Wireless Fundamentals v821 C May 08 WW Eng LTR

ProCurve Wireless
Fundamentals Guide
Technical Training Version 8.21

Rev. 8.21 i
Contents

Module 1: Wireless Network Technologies and Specifications
Objectives..............................................................................................................1-1
Discussion Topics..................................................................................................1-2
802.11 Standard............................................................................................1-3
Overall Spectrum..........................................................................................1-4
802.11bFirst Widely Adopted Standard....................................................1-5
802.11aAdding Speed...............................................................................1-6
802.11gAdding Speed and Compatibility.................................................1-8
Approximate Spectral Placement of 802.11b/g Channels.............................1-9
Channel Boundaries....................................................................................1-10
Summary of 802.11a, b, and g Transmission Rates....................................1-11
Basic Rates..........................................................................................1-11
Supported Rates..................................................................................1-12
Slot Time............................................................................................1-12
Protection............................................................................................1-12
Modulation for 802.11b, 802.11a, and 802.11g..........................................1-13
802.11b...............................................................................................1-13
802.11a................................................................................................1-14
802.11g...............................................................................................1-14
802.11 Frame Types....................................................................................1-15
Frame Types and Subtypes.........................................................................1-17
Management Frames...........................................................................1-17
Control Frames...................................................................................1-17
Data Frames........................................................................................1-17
802.11hMeeting Regulations..................................................................1-18
802.11hDFS............................................................................................1-19
Soliciting Reports...............................................................................1-19
Changing Channels.............................................................................1-19
802.11hTPC............................................................................................1-20
802.11nThe Next-Generation Wireless Standard...................................1-21
802.11nMIMO........................................................................................1-22
802.11nFurther Advancements...............................................................1-24
802.11nSummary of Improvements........................................................1-25
802.11nBeyond Draft 2.0........................................................................1-26
Other 802.11 Standards...............................................................................1-27
Discussion Topics................................................................................................1-28
Ad-Hoc Mode.............................................................................................1-29
Infrastructure Mode.....................................................................................1-30
In-Cell Relay Mode.....................................................................................1-31
ProCurve Wireless Fundamentals
ii Rev. 8.21
BSS and BSSID..........................................................................................1-33
ESS and SSID.............................................................................................1-34
WLAN.........................................................................................................1-35
Multiple BSSIDs and WLANs....................................................................1-37
Open Versus Closed Systems.....................................................................1-38
Stitching It All Together.............................................................................1-40
Assigning Wireless Traffic to VLANs on the Wired Network...................1-42
Scanning and Beaconing.............................................................................1-44
Active Scanning..................................................................................1-44
Passive Scanning................................................................................1-45
Preparing to Connect..........................................................................1-45
Getting Connected...............................................................................................1-46
802.11 Authentication.........................................................................1-46
802.11 Association.............................................................................1-46
Supplemental Authentication..............................................................1-47
Open-System Authentication...................................................................1-48
Shared-Key Authentication.........................................................................1-49
Association..................................................................................................1-51
Supplemental Authentication......................................................................1-52
Summary..............................................................................................................1-54
Module 2: Introduction to Radio Technologies
Objectives..............................................................................................................2-1
Discussion Topics..................................................................................................2-2
Radio Waves..........................................................................................................2-3
Radio Wave Frequency.................................................................................2-4
Signal Propagation.................................................................................................2-6
ObstructionsCauses of Signal Loss...................................................................2-7
Types of Signal Loss.............................................................................................2-9
Shadowing............................................................................................2-9
Multipath...............................................................................................2-9
Dropout...............................................................................................2-10
Phase Shift and Signal Strength..................................................................2-11
Overcoming Poor Reception.......................................................................2-12
Measuring Wireless Power..................................................................................2-13
Calculating Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP).....................................2-15
Adjusting EIRP Affects Coverage..............................................................2-17
Cabling Cautions.........................................................................................2-18
Calculating Path Loss..........................................................................................2-19
Real-World Path Loss.................................................................................2-21
Scattering Exponent............................................................................2-21
Major Obstructions in the Signal Path................................................2-22
Antenna Type......................................................................................2-22
Contents
Rev. 8.21 iii
Calculating Received Signal Level (RSL) and Range........................................2-23
System Gain and Fade Margin............................................................................2-25
System Gain........................................................................................2-25
Fade Margin........................................................................................2-26
Formulas Relating EIRP, Range, and Coverage Area.........................................2-27
Free Space...........................................................................................2-27
Real-World Environments..................................................................2-28
Data Rate Sets......................................................................................................2-31
Operating Modes.........................................................................................2-32
Mixed 802.11b/g Mode......................................................................2-33
802.11b Only......................................................................................2-33
802.11g Only......................................................................................2-33
802.11 Pure g Only.............................................................................2-33
802.11a................................................................................................2-33
Other Factors Governing Capacity......................................................................2-34
Modulation Technology......................................................................2-34
Device Capabilities.............................................................................2-34
Limited Media and 802.11 Standards.................................................2-35
Interference.........................................................................................2-35
Basic Antenna TypesOmnidirectional and Directional ...................................2-37
Antenna Basics...................................................................................2-37
Omnidirectional Antennas..................................................................2-38
Directional Antennas..........................................................................2-38
ProCurve Omnidirectional Antennas..........................................................2-39
ProCurve Directional Antennas..................................................................2-40
Diversity Antenna.......................................................................................2-41
ProCurve Diversity Antenna.......................................................................2-42
Yagi Antenna..............................................................................................2-43
ProCurve Yagi Antenna..............................................................................2-44
Summary of ProCurve Antennas................................................................2-45
Summary of Regions Permitting ProCurve External Antennas..................2-46
Summary of ProCurve External Antenna Mounting Options.....................2-47
Connector and Cable Types........................................................................2-48
Connectors..........................................................................................2-48
Cable...................................................................................................2-49
Terminator ..........................................................................................2-49
Installing an External AntennaMounting the Antenna............................2-50
1. Plan the Installation........................................................................2-50
2. Mount the Antenna.........................................................................2-51
Installing an External AntennaConnecting It to an AP or RP.................2-52
3. Connect the Antenna to the AP or RP............................................2-52
4. Configure the AP or RP Radio.......................................................2-53
Summary..............................................................................................................2-54

