Ocean.
[171]
Soon, many Sufi missionaries translated classical Sufi literature from Arabic and Persian into Malay; a tangible product of
this is the Jawi script. Coupled with the composing of original Islamic literature in Malay, this led the way to the
transformation of Malay into an Islamic language.
[172]
By 1292, when Marco Polo visited Sumatra, most of the inhabitants
had converted to Islam. The Sultanate of Malacca was founded on the Malay Peninsula by Parameswara, a Srivijayan Prince.
Through trade and commerce, Islam then spread to Borneo and Java. By the late 15th century, Islam had been introduced to
the Philippines via the southern island of Mindanao.
[173]
The foremost socio-cultural Muslim entities that resulted form this
are the present-day Sultanate of Sulu and Sultanate of Maguindanao; Islamised kingdoms in the northern Luzon island, such
as the Kingdom of Maynila and the Kingdom of Tondo, were later conquered and Christianised with the majority of the
archipelago by Spanish colonisers beginning in the 16th century.
As Islam spread, societal changes developed from the individual conversions, and five centuries later it emerged as a
dominant cultural and political power in the region. Three main Muslim political powers emerged. The Aceh Sultanate was
the most important, controlling much of the area between Southeast Asia and India from its centre in northern Sumatra. The
Sultanate also attracted Sufi poets. The second Muslim power was the Sultanate of Malacca on the Malay Peninsula. The
Sultanate of Demak on Java was the third power, where the emerging Muslim forces defeated the local Majapahit kingdom in
the early 16th century.
[174]
Although the sultanate managed to expand its territory somewhat, its rule remained brief.
[76]
Portuguese forces captured Malacca in 1511 under naval general Afonso de Albuquerque. With Malacca subdued, the Aceh
Sultanate and Bruneian Empire established themselves as centres of Islam in Southeast Asia. The Sultanate's territory,
although vastly diminished, remains intact to this day as the modern state of Brunei Darussalam.
[76]
Fragmentation period
Three Early Modern empires
In the 15th and 16th centuries three major Muslim empires formed: the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East, the Balkans and
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Humayun's Tomb in Delhi, India.
Northern Africa; the Safavid Empire in Greater Iran; and the Mughal Empire in South Asia. These imperial powers were
made possible by the discovery and exploitation of gunpowder and more efficient administration.
[175]
By the end of the 19th
century, all three had declined, and by the early 20th century, with the Ottomans' defeat in World War I, the last Muslim
empire collapsed.
Dar al-'Ahd (House of truce) began to develop in the Ottoman Empire's relationship with its tributary states. In the
contemporary National period, the term referred to non-Muslim governments that had armistice or peace agreements with
Muslim governments. Today, the actual status of the non-Muslim country in question may vary from acknowledged equality
to tributary states.
[176]
Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire was a product of
various Central Asian invasions into the
Indian subcontinent. It was founded by
the Timurid prince Babur in 1526 with the
destruction of the Delhi sultanate, placing
its capital in Agra. Babur's death some
years later and the indecisive rule of his
son, Humayun, brought instability to
Mughal rule. The resistance of the
Afghani Sher Shah, who administered a
string of defeats to Humayun, weakened
the empire. A year before his death,
however, Humayun managed to recover much of the lost territories, leaving a substantial legacy for his son, the 13 year old
Akbar (later known as Akbar the Great), in 1556. Under Akbar, consolidation of the Mughal Empire occurred through both
expansion and administrative reforms. After Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan came to power. Subsequently, Aurangazeb
ruled vast areas including Afghanisthan, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.
[76][177]
The empire ruled most of present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan for several centuries. Its decline in the
early 18th century allowed India to be divided into smaller kingdoms and states. The Mughal dynasty was dissolved by the
British Empire after the Indian rebellion of 1857.
[76][177]
It left a lasting legacy on Indian culture and architecture. Famous
buildings built by the Mughals, include: the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort, the Badshahi Mosque, the Lahore Fort, the Shalimar
Gardens and the Agra Fort. During the empire's reign, Muslim communities flourished all over India, in Gujarat, Bengal and
Hyderabad. Various Sufi orders from Afghanistan and Persia were active throughout the region. More than a quarter of the
population converted to Islam.
[177]
Safavid Empire
The Safavid dynasty rose to power in Tabriz in 1501 and later conquered the rest of Iran. The Safavids were originally Sufi
and Iran was Sunni.
[178]
After their defeat at the hands of the Sunni Ottomans at the Battle of Chaldiran, to unite the Persians
behind him Ismail I made conversion mandatory for the largely Sunni population to Twelver Shia so that he could get them
to fight the Sunni Ottomans.
[179]
This resulted in the Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam. Zaydis, the largest group amongst the Shia before the Safavid
Dynasty were also forced to convert to the Twelver Shia. The Zaydis at that time used the Hanafi Fiqh, as did most Sunnis
and there were good relations between them. Abu Hanifah and Zayd ibn Ali were also very good friends. The Zaydis were
also forced to convert.
[116][117][118]
The Safavids dynasty from Azarbaijan ruled from 1501 to 1736, and which established Twelver Shi'a Islam as the region's
official religion and united its provinces under a single sovereignty, thereby reigniting the Persian identity.
Although claiming to be the descendants of Ali ibn Abu Talib, the Safavids were Sunni (the name "Safavid" comes from a
Sufi order called Safavi). Their origins go back to Firuz Shah Zarrinkolah, a local dignitary from the north. During their rule,
the Safavids recognized Twelver Shi'a Islam as the State religion, thus giving the region a separate identity from its Sunni
neighbours.
In 1524, Tahmasp I acceded to the throne, initiating a revival of the arts. Carpetmaking became a major industry. The
tradition of Persian miniature painting in manuscripts reached its peak, until Tahmasp turned to strict religious observance in
middle age, prohibiting the consumption of alcohol and hashish and removing casinos, taverns and brothels. Tahmasp's
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Shah Suleiman I and his courtiers,
Isfahan, 1670. Painter is Ali Qoli
Jabbador, and is kept at The St.
Petersburg Institute of Oriental
Studies in Russia, ever since it was
acquired by Tsar Nicholas II. Note the
two Georgian figures with their
names at the top left.
The Battle of Vienna in 1683 broke
the advance of the Ottoman Turks
into Europe
nephew Ibrahim Mirza continued to patronize a last flowering of the arts until he was
murdered, after which many artists were recruited by the Mughal dynasty.
Tahmasp's grandson, Shah Abbas I, restored the shrine of the eighth Twelver Shi'a
Imam, Ali al-Ridha at Mashhad, and restored the dynastic shrine at Ardabil. Both
shrines received jewelry, fine manuscripts and Chinese porcelains. Abbas moved the
capital to Isfahan, revived old ports, and established thriving trade with Europeans.
Amongst Abbas's most visible cultural achievements was the construction of Naqsh-e
Jahan Square ("Design of the World"). The plaza, located near a Friday mosque,
covered 20 acres (81,000 m
2
).
[180]
The Safavid Dynasty was toppled in 1722 by the Hotaki dynasty, which ended their
forceful conversion of Sunni areas to Shiaism.
Salafi
In the 18th century a reform and revival movement was initiated led by Ibn Abd
al-Wahhab in today's Saudi Arabia. Referred to as Wahhabi, their self designation is
Muwahiddun (unitarians). Building upon earlier efforts such as those by the logician Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn al-Qayyim, the
