1

Layout of the Course "Thermodynamics (1)" ME 230

Thermodynamics is an exciting and important subject that deals with energy,
which is essential for sustenance of life, and thermodynamics has long been
an essential part of engineering curricula all over the world. It has a broad
application area ranging from microscopic organisms to common household
appliances, transportation vehicles, power generation systems, and even
philosophy. The objectives of this text are To cover the basic principles of
thermodynamics, to present a wealth of real-world engineering examples to
give students a feel for how thermodynamics is applied in engineering
practice and to develop an intuitive understanding of thermodynamics by
emphasizing the physics and physical arguments.


Course Title: Thermodynamics (1)

Course Code: ME230

Text Books: 1. Thermodynamics, An Engineering Approach
by Yunus A. Cengel & Michael A. Boles

Lectures by: Prof. Dr. M. G. Wasel

Lectures Place: E214

Office Hours Place: E228

Office Hours Time: Monday (from 10
30
to 2
20
),
Wednesday (from 8
30
to 10
20
)

Tutorials by: Eng. Eman Mohey El-ddein

Tutorials Place: E232

Time Table of Course: Lecture 3 hrs. weekly ( Wednesday from 10
30
to 1
20
)
Tutorial 2 hrs. weekly (Monday from 8
30
to 10
20
)

Course Contents:
1. General Concepts and Definitions
2. Temperature and Perfect Gas
3. Properties of Pure Substances
4. The First Law of Thermodynamics
2

1. First law applied to closed-system processes
2. Particular closed-system processes
3. First law applied to open-system processes (flow processes)
4. Application of the steady flow energy equation to special cases
5. Reversible and Irreversible Processes
6. The Second Law of Thermodynamics
1. Heat engines and reversed heat engines
2. The second law of thermodynamics
3. Carnot cycle
7. Entropy
8. Second Law Efficiency





























3

Lecture (1)

General Concepts and Definitions


1. Units

Units can be classified to two types: basic units and derived units. In
mechanical engineering field, it is suitable to choose the units of mass (m),
length (l), time (t), and temperature (T) as the basic units. Thus it is possible
to express the units of all physical quantities in terms of these basic units
(e.g., units of force, pressure, worketc.).

1.1. Units of Force, Work and Energy
The definition of the force is the time rate of change of momentum.
Accordingly, one can mathematically express this definition as:

) ( c m
dt
d
F =

And when the mass (m) is constant, the foregoing equation can be written as:
a m
dt
dc
m F = =
Where a is the acceleration. The unit of the force can be derived from the
previous definition as:

(

=
(

= =
2 2
] [ ] [ ] [ ] [
s
m kg
s
m
kg a m F
Where one Newton (N) is defined as:
2
1 1
s
m kg
N

=
The definition of the energy (and work) is the ability to exert force through a
distance. Mathematically, this definition can be expressed as:
x F W =
Accordingly, its unit is obtained through the following steps:
] [ ] [ ] [
] [ ] [ ] [
m N m N
x F W
= =
=

Where 1 N.m is called joule (J).

4

1.2. Pressure
Pressure is defined as the force per unit area exerted by a fluid on a real or
imaginary surface; in direction normal to that surface, thus the unit of pressure
in SI units is Pascal (
2
m
N
). Practically, the pressure is measured in bar,
where:

2
5
10 1
m
N
bar =

1.2.1 Absolute Pressure ( p
a
)

It is the weight of liquid column per unit area. Accordingly, one can write:


(

=
(

= =
2 2 3
m
N
m
s
m
m
kg
h g p
a


Sometimes, the value of pressure is expressed as a length of certain liquid.
For example:

bar
m
N
g h Hg of m
Hg
3366 . 1 10 3366 . 1
81 . 9 1 13616 1
2
5
= =
= =


1.2.2 Gauge Pressure (p
g
)

It is defined as:

p
g
= p
a
- p
atm


Where, p
atm
is the atmospheric pressure. The value of gage pressure can be
positive or negative; in the last case the pressure is called vacuum (e. g. 1.0
bar vacuum = -1.0 bar).