Rev. 8.21 1

Introduction
This fundamentals guide is designed to help network engineers and network
professionals understand the foundational technologies and standards for all
wireless networks and the way they interact to enable communications over
wireless media. You must understand these technologies and standards before you
attend the ProCurve Mobility Certification Training Course, which provides
hands-on training for the following ProCurve Networking Mobility Infrastructure
Solutions:
ProCurve Access Point (AP) 420
ProCurve AP 530
ProCurve Wireless LAN System, which includes the following components:
ProCurve Wireless Edge Services Module
ProCurve Redundant Wireless Services Module
ProCurve Radio Ports (RPs)
Wireless services-enabled switch (such as the ProCurve Switch 5400zl
Series, ProCurve 8212zl Switch, or ProCurve Switch 5300xl Series)
Objectives
This fundamentals guide includes two modules:
Module 1: Wireless Network Technologies and Specifications
Module 2: Introduction to Radio Technologies
After completing these two modules, you should be able to:
List the main features, advantages, and disadvantages of the 802.11a, b, and g
standards
Describe the format and roles of the three 802.11 frame types
Discuss the impetus behind and features of the 802.11n standard
Define the three different modes in which wireless networks can operate:
Ad hoc
Infrastructure
In-cell relay (or wireless bridge)
2 Rev. 8.21
Differentiate between the following wireless networking terms:
Basic service set identifier (BSSID)
Wireless local area network (WLAN)
Service set identifier (SSID)
Explain the difference between an open system and a closed system
Explain how a station connects to an access point (AP), including associating
and authenticating
Define radio technology terms related to radio frequency (RF) propagation
and power
Calculate range, explaining in particular the effects of Effective Isotropic
Radiated Power (EIRP) and receiver sensitivity
Explain how data rate sets correspond to a cells operating mode and
theoretical capacity

Rev. 8.21 1 1
Wireless Network Technologies and
Specifications
Module 1
Objectives
This module describes the 802.11 standards and other specifications that govern
todays wireless networks. After completing this module, you should be able to:
List the main features, advantages, and disadvantages of the 802.11a, b, and g
standards
Describe the format and roles of the three 802.11 frame types
Discuss the impetus behind and features of the 802.11n standard
Define the three different modes in which wireless networks can operate:
Ad hoc
Infrastructure
In-cell relay (or wireless bridge)
Differentiate between the following wireless networking terms:
Basic service set identifier (BSSID)
Wireless local area network (WLAN)
Service set identifier (SSID)
Explain the difference between an open system and a closed system
Explain how a station connects to an access point (AP), including associating
and authenticating
1 2 Rev. 8.21
Discussion Topics
Rev. 8.21 3
Discussion Topics
Introduction to 802.11 standards
802.11b
802.11a
802.11g
802.11h
802.11n
Wireless network operating modes
Understanding wireless networks
Getting connected
Fundamentals Guide: 12

To ensure compatibility of hardware and software across vendors and platforms,
companies should select products that support industry guidelines for wireless
networks. Developed by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
(IEEE), these guidelines are collectively called 802.11 standards, or simply
802.11. In everyday use and in this module, 802.11 refers to the entire set of
wireless standards or specific subsets indicated by letters after the 11.
This section provides a brief overview of the 802.11 standards of todays wireless
networksin particular, 802.11b, 802.11a, and 802.11g. It also explains how
802.11h has brought 802.11a in line with regulations in regions such as Europe.
And finally, it discusses the emerging wireless standard, 802.11n, which may one
day become the predominant standard on enterprise LANs.
Wireless Network Technologies and Specifications
Rev. 8.21 1 3
802.11 Standard
Rev. 8.21 4
802.11 Standard
Original 802.11 standard
Part of the 802 standards for LANs; adapts 802 standard for
wireless LANs
Released in 1997
Provides guidelines for the Physical and Data Link layers
Advertised rate of 2 Mbps
2.4 GHz ISM band
802.11a, b, and g amendments
802.11a, b, and g change modulation to increase speed
802.11a changes frequency to decrease interference

The IEEE published the original 802.11 standard in 1997. An addition to the 802
family of standards, which define the functions of wired LANs, 802.11 defined the
Physical and Data Link layers of wireless networks. In other words, the original
802.11 standard adapted the well-understood LAN standards and technologies for
a LAN that uses radio waves as its physical medium.
The original 802.11 standard specified radio frequencies in the unregulated
Industrial Scientific and Medical (ISM) band at 2.4 GHz. Its modulation technique
allowed data transmission rates of 2 Mbpsslow even by 1997 standards when
network users were accustomed to Ethernet speeds of 10 Mbps and more.
The 802.11 working group issued important revisions to the original standard,
including 802.11b, 802.11a, and 802.11g. In these revisions, the working group
maintained its original focus on the Physical and Data Link Layers. The
802.11b, a, and g revisions made changes to radio modulation and demodulation
techniques to increase data speeds. And 802.11a added the capability to operate in
the 5 GHz band to avoid interference encountered in the comparatively crowded
2.4 GHz band.