movement seeks to uphold monotheism and purify Islam of later innovations. Their zeal against idolatrous shrines led to the
destruction of sacred tombs in Mecca and Medina, including those of Muhammad's Companions.
[181]
Ottoman Empire
The Seljuq Turks declined in the second half of the 13th century, after the Mongol
invasion.
[182]
This resulted in the establishment of multiple Turkish principalities,
known as beyliks. Osman I, the founder of the Ottoman dynasty, assumed leadership
of one of these principalities (St) in 1281, succeeding his father Erturul.
Declaring an independent Ottoman emirate in 1299, Osman I afterwards led it in a
series of battles with the Byzantine Empire.
[183]
By 1331, the Ottomans had captured
Nicaea, the former Byzantine capital, under the leadership of Osman's son and
successor, Orhan I.
[184]
Victory at the Battle of Kosovo against the Serbs in 1389 then
facilitated their expansion into Europe. The Ottomans were established in the Balkans
and Anatolia by the time Bayezid I ascended to power in the same year, now at the
helm of a growing empire.
[185]
Growth halted when Mongol warlord Timur (also known as "Tamerlane") captured Bayezid I in the Battle of Ankara in
1402, beginning the Ottoman Interregnum. This episode was characterized by the division of the Ottoman territory amongst
Bayezid I's sons, who submitted to Timurid authority. When a number of Ottoman territories regained independent status,
ruin for the Empire loomed. However, the empire recovered, as the youngest son of Bayezid I, Mehmed I, waged offensive
campaigns against his ruling brothers, thereby reuniting Asia Minor and declaring himself sultan in 1413.
[76]
Around this time the Ottoman naval fleet developed, such that they were able to challenge Venice, a naval power. They also
attempted to reconquer the Balkans. By the time of Mehmed I's grandson, Mehmed II (ruled 1444 1446; 1451 1481),
the Ottomans could lay siege to Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium. A factor in this siege was the use of muskets and
large cannons introduced by the Ottomans. The Byzantine fortress succumbed in 1453, after 54 days of siege. Mehmed II
renamed it Istanbul. Without its capital the Byzantine Empire disintegrated.
[76]
The future successes of the Ottomans and
later empires would depend upon the exploitation of gunpowder.
[175]
In the early 16th century, the Shi'ite Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia under the leadership of Shah Ismail I,
defeating the ruling Turcoman federation Aq Qoyunlu (also called the "White Sheep Turkomans") in 1501. The Ottoman
sultan Selim I sought to repel Safavid expansion, challenging and defeating them at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514. Selim I
also deposed the ruling Mamluks in Egypt, absorbing their territories in 1517. Suleiman I (also known as Suleiman the
Magnificent), Selim I's successor, took advantage of the diversion of Safavid focus to the Uzbeks on the eastern frontier and
recaptured Baghdad, which had fallen under Safavid control. Despite this, Safavid power remained substantial, rivalling the
Ottomans. Suleiman I advanced deep into Hungary following the Battle of Mohcs in 1526 reaching as far as the gates of
Vienna thereafter, and signed a Franco-Ottoman alliance with Francis I of France against Charles V of the Roman Empire 10
years later. Suleiman I's rule (1520 1566) was the apex of the Ottoman Empire. The rapid European industrialization
thereafter sent it into a relative decline.
[76][186]
It was recognized as a superpower, even at the time of its decline and
22 of 34 30-05-2014 05:04
The Suleiman Mosque (Sleymaniye
Camii) in Istanbul was built on the
order of sultan Suleiman the
Magnificent by the Ottoman architect
Mimar Sinan in 1557
eventual demise after World War I.
Modern history
The modern age brought technological and organizational changes to Europe while
the Islamic region continued the patterns of earlier centuries. The Great Powers
globalized economically and colonized much of the region.
Ottoman Empire partition
By the end of the 19th century, the Ottoman empire had declined. The decision to
back Germany in World War I meant they shared the Central Powers' defeat in that
war. The defeat led to the overthrow of the Ottomans by Turkish nationalists led by
the victorious general of the Battle of Gallipoli: Mustafa Kemal, who became known
to his people as Atatrk, "Father of the Turks." Atatrk was credited with
renegotiating the treaty of Svres (1920) which ended Turkey's involvement in the war and establishing the modern Republic
of Turkey, which was recognized by the Allies in the Treaty of Lausanne (1923). Atatrk went on to implement an ambitious
program of modernization that emphasized economic development and secularization. He transformed Turkish culture to
reflect European laws, adopted Hindu-Arabic numerals, the Latin script, separated the religious establishment from the state,
and emancipated womaneven giving them the right to vote in parallel with women's suffrage in the west.
[187]
Following World War I, the vast majority of former Ottoman territory outside of Asia Minor was handed over to the
victorious European powers as protectorates. During the war the Allies had promised the subject peoples independence in
exchange for their assistance fighting the Turkish powers. To their dismay, they found that this system of "protectorates" was
a smoke-screen for their continued subjugation by the British and the French. The struggles for independence from their
Turkish overlords and the cooperation of partisan forces with the British were romanticized in the stories of British secret
intelligence agent T. E. Lawrencelater known as "Lawrence of Arabia."
[188]
Ottoman successor states include today's
Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Egypt, Greece, Iraq, Lebanon, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Syria, Jordan,
Turkey, Balkan states, North Africa and the north shore of the Black Sea.
[189]
Many Muslim countries sought to adopt European political organization and nationalism began to emerge in the Muslim
world. Countries like Egypt, Syria and Turkey organized their governments sought to develop national pride amongst their
citizens. Other places, like Iraq, were not as successful due to a lack of unity and an inability to resolve age-old prejudices
between Muslim sects and against non-Muslims.
Some Muslim countries, such as Turkey and Egypt, sought to separate Islam from the secular government. In other cases,
such as Saudi Arabia, the government brought out religious expression in the re-emergence of the puritanical form of Sunni
Islam known to its detractors as Wahabism, which found its way into the Saudi royal family.
Indian partition
The partition of India refers to the creation in August 1947 of the now sovereign states of India and Pakistan. The two
nations were formed out of the former British Raj, including treaty states, when Britain granted independence to the area (see
Undivided India). In particular, the term refers to the partition of Bengal and Punjab, the two main provinces of what would
be Pakistan.
[190]
In 1947, after the partition of India, Pakistan became the largest Islamic country in the world (by population) and the tenth
largest post-World War II state in the modern world. In 1971, after a bloody war of independence, the Bengal part of Pakistan
became an independent state called Bangladesh. Pakistan in the contemporary era is the second largest Islamic country in the
world, following Indonesia. Pakistan is a declared nuclear power, being the only Muslim nation to have that status.
Post-1945 era
Between 1953 and 1964, King Saud reorganized the government of the monarchy his father, Ibn Saud, had created. Saudi
Arabia's ministries included Communication (1953), Agriculture and Water (1953), Petroleum (1960), Pilgrimage and
Islamic Endowments (1960), Labour and Social Affairs (1962) and Information (1963). He also put Talal, one of his many
younger brothers (29 years his junior) in charge of the Ministry of Transport.
In 1958-59, Talal proposed the formation of a National Council. As he proposed it, it would have been a consultative body,