1.3 Volume (V), Specific Volume (v) and Density ()
The volume is the space occupied by a substance and is measured in cubic
meter (m
3
). Specific volume (v) is the volume occupied per unit mass and is
measured in m
3
/kg. The density () is defined as the mass of substance per
unit volume. It is measured in kg/m
3
. Accordingly, one can write the following
relations:
m
V
v = ,
V
m
= &
v
1
=


5

p
p -o p
p -o p
x
p
p
o x

w
compressor

2. Work

2.1 Displacement Work

Consider the cylinder with free piston
shown in the figure, for small
movement of piston of dx, the work
exerted by the gas in cylinder is given
by:
x F W o o =
And in this case, one can express the
displacement work as:
] [ m N V p W = o o .

2.2 Shear Work and Fluid Friction

The viscosity of the working fluid will
cause shear stress to be set up and
it can be evaluated according to the
following equation as:

x A W
shear
o o t o = ) (

Where A is the surface area of the cylindrical element of length ox. The shear
stress t
w
at the wall of the cylinder, assuming laminar flow condition, is
evaluated according to the relation:

wall
w
y
c
|
|
.
|
c
c
= t
Where y is the coordinate normal to the cylinder axis.

2.3 Shaft Work
If the angular velocity is denoted as e and the
resisting torque is denoted as M, then the
incremental work required to overcome this
resisting torque is given by the following
relation:
ou o = M W
In this equation u is the angular displacement.
velocity profil
t
t
piston

6

oV
imaginary piston
system boundary
system boundary

2.4 Flow Work
To evaluate the flow energy
associated with the mass
leaving or entering the system
through its boundaries, the work
done on an imaginary needed to
satisfy the movement of mass
om out of the system is given
by:
m pv V p W o o o = =
Accordingly, the specific flow
energy is:
pv w=
3. Power
Power is defined as the time rate of doing work, hence it is measured in [N.m / s] or
in [J / s]. The standard unit of power is watt (W), where:

1 watt (W) = 1 N.m / s = 1 J / s
and
1 kW = 10
3
W = 10
3
J / s

4. Energy
The types of energy considered in thermodynamics can be classified to:

a) Potential energy;
PE = m g z [N.m]
Where m is the mass and g is the gravitational acceleration, while z is the
height measured from reference level ( there z = 0.0 )

b) Kinetic energy
The kinetic energy of a body of mass m moving with a velocity c is evaluated
according to the following relation:

2
2
1
c m KE = [N.m]

7

surrounding
system boundary
mass
energy
system

c) Internal energy
It is the energy of mass composition and it is related to temperature of
the substance. It is denoted by U and the specific energy is denoted by u.
d) Chemical energy
It is the energy released due to the changes in chemical composition
associated with chemical reaction.

e) Atomic reaction
It is the energy released due to the changes in atomic structure
associated with nuclear reaction.

5. System
The system is defined as the
region, where transfer of mass
and energy are to be studied. The
boundary of the system is the
envelope enclosing the system.
The surroundings are the region
outside the system.
The system can be classified to
three types, closed system; open
system and isolated system.
Closed system is the region of
constant mass and energy is
transferred only across the
system boundaries. In open system, mass as well as energy can be
transferred across its boundaries. Mass within the system is not necessarily
constant. In isolated system, neither mass nor energy can be transferred to or
from the surrounding.

6. Homogenous and Heterogeneous Systems
A quality of matter, homogeneous in chemical composition and physical
structure, is called a phase. A system comprising a single phase is called a
homogeneous system. While one consists of two or more phases, is called
heterogeneous system.

7. Components and Pure Substance
Pure substance is a substance with one chemical structure but may be
existed in more than one phase. Water (H
2
O) is an example of this substance,
8


2 3
4 1
p
v

1, 2, 3 & 4 are states
1-2, 2-3, 3-4 & 4-1 are processes
1-2-3-4 is a cycle
since it may be existed in solid phase as ice, liquid phase as liquid water and
gaseous phase as water vapor or steam. The system of single phase may be
consisted of more than one component. For example, moist air is normally
exists as gaseous phase and consists of two components; dry air and water
vapor.

8. Equilibrium
A system is in thermodynamic equilibrium, when it is incapable of
spontaneously change. In this case, it is in complete balance with the
surroundings.