1 4 Rev. 8.21
Overall Spectrum
Rev. 8.21 5
Overall Spectrum
VLF LF MF HF UHF SHF VHF EHF Infrared Visible UV Gamma X Cosmic
AM radio
550 - 1700kHz
FM radio 88-108 MHz
VHF TV 54-220 MHz
UHF TV
460-600MHz
Remote controls
100GHz-500THz
Light
700THz - 1000THz
Medical X-ray
Indoor wireless 2.4 GHz, and 5 GHz
Cellular 800-900 MHz
PCS 1.8-2 GHz
Cordless phones 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz, and 5 GHz
Terrestrial microwave 118 GHz
Super high frequency

The chart above illustrates the spectrum of electromagnetic waves, pointing out the
frequency bands in which familiar devices operate. The band names are shown in
the middle stripe. More important than memorizing the names, however, is
understanding the place of wireless networks within the spectrum.
Wireless networking devices, including the ProCurve Mobility Infrastructure
products, generally operate in the super high frequency (SHF) band. The diagram
illustrates other items that occupy this band, such as microwaves and cordless
phones.
Rev. 8.21 1 5
802.11bFirst Widely Adopted Standard
Rev. 8.21 6
802.11bFirst Widely Adopted
Standard
Transmission speeds of up to 11 Mbps
2.4 GHz range
Widely adopted standardmost public hotspots operate on this
standard
Inexpensive equipment
AP
2.4 GHz
802.11b
111 Mbps

The IEEEs 1999 revision to the 802.11 standard, 802.11b, operates in the 2.4 GHz
range and advertises transmission speeds of up to 11 Mbps.
Many vendors produced APs and wireless network interface cards (NICs) based on
the new standard. The products were then and have remained inexpensive; as a
result, many wireless networks use 802.11b equipment. Traditionally, this is the
standard used in most home-based wireless networks and public hotspots.
802.11b equipment operates in the 2.4 GHz range, which does not require special
licensingone reason this equipment is relatively cheap. However, 802.11b
networks may incur interference from microwave ovens, some cordless phones,
and some wireless phones, which operate in the same band.

Note
Advertised rates are the maximum theoretical speeds at which devices
operating on a standard can transmit; the figure relates to radio technology,
not actual throughput. For various reasons, actual rates experienced by an end
user will be significantly lower than advertised rates, and can vary widely
even within a session.
1 6 Rev. 8.21
802.11aAdding Speed
Rev. 8.21 7
802.11aAdding Speed
5 GHz rangelower interference, but higher cost
More channels than 802.11b
Less widely adopted; not compatible
with 802.11b
AP
5 GHz
654 Mbps

The next revision to the base standard was 802.11a. Although 802.11a was
proposed first, 802.11b came to the market firsthence the order in which they
appear in this module and the wider prevalence of 802.11b.
802.11a increases the slow rates offered by 802.11b, achieving advertised speeds
of up to 54 Mbps. 802.11a radios operate in the 5 GHz band. Because this band is
less crowded than the 2.4 GHz band, 802.11a-compliant wireless products
encounter less interference from other electronic devices. However, some radar,
HiperLAN devices, and wireless phones use the 5 GHz band. The generally less
crowded band comes at a cost: the 5 GHz band is regulated, so 802.11a devices
tend to be more expensive.
Due to the nature of radio communication, the faster possible rates of 802.11a
come at the cost of range. Devices operating on this standard must be 25 to 50
percent closer together than 802.11b devices to achieve their maximum speeds,
making 802.11a a more practical option when high throughput is more important
than wide coverage.
802.11a radios also have a larger range of channels on which to operate, allowing
you to create more overlap between APs.
Rev. 8.21 1 7
One drawback for 802.11a is its incompatibility with 802.11b devices, which have
been widely adopted by both home and business users. Because of the earlier
popularity of 802.11b, these users are often reluctant to reinvest in the new
hardware required to take advantage of the greater speed offered by 802.11a-
compliant devices. Nevertheless, 802.11a devices remain a choice for companies
that decide increased throughput and decreased interference is worth the
investment.
1 8 Rev. 8.21
802.11gAdding Speed and Compatibility
Rev. 8.21 8
802.11gAdding Speed and
Compatibility
2.4 GHz range
Backward compatible with 802.11b
Incompatible with 802.11a
AP
2.4 GHz
802.11b
111 Mbps
802.11g
654 Mbps

802.11g matches the higher speed of 802.11a but is compatible with legacy
802.11b equipment. That is, APs or radio ports (RPs) operating at 802.11g speeds
can transparently adapt to 802.11b stations in their coverage area and provide
access at 802.11b speeds. However, when 802.11g APs detect 802.11b stations or
APs in the vicinity, they adapt by increasing the slot time and decreasing the
transmission speeds for frame preambles as well as multicast and broadcast traffic.
Therefore, 802.11g stations in the coverage area will not operate at speeds that
users may expect.
To guarantee higher throughput for 802.11g stations, you can configure 802.11g
devices to ignore legacy equipment in the vicinity.
802.11g-compliant radios operate in the 2.4 GHz band and advertise rates of up to
54 Mbps. Using the 2.4 GHz range, 802.11g offers a larger range than 802.11a,
although stations must be closer to the AP to take advantage of the higher speeds.
802.11g devices are not compatible with 802.11a. Because 802.11g devices
operate on a different frequency, they do not cause interference with 802.11a
devices.
Rev. 8.21 1 9
Approximate Spectral Placement of 802.11b/g Channels
Rev. 8.21 9
Approximate Spectral Placement
of 802.11b/g Channels
Channel 12
Channel 14
Channel 13
Channel 5
Channel 3
Channel 7
Channel 9
Channel 4
Channel 2
Channel 8
Channel 10
Channel 1 Channel 6
Channel 11
2.4 GHz 2.4835 GHz