not a legislature. Still, he thought of it as a first step toward broader popular participation in the government. Talal presented
23 of 34 30-05-2014 05:04
Contemporary National period
Islam in the modern world
Sunni countries
Shia countries
Ibadi countries
this proposal to the king when the Crown Prince was out of the country. Saud forwarded the proposal to the ulama asking
them whether a National Council was a legitimate institution in Islam. The idea then disappeared until it was revived more
than three decades later. A Consultative Council came into existence in 1992.
The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries came into existence in 1960. For the first decade or more of its
existence, it was unable to increase revenue for the member nations. Tension between Faisal and Saud continued to mount
until a showdown in 1964. Saud threatened to mobilize the Royal Guard against Faisal and Faisal threatened to mobilize the
National Guard against Saud. Saud then abdicated and left for Cairo, then Greece, where he would die in 1969. Faisal then
became King.
The Six-Day War of June 510, 1967, was fought between Israel and the neighbouring states of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. It
closed the Suez canal, and may have contributed to the revolution in Libya that put Muammar Gaddafi in power. It led in
May 1970 to the closure of the "tapline" from Saudi Arabia through Syria to Lebanon. These developments had the effect of
increasing the importance of petroleum in Libya, which is a short (and canal-free) shipping distance from Europe. In 1970,
Occidental Petroleum broke with other oil companies and accepted Qaddafi's demands for price increases.
In October 1973, another war between Israel and its Muslim neighbors, known as the Yom Kippur War, broke out just as oil
company began meeting with OPEC leaders. OPEC had been emboldened by the success of Libya's demands and the war
strengthened their unity. The Arab defeats in 1967 and 1973 triggered the 1973 oil crisis. In response to the emergency
resupply effort by the West that enabled Israel to defeat Egyptian and Syrian forces, the Arab world imposed the 1973 oil
embargo against the United States and Western Europe. Faisal agreed that Saudi Arabia would use some of its oil wealth to
finance the "front-line states", those that bordered Israel, in their struggle. The centrality of petroleum, the Arab-Israeli
Conflict and political and economic instability and uncertainty remain constant features of the politics of the region.
Persian revolutions
The Iranian Constitutional Revolution took place between 1905 and 1911. The revolution marked the beginning of the end of
Iran's feudalistic society and led to the establishment of a parliament in Persia and the restriction of the power of the Shah
(king). Iran approved its first constitution at this time. The modernist and conservative blocks then began to fight with each
other. World War I intervened and all of the combatants invaded Iran. This weakened the government and threatened the
country's independence. The constitutional monarchy created by the decree of Mozzafar al-Din Shah that was established in
Persia as a result of the Revolution, was damaged in 1925 with the dissolution of the Qajar dynasty and the ascension of
Reza Shah Pahlavi to the throne.
[191]
In 1979 the Iranian Revolution transformed Iran from a constitutional monarchy, under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, to a
populist theocratic Islamic republic under the rule of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, a Shi`i Muslim cleric and marja.
Following the Revolution, and a new constitution was approved and a referendum established the government, electing
Ruhollah Khomeini as Supreme Leader. During the following two years, liberals, leftists, and Islamic groups fought each
other, and the Islamics captured power. Gulf states such as Saudi Arabia and Kuwait (despite being hostile to Iraq)
encouraged Saddam Hussein to invade Iran,
[192]
which resulted in the Iran-Iraq war, as they feared that an Islamic revolution
would take place within their own borders. Certain Iranian exiles also helped convince Saddam that if he invaded, the
fledgling Islamic republic would quickly collapse.
National period
ArabIsraeli conflict
The ArabIsraeli conflict spans about a century of political
tensions and open hostilities. It involves the establishment of the
modern State of Israel as a Jewish nation state, the consequent
displacement of the Palestinian people, as well as the adverse
relationship between the Arab states and the State of Israel (see
related IsraeliPalestinian conflict). Despite at first involving only
the Arab states bordering Israel, animosity has also developed
between Israel and other predominantly Muslim states. Many
countries, individuals and non-governmental organizations
elsewhere in the world feel involved in this conflict for reasons
such as cultural and religious ties with Islam, Arab culture,
Christianity, Judaism, Jewish culture, or for ideological, human
rights, or strategic reasons. Although some consider the
ArabIsraeli conflict a part of (or a precursor to) a wider clash of
24 of 34 30-05-2014 05:04
civilizations between the Western World and the Muslim world,
[193][194]
others oppose this view.
[195]
Animosity emanating
from this conflict has caused numerous attacks on supporters (or perceived supporters) of each side by supporters of the other
side in many countries around the world.
Salafi and the Safavid
Some have argued that the development of the two opposite fringes, the Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam the Twelver
Shia version and its reinforcement by the Iranian Revolution and the Salafi in Saudi Arabia, coupled with the IranSaudi
Arabia relations resulted in these governments using sectarian conflict to enhance their political interests.
[196][197]
Many
have argued that these governments, them selves do not conforms to Islamic economic jurisprudence, and continue to deal in
usury and in Government bonds.
[198][199][200][201]
While their rulers like Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani and some ayatollah's in
Iran on the List of Iranian people by net worth and the House of Saud, accumulated huge personal wealth that some have
argued is at odds with the Islamic message preached by Muhammad and the Quran. Wealth that some think should belong in
Bayt al-mal or the welfare state. The Bayt al-mal or the welfare state was for the Muslim and Non-Muslim poor, needy,
elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-mal ran for hundreds of years under the Rashidun Caliphate in the
7th century and continued through the Umayyad period and well into the Abbasid era.
Anatolian region
Since the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, there has been a strong tradition of secularism in Turkey
established and institutionalized by Atatrk's Reforms. Although the First Grand National Assembly of Turkey had rallied
support from the population for the Independence War against the occupying forces on behalf of Islamic principles, Islam
was omitted from the public sphere after the Independence War. The principle of secularism was thus inserted in the Turkish
Constitution as late as 1937. This legal action was assisted by stringent state policies against domestic Islamist groups and
establishments to neutralize the strong appeal of Islam in Turkish society. Even though an overwhelming majority of the
population, at least nominally, adheres to Islam in Turkey, the state, which was established with the Kemalist ideology has no
official religion nor promotes any and it monitors the area between the religions using the Presidency of Religious Affairs.
The Republic Protests were a series of mass rallies by Turkish secular citizens that took place in Turkey in 2007. The target
of the first protest was the possible presidential candidacy of the Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoan, afraid that if elected
President of Turkey Erdoan would alter the Turkish secularist state.
See also
Early scholars of Islam
History of the Balkans
Islam by country - a list
List of the Muslim Empires
List of dynasties of Muslim Rulers