9. Properties, State and Process
Properties are any observable
characteristics of a system as mass,
temperature, pressureetc. and for open
system, velocity, heightetc. are also
properties of the system. State is the
condition of the system as described or
measured by the properties.
A process occurs whenever the system
undergoes a change in state or an energy
transfer at a steady state. A cycle consists of a series of processes such that
both initial and end states are the same.

10. Enthalpy
It is a thermodynamic property and is defined as:
pv u h + =

11. Relationships between Thermodynamic Properties
For pure substance, any thermodynamic property is defined by any other two
properties as:
0 ) , , ( = T v p f & ) , (
1
T v f p = .
For ideal gas, this relation is simple. The simplest form of equation of state is:
mRT pV =


9



12. Examples
Example (1)
A steam turbine exhausts into a condenser, the gage on which reads 0.65 m-
Hg vacuum. Express this pressure in bar absolute pressure, assuming
the atmospheric pressure is 1.013 bar.
Given:
p
g
= -0.65 m-Hg,
p
atm
= 1.013 [bar]

Required:
p
abs


Solution:
] [ 869 . 0
) 650 . 0 ( 81 . 9 13600
] [ 65 . 0
bar
h g
Hg m p
Hg
g
=
=
=
=

] [ 144 . 0
013 . 1 869 . 0
bar
p p p
atm g abs
=
+ =
+ =











Condenser
Steam from turbine
Condensate from condenser
Press. gage

10

Example (2)
A venturi meter measures the pressure difference on the up- and the down-
stream sides of a contraction in area of the channel through which the fluid is
flowing. The pressure difference is very often measured by means of a U-tube
with mercury in the bottom of the tube and the fluid flowing on top of each
column of mercury. The flow is proportional to h, the pressure difference, m-
Hg. Express this in bar, assuming the fluid to be water and S. G. of mercury is
13.6.

Solution:
Referring to the figure:

] [ 23606 . 1
] [ 81 . 9 1000 6 . 12
81 . 9 1000 ) 0 . 1 6 . 13 (
] ) 0 . 1 . . [(
) (
bar h
Pa h
h
h g G S
h g
h g h g p
w
w Hg
w Hg
=
=
=
=
=
= A

h
Hg
Water

11

Example (3)
If the load resisting the shafts rotation is equivalent to 11.3398 N at a radius
of 0.762 m and the speed of the shaft is 4.1667 rev./s, what is the power
transmitted at a speed of 250 rev/min?
Given:
F = 11.3398 N,
L = 0.762 m,
RPM = 4.1667 rev./s = 250 rev./min
Required:
The value of transmitted power
Solution:

] [ 641 . 8
762 . 0 3398 . 11
m N
L F M
=
=
=

e = 2 t N / 60
= 2(3.14)(250) / 60
= 26.18 [s
1
]
Power = M.e
= (8.641)(26.18)
= 226.221 |N.m / s]
= 0.226221 [kJ / s]
= 0.226221 [kW]

Example (4):
Nitrous oxide (laughing gas) of density 31.684 kg/m
3
is carried in a pipe
line 60.96 m above sea level and is at a temperature of 148.9
o
C. It flows
along the pipe at the of 6.096 m/s and its specific heat at constant volume is
0.6741 kJ/kg-K. Taking sea level as datum for heights and 0
o
C as datum for
energy involving temperature, evaluate the potential, kinetic and internal
energy, and thus the total energy, of the gas.
Given:
= 31.684 [kg/m
3
],

F
L

12

h = 60.96 [m],
T = 148.9 [
o
C],
c = 6.096 [m/s],
c
v
= 0.6741 [kJ/kg-K],
u = 0.0 [kJ/kg-K] at T = 0 [
o
C]
Required:
PE, KE, IE, total energy
Solution:
PE = m g h
= (1)(9.81)(60.96)
= 598.02 [J/kg]
= 0.59802 [kJ/kg]
KE = (1/2) m c
2

= (1/2)(1)(6.096)
2

= 18.58 [J/kg]
= 0.01858 [ kJ/kg]
IE = m u
= m c
v
AT
= (1)(0.6741)(148.9 0)
= 100.373 [kJ/kg]

Therefore, neglecting the chemical energy,
Total energy E = PE + KE + IE
= 0.59802 + 0.01858 + 100.373
= 100.99 [kJ/kg]