802.11b and 802.11g standards define 83.5 MHz of bandwidth in the 2.4 GHz
band. This bandwidth is divided into 13 channels beginning at 2.412 and spaced 5
MHz apart. That is, the center frequency of channel 1 is 2.412 GHz; the center
frequency of channel 2 is 2.417 GHz, and so forth. Channel 14, designed
specifically for J apan, has its center frequency at 2.484 GHz, 12 MHz from
channel 13s.
Of the 14 channels, Europe, Latin America, and Asia Pacific support 1 through 13,
while North America allows only channels up to 11. J apan supports all 14.
It is important that you understand the spectral placement of 802.11b/g channels
because signals spread up to 22 MHz from the center frequency. Because channels
are spaced only 5 MHz apart, channels overlap up to 5 channels on each side.
Dividing the spectrum into channels allows wireless APs in the same area to
operate without interfering with each other: radios are simply tuned to transmit on
frequencies that do not overlap one another at the boundaries. Because different
regulatory agencies permit different channels, the non-overlapping channels you
can use will vary based on your country.
As shown in the slide, wireless designers in North America typically work with
channels 1, 6, and 11 to avoid interference from overlapping channels. Designers
in other regions can also use those three channels or channels 1, 7, and 13.
As long as you use non-overlapping channels, you can place your APs in close
proximity to each other and not worry about interference.
1 10 Rev. 8.21
Channel Boundaries
Rev. 8.21 10
Channel Boundaries
802.11b/g channels
0dBr
Transmit
Spectrum Mask
Unfiltered slnx/x
fc fc 22 MHz fc +22 MHz
fc 11 MHz fc +11 MHz
30 dBr
50 dBr
802.11a channels
Transmit
Spectrum
Mask
Unfiltered
slnx/x
fc fc 20 MHz fc +20 MHz
fc 10 MHz fc +10 MHz

The 802.11b and 802.11g standards dictate that, at 11 MHz above and below any
one of the center frequencies in the 2.4 GHz band, the signal should be one-
thousandth the strength (30 dB lower) of the signal at the center frequency.
Similarly, while the 802.11a channel boundaries lie 20 MHz above and below the
center frequency, the signal is significant only over a 20 MHz range around the
center frequency.
As with the 802.11b and 802.11g standards, the 802.11a allowed channels vary
depending on regulatory domain. For the 802.11a, b, and g standards, the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) regulates wireless networks in the United
States, and in Europe the European Telecommunications Standards Institute
(ETSI) defines allowed sets of channels. Local regulatory bodies adopt one of
these sets and may add some local exceptions or restrictions.
802.11a channels are spaced every 20 MHz because the 802.11a standard only
defines channels with numbers four apart. For example, the center frequency of
channel 36 (5.18 GHz, derived by multiplying the channel number by 5 MHz and
adding the result to the starting frequency for that channels class) is 20 MHz
below the center frequency of channel 40 (5.20 GHz). Therefore, 802.11a channels
do not interfere with each other in the way that 802.11b channels do.
An exception is that J apan does permit several more closely spaced channels.
Rev. 8.21 1 11
Summary of 802.11a, b, and g Transmission Rates
Rev. 8.21 11
Summary of 802.11a, b, and g
Transmission Rates
6, 12, 24
(default)
6, 12, 24
(default)
1, 2 (default),
5.5, 11
1 (default), 2
6, 12, 24
(default)
Basic Rates
(Mbps)
Not applicable 9 s 6, 9, 12, 18, 24,
36, 48, 54
802.11a
9 s
9 s
9 or 20 s
(dynamic)
20 s
Slot Time
Disabled 6, 9, 12, 18, 24,
36, 48, 54
802.11g, pure
g (not Wi-Fi
standard)
Enabled 1, 2, 5.5, 11, 6,
9, 12, 18, 24, 36,
48, 54
802.11g, g
only (Wi-Fi
standard)
Enabled
Not applicable
Protection for
802.11b
1, 2, 5.5, 11, 6,
9, 12, 18, 24, 36,
48, 54
1, 2, 5.5, 11
Supported Rates
(Mbps)
802.11b/g
mixed mode
(Wi-Fi
standard)
802.11b only
Standard