Pre-Islamic Arabia
Notes
^ Milestones of Islamic History (http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?c=Article_C&cid=1212925100226&pagename=Zone-
English-ArtCulture%2FACELayout)
1.
^ Khaddr 2002, pp. 1920 2.
^ Mecca: a literary history of the Muslim Holy Land By Francis E. Peters 3.
^ Umar bin Al Khattab - The Second Caliph of Islam by Abdul Basit Ahmad Page 43 [1] (http://books.google.co.uk
/books?id=kWp8aeuqKaYC&pg=PT44&dq=umar+walked+the+streets+every+evening&hl=en&
sa=X&ei=1bMkUYDjBJTB0gXczYCYDw&ved=0CEAQ6AEwAg)
4.
^ Men Around the Messenger by Khlid Muammad Khlid, Muhammad Khali Khalid Page 20 [2] (http://books.google.co.uk
/books?id=T-uN7tDGSZMC&pg=PA20&dq=umar+lived+in+a+mud+hut&hl=en&sa=X&ei=c7UkUeSJFcjL0QWZ84CQDw&
ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=umar%20lived%20in%20a%20mud%20hut&f=false)
5.
25 of 34 30-05-2014 05:04
^ The Living Thoughts of the Prophet Muhammad by Maulana Muhammad Ali Page [3] (http://books.google.co.uk
/books?id=RQxYnAykK6sC&pg=PT132&dq=umar+lived+in+a+mud+hut&hl=en&sa=X&ei=c7UkUeSJFcjL0QWZ84CQDw&
ved=0CDUQ6AEwAQ)
6.
^ Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective by Muhammad Al-Buraey Page 254 [4] (http://books.google.co.uk
/books?id=HJE9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA254&dq=umar+welfare+state&hl=en&sa=X&ei=F60kUfj6MtGN0wW4y4GQDw&
ved=0CFQQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=umar%20welfare%20state&f=false)
7.
^ The challenge of Islamic renaissance by Syed Abdul Quddus 8.
^ Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective by Muhammad Al-Buraey Page 252 [5] (http://books.google.co.uk
/books?id=lT8OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA252&dq=umar+Bayt+al-mal&hl=en&sa=X&ei=HrEkUYfnOYSk0AWlqYCYDw&
ved=0CDQQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=umar%20Bayt%20al-mal&f=false)
9.
^ Ottoman History: Misperceptions and Truths by Said ztrk Page 539 (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EnT_zhqEe5cC&
pg=PA539&dq=umar+Bayt+al-mal&hl=en&sa=X&ei=HrEkUYfnOYSk0AWlqYCYDw&ved=0CEAQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&
q=umar%20Bayt%20al-mal&f=false)
10.
^ Esposito (2010, p. 38) 11.
^ Hofmann (2007), p.86 12.
^ Islam: An Illustrated History by Greville Stewart Parker Freeman-Grenville, Stuart Christopher Munro-Hay Page 40 13.
^ R. B. Serjeant, "Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib: analysis and translation of the documents
comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies (1978), 41: 1-42,
Cambridge University Press.
14.
^ Watt. Muhammad at Medina and R. B. Serjeant "The Constitution of Medina." Islamic Quarterly 8 (1964) p.4. 15.
^ Constitution of Medina (http://www.scribd.com/doc/15118390/Madinah-Peace-Treaty) 16.
^ The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate by Wilferd Madelung Page 61 [6] (http://books.google.co.uk
/books?id=2QKBUwBUWWkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=death+of+muhammad+and+the+beginning+of+islam&hl=en&
sa=X&ei=0JX-UMysC62Y0QWOsICIDQ&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&
q=death%20of%20muhammad%20and%20the%20beginning%20of%20islam&f=false)
17.
^ Rahman (1999, p. 40) 18.
^ European Naval and Maritime History, 300-1500 by Archibald Ross Lewis, Timothy J. Runyan Page 24 [7]
(http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OzIRDbARyWIC&pg=PA24&dq=Muawiyah+set+up+navy&hl=en&
sa=X&ei=OjsJUdy1GcSS0QXV-YCwCw&ved=0CD4Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Muawiyah%20set%20up%20navy&f=false)
19.
^ History of the Jihad (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aAPc3mYwZpIC&pg=PA123&dq=Muawiyah+Battle+of+the+Masts&
hl=en&sa=X&ei=RTwJUbbaOOG60QWV0ICIBQ&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&
q=Muawiyah%20Battle%20of%20the%20Masts&f=false) by Leonard Michael Kroll Page 123
20.
^ A History of Byzantium (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KIFJiOCSYc8C&pg=PA183&
dq=Muawiyah+Battle+of+the+Masts&hl=en&sa=X&ei=RTwJUbbaOOG60QWV0ICIBQ&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&
q=Muawiyah%20Battle%20of%20the%20Masts&f=false) by Timothy E. Gregory page 183
21.
^ Prophets and Princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the Present by Mark Weston Page 61 [8] (http://books.google.co.uk
/books?id=EEEFsVYLko4C&pg=PA61&dq=Muawiyah+Battle+of+the+Masts&hl=en&
sa=X&ei=RTwJUbbaOOG60QWV0ICIBQ&ved=0CDoQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Muawiyah%20Battle%20of%20the%20Masts&
f=false)
22.
^ The Medieval Siege (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fKFRvUiLEQYC&pg=PA11&dq=Muawiyah+Battle+of+the+Masts&
hl=en&sa=X&ei=RTwJUbbaOOG60QWV0ICIBQ&ved=0CEoQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&
q=Muawiyah%20Battle%20of%20the%20Masts&f=false) by Jim Bradbury Page 11
23.
^ Schimmel, Annemarie; Barbar Rivolta (Summer, 1992). "Islamic Calligraphy". The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, New
Series 50 (1): 3.
24.
^ The Spread of Islam: The Contributing Factors by Abu al-Fazl Izzati, A. Ezzati Page 301 25.
^ Islam For Dummies by Malcolm Clark Page 26.
^ Spiritual Clarity by Jackie Wellman Page 51 27.
^ The Koran For Dummies by Sohaib Sultan Page 28.
^ Qur'an: The Surah Al-Nisa, Ch4:v2 29.
^ Qur'an: Surat Al-Hujurat [49:13] 30.
^ Qur'an: Surat An-Nisa' [4:1] 31.
26 of 34 30-05-2014 05:04
^ Iraq a Complicated State: Iraq's Freedom War by Karim M. S. Al-Zubaidi Page 32 32.
^ Arab Socialism. [al-Ishtirakiyah Al-?Arabiyah]: A Documentary Survey by Sami A. Hanna, George H. Gardner Page 271 [9]
(http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zsoUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA271&dq=Umar+wealth+and+luxury&hl=en&
sa=X&ei=OBQYUcXSOYWM0wWajIHQCg&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Umar%20wealth%20and%20luxury&
f=false)
33.
^ Arab Socialism. [al-Ishtirakiyah Al-Arabiyah]: A Documentary Survey by Sami A. Hanna, George H. Gardner Page 271 [10]
(http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zsoUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA271&dq=Umar+wealth+and+luxury&hl=en&
sa=X&ei=OBQYUcXSOYWM0wWajIHQCg&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Umar%20wealth%20and%20luxury&
f=false)
34.
^ Men Around the Messenger by Khalid Muhammad Khalid, Muhammad Khali Khalid Page 117 [11] (http://books.google.co.uk
/books?id=T-uN7tDGSZMC&pg=PA117&dq=Umar+wealth+and+luxury&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OBQYUcXSOYWM0wWajIHQCg&
ved=0CDUQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Umar%20wealth%20and%20luxury&f=false)
35.
^ The Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 2 edited by P. M. Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis Page 605 [12]
(http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UfQWT_esc5cC&pg=PA605&dq=Umar+wealth+and+luxury&hl=en&
sa=X&ei=OBQYUcXSOYWM0wWajIHQCg&ved=0CFgQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=Umar%20wealth%20and%20luxury&
f=false)
36.
^ The Early Caliphate (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=flg-UX6fOdkC&pg=PT101&dq=Umar+wealth+and+luxury&hl=en&
sa=X&ei=OBQYUcXSOYWM0wWajIHQCg&ved=0CF0Q6AEwCA) by Maulana Muhammad Ali
37.
^ [13] (http://quran.com/18) 38.
^ [14] (http://quran.com/63) 39.
^ Rahman (1999, p. 37) 40.
^ Rahman (1999, p. 53) 41.
^ The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate by Wilferd Madelung Page 232 [15] (http://books.google.co.uk
/books?id=2QKBUwBUWWkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=hasan+ibn+ali+and+muawiya+peace+treaty&hl=en&
sa=X&ei=jdsXUfCqLeOx0QXypYDIDg&ved=0CFQQ6AEwBzgK#v=onepage&q&f=false)
42.
^ Sahih Al Bukhari Volume 3, Book 49 (Peacemaking), Number 867 (http://www.sahih-bukhari.com/Pages/Bukhari_3_49.php) 43.
^ Holt (1977a, pp. 6772) 44.
^ Sahih Al Bukhari Volume 6, Book 60, Number 352 (http://www.sahih-bukhari.com) 45.
^ Donald Puchala, Theory and History in International Relations, page 137. Routledge, 2003. 46.
^ W. Montgomery Watt. "Khrijite thought in the Umayyad Period". Der Islam. Volume 36, Issue 3, Pages 215231, ISSN (online)
1613-0928, ISSN (print) 0021-1818, doi:10.1515/islm.1961.36.3.215 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1515%2Fislm.1961.36.3.215), //1961
47.
^
a

b
Encyclopdia Britannica by Hugh Chisholm. Page 28 (http://books.google.com/books?id=L0UbAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA28) 48.
^ Roberts, J: History of the World. Penguin, 1994. 49.
^ Dermenghem, E. (1958). Muhammad and the Islamic tradition. New York: Harper Brothers. Page 183. 50.
^ The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate by Wilferd Madelung. Page 340. 51.
^ Encyclopaedic ethnography of Middle-East and Central Asia: A-I, Volume 1 edited by R. Khanam. Page 543 52.
^ Islam and Politics John L. Esposito - 1998 Page 16 53.
^ Islamic Imperial Law: Harun-Al-Rashid's Codification Project by Benjamin Jokisch - 2007 - Page 404 54.
^ The Byzantine And Early Islamic Near East Hugh N. Kennedy - 2006 - Page 197 55.
^ A Chronology of Islamic History by H. U. Rahman Page 106, 129 56.
^ Voyages in World History by Josef W. Meri - Page 248 57.
^ Lapidus (2002, p. 56); Lewis (1993, pp. 7183) 58.
^ Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994). The End of the Jihad State, the Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd-al Malik and the collapse of the
Umayyads. State University of New York Press. p. 37. ISBN 0-7914-1827-8
59.
^ answering-ansar.org. ch 8. (http://www.answering-ansar.org/answers/muawiya/en/chap8.php) 60.
^ answering-ansar.org. ch 7. (http://www.answering-ansar.org/answers/muawiya/en/chap7.php) 61.
^ Kokab wa Rifi Fazal-e-Ali Karam Allah Wajhu, Page 484, by Syed Mohammed Subh-e-Kashaf AlTirmidhi, Urdu translation by
Syed Sharif Hussein Sherwani Sabzawari, Published by Aloom AlMuhammed, number B12 Shadbagh, Lahore, 1 January 1963.
Page 484.
62.
^ History of the Arab by Philip K Hitti 63.
^ History of Islam by prof.Masudul Hasan 64.
27 of 34 30-05-2014 05:04
^ The Empire of the Arabs by sir John Glubb 65.
^ In the Al-Andalus (the Iberian Peninsula), North Africa and in the east populations revolted. In A.H. 102 (720-721) in Ifriqiyah,
the harsh governor Yazid ibn Muslim was overthrown and Muhammad ibn Yazid, the former governor, restored to power. The
caliph accepted this and confirmed Muhammad ibn Yazid as governor of Ifriqiyah.
66.
^ *Eggenberger, David (1985). An Encyclopedia of Battles: Accounts of Over 1,560 Battles from 1479 BC. to the Present. Courier
Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-24913-1 p. 3.
67.
^ von Ess, "Kadar", Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd Ed. 68.
^ Theophilus. Quoted Robert Hoyland, Seeing Islam as Others Saw It (Darwin Press, 1998), 660 69.
^
a