The slide summarizes the different transmission rates supported by the 802.11a/b/g
standards.
Basic Rates
APs advertise support for one or more basic rates, which they use for:
Management frames
Broadcast frames
Multicast frames
To associate with the AP, stations must support all of these rates. (The process of
associating with an AP is discussed later in this module.) Therefore, an AP
operating in 802.11b/g mixed mode advertises the lower rates of 802.11b. In
mixed mode, an AP supports both 802.11b and 802.11g stations.
An AP operating in 802.11g only or pure g mode advertises only the higher rates,
so only 802.11g stations can associate with it. In 802.11g only mode, APs do not
support 802.11b stations in the service area, but they protect against interference
from such stations. In pure g mode, APs ignore all 802.11 b stations, but they do
not provide any protection against interference from 802.11b stations. You should
use pure g mode only if you are certain no 802.11b stations are operating in range
of the AP.
1 12 Rev. 8.21
Supported Rates
Supported rates are those that an AP will accept for stations unicast traffic.
Various stations in the same basic service set (BSS) may use different rates; in
fact, a station may change rates throughout its association, depending on the
current signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
Although Wi-Fis 802.11g only mode does not allow 802.11b stations to associate,
its supported rates include 802.11b rates to protect against interference from
802.11b stations in the area. 802.11 pure-g, which is not a Wi-Fi standard, does not
permit any of the 802.11b rates.
Slot Time
The slot time dictates how long a station waits between detecting a transmission
and attempting to transmit a frame. (It is one of the parameters associated with the
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance [CSMA/CA] mechanism
necessary on half-duplex shared media.)
802.11a and 802.11g have higher rates, transmit frames more quickly, and use
shorter slot times. In the presence of 802.11b devices, however, 802.11g devices
must use the longer slot time; otherwise, the 802.11g devices will not wait long
enough after detecting contention, and frames may collide.
Protection
Although 802.11b stations cannot detect transmissions that use 802.11g
modulation, 802.11b and 802.11g transmissions interfere with each other. 802.11b
stations, which are deaf to their 802.11g neighbors, can cause collisions. Protection
requires 802.11g stations to alert 802.11b stations to their transmissions by using
802.11b modulation for the preamble. The 802.11b may also be required to clear
the medium by sending a clear to send (CTS) frame with a modulation that
802.11b stations can detectin other words, at a lower 802.11b, rather than
802.11g, speed.
A primary difference between 802.11g only and 802.11 pure g mode is that 802.11
pure g disables protection, reducing overhead and increasing throughput.
However, even if your AP does not allow 802.11b stations to actually associate,
such stations can cause collisions by sending probe requests. (Stations use probe
requests to locate an AP, as will be explained later in this module.) Therefore,
protection is required not only when 802.11b stations might connect to your
WLAN, but also if they might enter your APs coverage areaanother reason to
use 802.11 pure g only in environments without any 802.11b stations at all.
Rev. 8.21 1 13
Modulation for 802.11b, 802.11a, and 802.11g
Rev. 8.21 12
Modulation for 802.11b,
802.11a, and 802.11g
802.11b
Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
Binary and Quaternary Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)1 and
2 Mbps
Complementary Code Keying (CCK)5.5 and 11 Mbps
802.11a
Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
DPBSK6 Mbps
DPQSK12 Mbps
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)-1624 and 36 Mbps
QAM-6448 and 54 Mbps
802.11g
OFDM similar to 802.11a54, 48, 36, 24, 18, 12, and 6 Mbps
DSSS for backward-compatibility with 802.11b

As part of a Physical Layer standard, a modulation technique specifies how a
device encodes data into the signal. 802.11 standards use four types of modulation.
Describing modulation in detail is beyond the scope of this fundamentals guide;
however, you should understand that the different standards use different
modulation and that these differences translate to different data sets and receiver
sensitivities.
802.11b
802.11b uses Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS). DSSS modifies the data
stream with a pseudorandom stream of chips, spreading the signal out across the
frequency and also increasing the amount of transmitted data.
For the lower data rates, 802.11b modulates data using DSSS and the original
802.11s Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK).
DPSK actually encodes the data into the radio signal. It shifts the radio waves
phase a certain amount depending on the value of the data bits being transmitted.
DPSK comes in two varieties:
Binary DPSK (DPBSK) defines only two phase shiftsone for 0 and one
for 1which are separated by 180
o
. This type is used for the 1 Mbps data
rate.
Quaternary DPSK (DQPSK) defines four phase shifts, one for 00, one for 01,
one for 10, and one for 11which are separated by 90
o
. This type is used for
the 2 Mbps data rate.
1 14 Rev. 8.21
The larger separation between phase shifts for DBPSK means that a receiver can
detect the shift more easily. This is why the receiver sensitivity can be quite low
for a 1 Mbps connection.
802.11b also enhances 802.11s speeds by adding a new modulation technique:
Complementary Code Keying (CCK).
With CCK, the chips that DSSS uses to modulate the stream are 8-bit
complementary codes. The exact code depends on a symbol, which in turn
depends on data to be transmitted. The 11 Mbps data rate defines symbols that
include 8 bits of data, while the 5.5 Mbps data rate symbols only include 4 bits of
data. For example, 11010101 translates to a specific symbol for 11 Mbps CCK.
802.11a
802.11a uses Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM) instead of
DSSS. OFDM divides a channel into a number of subchannels. Each subchannel
transmits a separate data stream, increasing the total amount of data transmitted.
Like 802.11b, 802.11a can use DPSK to encode data. However, the OFDM data
rate is increased six-fold to 6 and 12 Mbps from DSSSs 1 and 2 Mbps.
802.11a also supports Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM), which encodes
more data into the radio wave by combining multiple waves.
Note again that the modulation techniques that enable the higher data rates also
require receivers to detect more subtle shifts in the radio wave. Thus the receiver
sensitivity must be greater, and the receiver cannot use a signal as low as the signal
it could use at a lower data rate.
802.11g
802.11g specifies OFDM for the higher data rates, but also requires support for
DSSS to provide backward compatibility with 802.11b.
Rev. 8.21 1 15
802.11 Frame Types
Rev. 8.21 13
802.11 Frame Types
The fundamental frame types and their formats have remained
the same through all 802.11 revisions:
Management frames
Control frames
Data frames
Field names and length in bytes
MAC Header
2
Frame
Control
0-2312
Frame
body
6
Address 4
2
Sequence
Control
4 6 6 6 2
FCS Address 3 Address 2 Address 1 Duration/
ID

The foundational Data Link Layer specifications of 802.11 have remained the
same throughout the revisions. These specifications include:
Frame types and formats
MAC mechanisms
Every frame transmitted on a wireless network must conform to 802.11 standards
for structure and format, regardless of the operational mode of the radio (802.11a,
b, or g). The general structure of a wireless frame is shown in the slide.
802.11 defines three types of frames, each with its own functions and subtypes.
The three main types, described in more detail on the next slide, are management
frames, control frames, and data frames. A frames type is identified in the frame
control field of the 802.11 frames Media Access Control (MAC) header.
Besides the frame type, the MAC header also contains address and media access
control information. The slide illustrates the fields for a MAC header. Not every
frame type transmitted will include all of the listed fields; for example, some
frames types need include only the frame control field and the first address field.
When a frame comes from the wired network destined to a wireless station, the AP
processes the frame by removing the Ethernet header and adding the 802.11
header. It then forwards the frame toward the correct destination station, which it
knows by MAC address and association ID.
1 16 Rev. 8.21
As you can see, an 802.11 MAC header can specify more addresses than an
Ethernet header. Like an Ethernet header, the 802.11 header for a typical frame
includes the source and destination MAC address. However, it also includes the
transmitter address, which might be different from the source address. That is, an
AP often transmits frames that originate from a different source within the
Ethernet network.
In a wireless bridge (or wireless distribution system [WDS]) only, the 802.11
frame header specifies a receiver address. This address is the wireless device that
should continue transmitting the frame toward its ultimate destination.