b
J. Jomier. Islam: Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. accessdate=2007-05-02 70.
^ Lewis 1993, p. 84 71.
^ Holt 1977a, p. 105 72.
^ Holt 1977b, pp. 661663 73.
^
a

b

c
"Abbasid Dynasty", The New Encyclopdia Britannica (2005) 74.
^ "Islam", The New Encyclopdia Britannica (2005) 75.
^
a

b

c

d

e

f

g

h

i

j
Applied History Research Group. "The Islamic World to 1600" (http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam
/index2.html). University of Calagary. Retrieved 2007-04-18.
76.
^ "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online 77.
^ Lapidus 2002, p. 54 78.
^ Nasr 2003, p. 121 79.
^ Khaddr 2002, pp. 2122 80.
^ Abdel Wahab El Messeri. Episode 21: Ibn Rushd (http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/tvtk/ch21.htm), Everything you wanted to
know about Islam but was afraid to Ask, Philosophia Islamica.
81.
^ Fauzi M. Najjar (Spring, 1996). The debate on Islam and secularism in Egypt (http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2501
/is_n2_v18/ai_18627295/pg_13), Arab Studies Quarterly (ASQ).
82.
^ for more, see As-Saffah's_Caliphate 83.
^ An universal history: from the earliest accounts to the present time, Volume 2 By George Sale, George Psalmanazar, Archibald
Bower, George Shelvocke, John Campbell, John Swinton. Page 319 (http://books.google.com/books?id=taoEAAAAYAAJ&
pg=PA319)
84.
^ Chamber's Encyclopaedia: A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge, Volume 5. W. & R. Chambers, 1890. Page 567
(http://books.google.com/books?id=WlYWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA567).
85.
^ Johannes P. Schad (ed.). Encyclopedia of World Religions. 86.
^ Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari History volume xxxi, "The War Between Brothers," transl. Michael Fishbein, SUNY, Albany, 1992 87.
^ Nasr 2003, pp. 121122 88.
^ Lapidus 1988, p. 129 89.
^ The Encyclopaedia Britannica. A. and C. Black, 1878. Pg 578 (http://books.google.com/books?id=VtpTAAAAYAAJ&
pg=PA578)+
90.
^ Hindu rebellions in Sindh were put down, and most of Afghanistan was absorbed with the surrender of the leader of Kabul.
Mountainous regions of Iran were brought under a tighter grip of the central Abbasid government, as were areas of Turkestan. There
were disturbances in Iraq during the first several years of Al-Ma'mun's reign. Egypt continued to be unquiet. Sindh was rebellious,
but Ghassan ibn Abbad subdued it. An ongoing problem for Al-Ma'mun was the uprising headed by Babak Khorramdin. In 214
Babak routed a Caliphate army, killing its commander Muhammad ibn Humayd.
91.
^ The Mihna subjected traditionalist scholars with social influence and intellectual quality to imprisonment, religious tests, and
loyalty oaths. Al-Ma'mun introduced the Mihna with the intention to centralize religious power in the caliphal institution and test the
loyalty of his subjects. The Mihna had to be undergone by elites, scholars, judges and other government officials, and consisted of a
series of questions relating to theology and faith. The central question was about the state of the creation of the Qur'an: if the person
interrogated stated he believed the Qur'an to be created, he was free to leave and continue his profession.
92.
^ Had he been victorious over the Byzantine Emperor, Al-Ma'mun would have made a condition of peace be that the emperor hand
over of a copy of the "Almagest".
93.
^ Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, History v. 32 "The Reunification of the Abbasid Caliphate," SUNY, Albany, 1987; v. 33 "Storm
and Stress along the Northern frontiers of the Abbasid Caliphate," transl. C.E. Bosworth, SUNY, Albany, 1991
94.
28 of 34 30-05-2014 05:04
^ Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari History v. 34 "Incipient Decline," transl. Joel L. Kramer, SUNY, Albany, 1989. ISBN
0-88706-875-8, ISBN 978-0-88706-875-1
95.
^ Its minarets were spiraling cones 55 metres (180 ft) high with a spiral ramp, and it had 17 aisles with walls paneled with mosaics
of dark blue glass.
96.
^ A sum of 120,000 golden pieces was paid for the freedom of the captives. 97.
^ Examples of the former include the loss of Mosul in 990, and the loss of abaristn and Gurgn in 997. An example of the latter is
the Kakyid dynasty of Isfahn, whose fortunes rose with the decline of the Byids of northern Iran.
98.
^ Bowen, Harold (1928). The Life and Times of Al Ibn s: The Good Vizier (http://books.google.com
/books?id=TZM3AAAAIAAJ). Cambridge University Press. p. 385.
99.
^ R. N. Frye (1975). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume Four: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. ISBN 0-521-20093-8 100.
^ Hanne, Eric, J. (2007). Putting the Caliph in His Place: Power, Authority, and the Late Abbasid Caliphate. Fairleigh Dickinson
Univ Press. p. 55. ISBN 9780838641132.
101.
^ William Muir. The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline, and Fall. 102.
^ Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Oxford History of the Crusades, (Oxford University Press, 2002), 213. 103.
^ William Muir, The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline, and Fall. 104.
^ Izz al-Dn Ibn al-Athr, Donald Sidney Richards, The chronicle of Ibn al-Athr for the crusading period from al-Kmil f'l-ta'rkh:
The years 491-541/1097-1146 : the coming of the Franks and the Muslim response.
105.
^ Martin Sicker. The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna. Greenwood Publishing
Group, Jan 1, 2000. Pg 75 (http://books.google.com/books?id=xlWsMcwZ9vEC&lpg=PA75).
106.
^ Jean Richard, The Latin kingdom of Jerusalem: Volume 1. 1979. Page 36. 107.
^ It is supposed by an emissary of the Hashshashins, who had no love for the Caliph. Modern historians have suspected that Mas'ud
instigated the murder although the two most important historians of the period Ibn al-Athir and Ibn al-Jawzi did not speculate on
this matter.
108.
^ William Muir. book The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline, and Fall, 1924. 109.
^ Grigor of Akanc-The history of the nation of archers, (tr. R.P.Blake) 303 110.
^ Kalistriat Salia-History of the Georguan Nation, p.210 111.
^ Thomas T. Allsen-Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia, p.84 112.
^ Bernard Lewis. The Political Language of Islam. University of Chicago Press, Jun 11, 1991. 113.
^ Ann K. S. Lambton. State and Government in Medieval Islam. Psychology Press, 1981 Pg 138 (http://books.google.com
/books?id=SJRBU66I4MQC&pg=PA138).
114.
^ Arthur Goldschmidt, Jr. A Concise History of the Middle East. 115.
^
a

b
Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice By Mahmoud A. El-Gamal Page 122 [16] (http://books.google.co.uk
/books?id=2ElRUvoVRxYC&pg=PA118&dq=Zaydis+use+hanafi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OSQiUeC5HrKM0wWjmIBI&
ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Zaydis%20use%20hanafi&f=false)
116.
^
a

b
The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social and Military History edited by Spencer C. Tucker, Priscilla
Mary Roberts Page 917 [17] (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC&pg=PA917&dq=Zaydis+use+hanafi&hl=en&
sa=X&ei=OSQiUeC5HrKM0wWjmIBI&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Zaydis%20use%20hanafi&f=false)
117.
^
a