Rev. 8.21 1 17
Frame Types and Subtypes
Rev. 8.21 14
Frame Types and Subtypes
User data;
payload from
higher level
protocols
Data Frames
Request to Send (RTS)
Clear to Send (CTS)
Acknowledgement (ACK)
Power-Save Poll (PS-Poll)
Control Frames
Beacon
Probe Request
Probe Response
IBSS announcement traffic
indication map (ATIM)
Disassociation
Deauthentication
Authentication
Association
Reassociation
Association Response
Reassociation Response
Action
Management Frames

The slide lists various subtypes of frames under the three main 802.11 types.
Management Frames
Management frames establish and regulate the Data Link Layer connection
between APs and wireless stations. APs and stations are allowed to transmit
different types of management frames. For example, an AP can send beacons to
advertise a wireless network. A station can send an association request, and an AP
can send an association response, allowing the station to connect to it.
Control Frames
Control frames regulate access to the Physical Layer transmission medium.
Request to Send and Clear to Send (CTS) frames reserve the medium for a
transmission. Transmitting a frame across a wireless network can be uncertain;
acknowledgements (ACKs) let a wireless device know that its frame reached its
destination successfully.
Data Frames
Data frames contain higher-layer protocols such as specific applications and
TCP/IP functions. Transmitting data is of course the ultimate goal of a wireless
network.
1 18 Rev. 8.21
802.11hMeeting Regulations
Rev. 8.21 15
802.11hMeeting Regulations
Designed to provide regulatory compliance for 802.11a
Required in Europe
Defined two mechanisms for complying with regulations and
improving quality:
Dynamic frequency selection (DFS)
Transmit power control (TPC)

Another reason many vendors failed to adopt 802.11a, despite initial advantages of
higher speed and lower interference, was the difficulty of meeting varying
regulations, particularly in Europe. For example, the military often uses the 5 GHz
band, and governments obviously object to private parties interfering with their
radar.
802.11h defines two mechanisms for meeting regulations: DFS and TPC. Both
mechanisms help an AP adapt to changing circumstances, such as significant
interference. Besides ensuring that your wireless network meets all regulations,
these mechanisms provide the added benefit of better management for the radio
medium.

Note
As of J uly 2007, the United States Federal Communications Commission
(FCC) requires DFS.
Rev. 8.21 1 19
802.11hDFS
Rev. 8.21 16
802.11hDFS
DFS prevents interference with military radar and other APs.
The AP solicits reports on:
Channels each station supports
Activity on the channel
If interference is detected, the AP:
Selects a new channel
Sends a message, telling stations to change channel
Military
radar
Channel: 62
Channel:
62
Interference
on channel
62
All stations
change to
channel 54 in
30 seconds.

Designed to prevent APs from interfering with military radar as well as other APs,
DFS allows an AP to select its channel dynamically.
This mechanism comprises two basic functions:
The AP solicits reports from stations to monitor the channel.
The AP determines when to change the channel.
Soliciting Reports
When advertising its presence, the AP also advertises its support for DFS. After
connecting to the AP, a station must send the AP the channels it supports. This
information helps the AP to choose the best channel if it must change channels.
At any time, the AP can request that a station monitor various channels for
interference. This information helps the AP to determine when it must change
channels.
Changing Channels
If a stations report indicates that the wireless network is experiencing undue
interference, the AP decides to change the channel. Before changing the channel,
the AP first informs all connected stations of the change and when it will take
place. The AP can also suppress transmissions until the change is final.
1 20 Rev. 8.21
802.11hTPC
Rev. 8.21 17
802.11hTPC
TPC minimizes interference with satellites and manages power.
The AP solicits reports on:
Maximum and minimum transmit powers for each station
Current signal strength
The AP enforces a maximum transmit power.
Stations can raise power up to the maximum if the link margin falls
too low.

TPC minimizes a wireless networks interference with satellite communications by
allowing you to configure a maximum transmit power for your network. This
maximum is regulated by the AP, which not only complies with the limit, but also
forces stations to transmit at or below this maximum.
In addition to enforcing regulatory compliance, TPC helps conserve power, a
useful feature for stations with a limited battery power. The AP monitors the
network to ensure that power usage remains just over the level to maintain
adequate signal strength. If the current signal strength falls below the fade margin
(a signal strength slightly above that at which the signal is lost), stations can raise
their power as far as necessary up to the allowed maximum.
Rev. 8.21 1 21
802.11nThe Next-Generation Wireless Standard
Rev. 8.21 18
802.11nThe Next-Generation
Wireless Standard
Next-generation wireless applications necessitate improved WLAN
data throughput capabilities.
802.11n is designed to
Increase network speed and reliability
Extend the operating distance of wireless networks
802.11n may eventually become the dominant enterprise LAN
technology.
It specifies either the 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz frequency bands.
Provides backward compatibility for 802.11b/g/a devices