b
The Iraq Effect: The Middle East After the Iraq War By Frederic M. Wehrey Page 91 [18] (http://books.google.co.uk
/books?id=i-3LAlfW7DIC&pg=PA91&dq=Zaydis+use+hanafi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OSQiUeC5HrKM0wWjmIBI&
ved=0CEoQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Zaydis%20use%20hanafi&f=false)
118.
^ "Mahdia: Historical Background (http://www.commune-mahdia.gov.tn/ENG/presentation_ville/histoire_de_la_ville.htm)".
Commune-mahdia.gov.tn.
119.
^ Beeson, Irene (SeptemberOctober 1969). "Cairo, a Millennial" (http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/196905/cairo-
a.millennial.htm). Saudi Aramco World: 24, 2630. Retrieved 2007-08-09.
120.
^ Firestone, R. (2008). An introduction to Islam for Jews. Philadelphia: JPS/Jewish Publication Society. Page 66 121.
^ Lane, J.-E., Redissi, H., & aydw, R. (2009). Religion and politics: Islam and Muslim civilization. Farnham, England: Ashgate
Pub. Company. Page 83
122.
^ Cairo_of_the_mind, oldroads.org (http://www.oldroads.org/pastblogs/pastsingles2007/Cairo_of_the_mind.htm) 123.
^ John Bagnell Bury. The Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 2. Macmillan, 1913. Pg 379 (http://books.google.com
/books?id=XiuSGrFt32gC&pg=PA379).
124.
^ al-Qaim bi-Amrillah (http://archive.mumineen.org/awliya/aimmat/e_imamqaim.html). archive.mumineen.org 125.
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^ Collins 2004, p. 139 126.
^ Hourani 2003, p. 41 127.
^ Glubb, John Bagot (1966). The course of empire: The Arabs and their successors. Prentice-Hall. p. 128. 128.
^ Glick, Thomas F. (2005). Islamic and Christian Spain in the early Middle Ages. BRILL. p. 102. ISBN 90-04-14771-3. 129.
^ Luscombe, David Edward; Jonathan Riley-Smith (2004). The new Cambridge medieval history. Cambridge University Press.
p. 599. ISBN 0-521-41410-5.
130.
^ O'Callaghan, Joseph F. (1983). A History of Medieval Spain. Cornell University Press. p. 133. ISBN 0-8014-9264-5. 131.
^ Constable, Olivia Remie (1997). "The Political Dilemma of a Granadan Ruler". Medieval Iberia: Readings from Christian,
Muslim, and Jewish Sources. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 103. ISBN 0-8122-1569-9.
132.
^ This was likely because al-Andalus was a land besieged by many different loyalties, and the proclamation of caliph would have
likely caused much unrest. Abd al-Rahman's progeny would, however, take up the title of caliph.
133.
^ Michael Hamilton Morgan. Lost History: The Enduring Legacy of Muslim Scientists, Thinkers, and Artists . National Geographic
Books, 2008.
134.
^ The Penny Cyclopdia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, Volumes 15-16. C. Knight, 1839. Pg 385
(http://books.google.com/books?id=ns5PAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA385)
135.
^ Near the end of his life, it is said, though, that Abd al-Rahman became increasingly paranoid and sequestered himself in his
palaces.
136.
^ P. M. Holt, Peter Malcolm Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis. The Cambridge History of Islam. Cambridge University
Press, Apr 21, 1977. Pg 411 (http://books.google.com/books?id=y99jTbxNbSAC&pg=PA411)
137.
^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 138.
^ Fierro, Maribel (2005). Abd-al-Rahman III of Crdoba. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1-85168-384-4. 139.
^ Ibn Idhari (1860) [Composed c. 1312]. Al-Bayan al-Mughrib [Historias de Al-Andalus (http://books.google.com/books?id=zSs-
AAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover)] (in Spanish). Volume 1. trans. Francisco Fernndez y Gonzlez. Granada: Francisco Ventura y
Sabatel. OCLC 557028856 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/557028856).
140.
^ Lane-Poole, Stanley (1894). The Mohammedan Dynasties: Chronological and Genealogical Tables with Historical Introductions
(http://www.archive.org/details/mohammedandynas00lanegoog). Westminster: Archibald Constable and Company. OCLC 1199708
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1199708).
141.
^ Abd_ar-Rahman_III Assumption_of_the_Caliphate 142.
^ Henry Hallam. View of the State of Europe During the Middle Ages, Volume 1. W. J. Widdleton, 1870. Pg 49
(http://books.google.com/books?id=Dz4QAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA49).
143.
^ The Literary Era: A Monthly Repository of Literary and Miscellaneous Information, Volume 5. Porter & Coates, 1898. Pg 133
(http://books.google.com/books?id=qjHZAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA133).
144.
^ Sylvia Schein. Gateway to the Heavenly City: Crusader Jerusalem and the Catholic West (1099-1187). Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.,
Jan 1, 2005. Pg 19 (http://books.google.com/books?id=aaqY_g4i_ukC&pg=PA19).
145.
^ Peter Lock. The Routledge Companion to the Crusades. Routledge, Apr 15, 2013. Pg 180 (http://books.google.com
/books?id=AkCKZ9Hs4-QC&pg=PA180)
146.
^ The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions (The Il-Khanate) http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols
/ilkhanate.html
147.
^ Tschanz, David W. (July/August 2007). "History's Hinge: 'Ain Jalut (http://web.archive.org/web/20070912161811/http:
//www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200704/history.s.hinge.ain.jalut.htm)". Saudi Aramco World.
148.
^ Encyclopedia Americana, Grolier Incorporated, p. 680 149.
^ The spread of Islam: the contributing factors By Ab al-Faz l Izzat, A. Ezzati, pg. 274 150.
^ Islam in Russia: the four seasons By Ravil Bukharaev, pg. 145 151.
^ Elliot, Sir H. M.; edited by Dowson, John. The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period;
published by London Trubner Company 186777. (Online Copy: The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The
Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 18671877
(http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp?serv=pf&file=80201010&ct=0) This online copy has been posted by: The Packard
Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List
(http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp))
152.
^ Richards, John F. (1996). The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press. 153.
^ Hourani 2003, p. 85 154.
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^ The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition. Brill, Leiden. 155.
^ For more, see Mamluk architecture. 156.
^
a

b
A Country Study: Somalia from The Library of Congress (http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd
/cstdy:@field(DOCID+so0014))
157.
^ Kairouan Capital of Political Power and Learning in the Ifriqiya (Muslim Heritage.com) (http://muslimheritage.com/topics
/default.cfm?ArticleID=1176)
158.
^ Clifford Edmund Bosworth, Historic cities of the Islamic world. Brill. 2007. p. 264 (http://books.google.fr
/books?id=UB4uSVt3ulUC&pg=PA264&dq=kairouan+mosque+most+prestigious&lr=&cd=17#v=onepage&
q=kairouan%20mosque%20most%20prestigious&f=false)
159.
^ Y. Benhima, "The Idrisids (789- 974) (http://www.qantara-med.org/qantara4/public/show_document.php?do_id=867&lang=en)".
qantara-med.org, 2008.
160.
^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Almoravides". Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 161.
^ History of the Almonades, Reinhart Dozy, Second edition, 1881. 162.
^ Nicolini, B., & Watson, P.-J. (2004). Makran, Oman, and Zanzibar: Three-terminal cultural corridor in the western Indian Ocean,
1799-1856. Leiden: Brill. Page 35
163.
^ Nimtz, Jr., August H. (1980). Islam and Politics in East Aftrica. the Sufi Order in Tanzania. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota
Press.
164.
^ "Worlds second oldest mosque is in India" (http://web.archive.org/web/20060706220818/http://www.bahraintribune.com
/ArticleDetail.asp?CategoryId=4&ArticleId=49332). Bahrain tribune. Archived from the original (http://www.bahraintribune.com
/ArticleDetail.asp?CategoryId=4&ArticleId=49332) on 2006-07-06. Retrieved 2006-08-09.
165.
^ Srivastava, Ashirvadi Lal (1929). The Sultanate Of Delhi 711-1526 A D (http://www.archive.org/stream
/sultanateofdelhi001929mbp#page/n5/mode/2up). Shiva Lal Agarwala & Company.
166.
^ Holden, Edward Singleton (1895). The Mogul emperors of Hindustan, A.D. 1398- A.D. 1707 (http://www.archive.org/stream
/mogulemperorsofh00hold#page/n9/mode/2up). New York : C. Scribner's Sons.
167.
^ Khamouch, Mohammed. "Jewel of Chinese Muslims Heritage (http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/China%201.pdf)".
FTSC.
168.
^ Gustave Le Bon. 1956. Hadarat al Arab. Translation of La Civilisation-des Arabes. 3rd Print. Cairo. P.95. 169.
^ Suryanegara, Ahmad Mansyur.2009. API Sejarah. 1st Printed. Bandung. Indonesia. P. 2 - 3 170.
^ Sir Thomas Arnold and Alfred Guilaume, (Editor), 1965. The Legacy of Islam. Oxford University Press, New York, P.87. 171.
^ Nasr 2003, p. 143 172.
^ Spencer C. Tucker, The encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American wars: a political, social, and military
history, Volume 1, ABC-CLIO, 2009, page 419 (http://books.google.fr/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC&pg=PA419&
dq=late+15th+century+islam+philippines&hl=fr&ei=zhX0TauuBI_1sgb8sam9Bg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&
ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=late%2015th%20century%20islam%20philippines&f=false)
173.
^ Bloom & Blair 2000, pp. 226230 174.
^
a