As next-generation wireless applications emerge, improved WLAN data
throughput capabilities are becoming essential. Even now, enterprise-class,
bandwidth-intensive applications such as Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) and
Customer Relationship Management (CRM) systems, workgroup computing
applications, and some wireless backhaul applications require throughputs larger
than current 802.11 technologies can provide. Videoconferencing is an uncertain
proposition with 802.11g, which while offering a theoretical maximum throughput
of 54 Mbps, enables real-world speeds of half that or less.
In response, the IEEE Task Group N (TGn) and the Wi-Fi Alliance (WFA) have
set goals for the next generation of WLAN performance. The emerging IEEE
802.11n standard is intended to increase network speed and reliability as well as to
extend the operating distance of wireless networks. Although the standard will
probably not be ratified until early 2009, expectations are that 802.11n will easily
provide up to twice the range of 802.11g; and while the TGns goal is 100 Mbps
net throughput, the final proposal seems certain to offer many times that in
maximum configurations. As such, 802.11n may eventually become the dominant
enterprise LAN technology.
802.11n operates in either the 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz frequency bandsenabling it to
provide backward compatibility for 802.11a/b/g devices.
The purpose of this section is to explain the soon-to-be-released 802.11n standard
and how it will enable WLANs to support emerging media-rich applications.
1 22 Rev. 8.21
802.11nMIMO
Rev. 8.21 19
802.11nMIMO
Spatial multiplexingsends multiple data streams in the same
channel to multiply data throughput
Signals from each transmitter reach the target receiver via a unique path.
The receivers in MIMO systems consistently process each multipath
component.

The 802.11n standard is the first to call for multiple-input, multiple-output
(MIMO) antenna design. MIMO algorithms in a radio chipset send data out over
two to four antennas. Signals from each transmitter can reach the target receiver
via a unique path, allowing for spatial multiplexingthat is, sending multiple
data streams in the same channel to multiply the throughput of a single stream.
MIMO works best if these paths are spatially distinct, resulting in received signals
that are uncorrelated. Thus, while traditional 802.11 networks degrade in the
presence of multipatha propagation phenomenon by which multiple radio
signals reach receiving antennas by bouncing off of objects along the way
multipath helps decorrelate the 802.11n channels, enhancing the operation of
spatial multiplexing. The signals are recombined on the receiving side by the
MIMO algorithmsdramatically improving wireless performance and reliability.
Traditionally, when reflections combine, they distort the signal at the receiver. The
two to four receivers in MIMO systems, however, consistently process each
multipath component, thereby eliminating the mixture of out-of-phase components
that would normally result in signal distortion.
Because spatial-multiplexing techniques make receivers much more complex,
designers usually combine them with OFDM modulation schemes, which are more
efficient than other modulation schemes. The 802.11n OFDM implementation
improves upon the one employed in earlier standards, using a higher maximum
code rate and slightly wider bandwidth.
Rev. 8.21 1 23
Space-time block coding, an 802.11n option, uses multiple antennas for
redundancy to increase robustness. Another option is beamforming, which uses
multiple antennas as if they were parts of an array, forming a directional antenna
that directs a beam to increase range. The 802.11n PHY specification allows
beamforming when the number of transmit antennas exceeds the number of spatial
streams, or when the channel between the receiver and transmitter is known well
enough by the transmitter to enable it to send most of the signal energy in
directions that will benefit the receiver.
1 24 Rev. 8.21
802.11nFurther Advancements
Rev. 8.21 20
802.11nFurther Advancements
Channel bonding: combines two adjacent 20 MHz channels into a
single 40 MHz channel
Bandwidth is more than doubled.
Draft 2.0 recommends that 40 MHz channels be used only in the 5GHz
band.
Other capabilities designed to reduce overhead and enhance
throughput include:
Frame aggregation
Block acknowledgements
Reduced inter-frame spacing

While MIMO represents the most significant architectural advancement in
802.11n, the standard includes additional Physical Layer feature enhancements
designed to boost performance. The most notable improvement is support for 40
MHz radio channels, which have twice the theoretical capacity of existing 802.11
radio channels. A technique called channel bonding combines two adjacent 20
MHz channels into a single 40 MHz channel. Bandwidth is more than doubled,
because the guard band between the two 20 MHz channels, used to avoid
interference between these channels, can also be removed when they are bonded.
802.11n can also operate using the standard 20 MHz channels; in fact, draft 2.0 of
the specification recommends that 40 MHz channels be used only in the 5GHz
band. As mentioned earlier, the 2.4 GHz frequency band has only three non-
overlapping 20 MHz channels, and therefore, bonding two 20 MHz channels uses
two-thirds of the total frequency capacity.
802.11n also improves upon the standard at the Data Link Layer. New capabilities
include frame aggregation, block acknowledgements, and reduced inter-frame
spacing, all designed to reduce overhead and enhance throughput.
Rev. 8.21 1 25
802.11nSummary of Improvements
Rev. 8.21 21
802.11nSummary of
Improvements
144 Mbps with OFDM, 2x2,
20-MHz channel width
25 Mbps with OFDM Typical transmitting data
rate
600 Mbps with OFDM, 4x4,
40-MHz channel width
54 Mbps with OFDM Maximum transmitting
data rate
OFDM; backward compatible
with CCK and DSSS
OFDM; backwards
compatible with CCK
and DSSS
Modulation schemes
Between two and four One No. of transmitting or
receiving spatial streams
20 MHz, 40 MHz 20 MHz Channel width
2.4 GHz, 5 GHz
802.11n Draft 2.0
(approved March 2007)
2.4 GHz
802.11g
RF band
Feature

Todays 802.11n-compliant products can typically reach a throughput of 144
Mbps, assuming OFDM modulation, two transmitting and two receiving
streamsknown as a 22 configurationand a 20-MHz channel width. The
currently theoretical maximum throughput rate of 600 Mbps assumes OFDM
modulation, a 44 configuration, and a 40-MHz channel width.
Range is harder to quantify because it's affected by many variables, such as
barriers that could block the signal. However, todays 802.11n equipment based on
draft 2.0 of the specification typically delivers more than twice the range of
802.11g equipment, at any given throughput speed.
1 26 Rev. 8.21
802.11nBeyond Draft 2.0
Rev. 8.21 22
802.11nBeyond Draft 2.0
802.11n is still being refined.
There are an unprecedented number of options.
The mandatory sections are unlikely to change.
Changes would threaten interoperability with existing Draft 2.0 offerings.
May 2007certified for 802.11n Draft 2.0 program
Certification program began in June of that year.
WFA-certified 802.11n Draft 2.0 products should be firmware upgradeable
to the final IEEE 802.11n standard.