b
Armstrong 2000, p. 116 175.
^ For more, see Forms of vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire 176.
^
a

b

c
Bloom & Blair 2000, pp. 211219 177.
^ Peter B. Golden: An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples; In: Osman Karatay, Ankara 2002, p.321 178.
^ "Ismail Safavi" Encyclopdia Iranica 179.
^ Bloom & Blair 2000, pp. 199204 180.
^ Esposito (2010, p. 146) 181.
^ Holt 1977a, p. 263 182.
^ Kohn, G. C. (2006). Dictionary of wars. New York: Facts on File. Page 94. 183.
^ Koprulu 1992, p. 109 184.
^ Koprulu 1992, p. 111 185.
^ http://www.muslimdecline.blogspot.com 186.
^ Bentley & Ziegler 2006, pp. 961, 969 187.
^ Bentley & Ziegler 2006, pp. 971972 188.
^ McNeill, Bentley & Christian 2005, p. 1402 189.
^ East Bengal a part of the newly created Pakistan later becomes independent. 190.
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^ Cyrus Ghani, Srs an. Iran and the Rise of the Reza Shah: From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I.B.Tauris, Jan 6, 2001. 191.
^ Farrokh, Kaveh. Iran at War: 15001988. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 9781780962214. 192.
^ Causes of Anti-Americanism in the Arab World: A Socio-Political Perspective (http://meria.idc.ac.il/journal/2003/issue4
/jf7n4a6.html) by Abdel Mahdi Abdallah (MERIA Journal). Volume 7, No. 4 December 2003
193.
^ Arab-Israeli Conflict: Role of religion (http://www.science.co.il/Arab-Israeli-conflict-2.asp#Clash) (Israel Science and
Technology)
194.
^ Arab-American Psychiatrist Wafa Sultan: There is No Clash of Civilizations but a Clash between the Mentality of the Middle
Ages and That of the 21st Century (http://www.memritv.org/Transcript.asp?P1=1050)
195.
^ The Three Circles of War: Understanding the Dynamics of Conflict in Iraq By Heather S. Gregg Page 66 [19]
(http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fqRgDU1kKi0C&pg=PA66&dq=saudi+and+iran+fund+sectarian+conflict&hl=en&
sa=X&ei=FD8iUfe8KMua0QXA0YHgBA&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&
q=saudi%20and%20iran%20fund%20sectarian%20conflict&f=false)
196.
^ After Khomeini:Iran Under His Successors By Said Amir Arjomand Page 195 [20] (http://books.google.co.uk
/books?id=Mx9Tdoz6axoC&pg=PA195&dq=saudi+and+iran+fund+sectarian+conflict&hl=en&
sa=X&ei=FD8iUfe8KMua0QXA0YHgBA&ved=0CFYQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&
q=saudi%20and%20iran%20fund%20sectarian%20conflict&f=false)
197.
^ Islamic Identity and the Struggle for Justice edited by Nimat Hafez Barazangi, M. Raquibuz Zaman, Omar Afzal Page 5 [21]
(http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0QtcBRWs__AC&pg=PA5&
dq=currently+no+government+applies+Islamic+economic+jurisprudence&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Y5waUf6PKI2p0AXq-4HQDw&
ved=0CGUQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=currently%20no%20government%20applies%20Islamic%20economic%20jurisprudence&
f=false)
198.
^ Iran's Economy Under the Islamic Republic By Jahangir Amuzegar (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sNvX7bg1Hq8C&
pg=PA121&dq=government+bonds+in+iran&hl=en&sa=X&ei=fqUaUeWlD-mn0AX64YHwDg&sqi=2&
ved=0CD8Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=government%20bonds%20in%20iran&f=false)
199.
^ Iran: A Country Study: A Country Study edited by Glenn E. Curtis, Eric Hooglund Page 196 [22] (http://books.google.co.uk
/books?id=yPf_f7skJUYC&pg=PA196&dq=government+bonds+in+iran&hl=en&sa=X&ei=fqUaUeWlD-mn0AX64YHwDg&
sqi=2&ved=0CE4Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=government%20bonds%20in%20iran&f=false)
200.
^ Islam and Politics By John L. Esposito (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SlhxoTHLxeMC&pg=PA111&
dq=sharia+laws+applied+to+government+of+saudi+arabia&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XUMiUdWsEIrN0QW6xoHQBA&
ved=0CFoQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=sharia%20laws%20applied%20to%20government%20of%20saudi%20arabia&f=false)
201.
References and further reading
Books, articles, and journals
Armstrong, Karen (2000). Islam: A Short History. Modern Library. ISBN 978-0-679-64040-0.
Bloom; Blair (2000). Islam:A Thousand Years of Faith and Power.
Esposito, John (2000b). Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510799-9.
Hart, Michael (1978). The 100:Ranking of the most influential persons in history. New York: Carol Publishing Group.
ISBN 0-8065-1057-9.
Holt, P. M.; Bernard Lewis (1977a). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-29136-4.
Holt, P. M.; Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis (1977b). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0-521-29137-2.
Hourani, Albert; Ruthven, Malise (2003). A History of the Arab Peoples. Belknap Press; Revised edition.
ISBN 978-0-674-01017-8.
Khaddr, Majd (2002). The Islamic Law of Nations: Shaybani's Siyar (http://books.google.dk
/books?id=89spaKByt_MC&printsec=frontcover&dq=majid+khadduri+siyar&hl=da&
ei=9LP0TfmOGZKGvAO05LHeBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&
32 of 34 30-05-2014 05:04
ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22the%20stages%20through%20which%22&f=false). JHU Press. pp. 1920.
ISBN 9780801869754.
Koprulu, Mehmed Fuad; Leiser, Gary (1992). The Origins of the. SUNY Press. ISBN 0-7914-0819-1.
Lapidus, Ira M. (2002). A History of Islamic societes. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-77056-4.
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/chronological.htm)
Islam: 662AD - Present (http://friesian.com/islam.htm)
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Ethiopian Muslims History (http://www.selamta.net/ethiopian%20muslims%20history.htm) The Haven of the First
Hijra (Migration): an African nation is the Muslims first refuge
Brief history of Islam (http://www.barkati.net/english/)
Chronological history of Islam (http://www.barkati.net/english/chronology.htm)
A history of Islamic culture (http://www.muslimheritage.com/)
Islamic Civilization (http://www.cyberistan.org/)
Mohammedan History (http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11772/), 1920
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