As mentioned at the beginning of this section, 802.11n is expected to continue
undergoing refinement until early 2009. The unprecedented number of options
makes this fine tuning particularly necessary. The mandatory sections, however,
are unlikely to change at this point, because such changes might threaten
interoperability with the consumer markets many Draft 2.0 product offerings.
In May 2007, after the TGn approved Draft 2.0, the WFA unveiled the Certified
for 802.11n Draft 2.0 program, and announced the first certified chip, card, and
box products, which form the test bed for certifying additional products. The
formal certification program began in J une 2007. It is believed that WFA-certified
802.11n Draft 2.0 products will be firmware upgradeable to the final IEEE
802.11n standard.

Rev. 8.21 1 27
Other 802.11 Standards
Rev. 8.21 23
Other 802.11 Standards
Improves Layer 2 roaming Under
development
802.11r
An emerging standard that will allow the use of
the 3560-3700 MHz band in the United States
Under
development
802.11y
Makes 802.11a compatible with Japanese radio
regulations
Approved 802.11j
Improves Layer 2 security Approved 802.11i
Provides quality of service (QoS) for wireless
networks
Purpose
Approved
Status
802.11e
Standard

The IEEE continues to issue revisions and updates to wireless networking
standards. The complete list is longer than the one in the slide, which shows the
802.11 standards you are most likely to encounter as an IT professional. More
information about each standard can be found at the working groups Web site:
http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/802/11/
A timeline for the publication and approval of future standards is displayed at:
http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/802/11/Reports/802.11_Timelines.htm

Note
Whats in a letter? The case of the letter following the 11 is not random:
lowercase letters denote a revision to the original standard, while uppercase
letters indicate a standard that can stand on its own.

1 28 Rev. 8.21
Discussion Topics
Rev. 8.21 24
Discussion Topics
Ad hoc
Infrastructure
In-cell relay (bridging)
Getting connected

Now that you understand the standards that provide a common foundation for all
wireless networks, you will learn about the three basic types of wireless networks.
Rev. 8.21 1 29
Ad-Hoc Mode
Rev. 8.21 25
Ad-Hoc Mode
Includes two or more stations
Provides peer-to-peer connectivity
Also called an independent basic service set (IBSS)
IBSS

An ad-hoc network includes two or more stations that communicate directly with
each other through wireless transmissions. Each station in an ad-hoc network
receives every packet transmitted; 802.11 specifies the CSMA/CA mechanism to
prevent loss of data due to simultaneous transmissions.
Ad-hoc networks are sometimes referred to as IBSSs because they require no
attachment to a wired network. Inexpensive and easy to establish, such networks
are used most often for exchanging files in small meeting areas when access to the
wired network is not necessary or not possible.
1 30 Rev. 8.21
Infrastructure Mode
Rev. 8.21 26
Infrastructure Mode
One AP and one or more stations
All data passes through the AP.
The AP connects to a wired network.
Wired network

Today, infrastructure mode is the most common deployment for wireless
networks. In this mode, stations do not communicate directly with one another.
Instead, an AP handles all communication between wireless stations as well as
controls the security and speed parameters for the network.
In addition to connecting wireless stations to each other, the AP is connected to a
wired network. As the interface between the wired and the wireless network, the
AP receives wireless traffic from stations and forwards it on to the wired network.
Likewise, the AP receives and forwards traffic that is being sent from the wired
network to the wireless stations.
Rather than using APs in an infrastructure mode, you can use RPs. RPs are APs
coordinated through a device on the wired network. For example, the ProCurve
Wireless Edge Services xl Module can control multiple RPs.
Rev. 8.21 1 31
In-Cell Relay Mode
Rev. 8.21 27
In-Cell Relay Mode
Also called a wireless bridge or wireless distribution system (WDS)
Wireless link connecting two networks
Available only on the ProCurve AP 530 and ProCurve AP 520wl
Connected
AP 530
Wired LAN in
building 1
Stations
Wireless
bridge
between
networks
Connected
AP 530
Wired LAN in
building 2
Stations

In-cell relay mode is more commonly called bridging because this mode connects
two or more segments of a network. (The segments can be different segments of a
LAN, unconnected wireless networks, or even separate BSSs that are part of the
same broadcast domain.)
In-cell relay mode is also called a WDS. In typical infrastructure mode, APs
simply bridge traffic to wireless stations; the wired network provides the
distribution system for transmitting traffic from wireless stations to its ultimate
destination. With WDS, the wireless medium becomes a distribution system as
well, operating as if it were a wired infrastructure.
WDS is available on the AP 530 and AP 520wl.
WDS connections are most often deployed for two broad purposes:
An Ethernet connection is not readily available to connect an AP to the wired
network.
A company wants to connect two wired networks, but pulling cable between
the two buildings is not practical or even possible.
The slide demonstrates one such application: IT managers want to connect two
segments of the enterprise network located in different buildings. Because pulling
cable beneath the street is impossible, they opt for a WDS. An AP 530 is attached
to each LAN, and one radio on each is configured to act as a bridge. The other
radio can be disabled or may serve wireless stations.
1 32 Rev. 8.21
Discussion Topics
Rev. 8.21 28
Discussion Topics
BSS and BSSID
ESS and ESSID
WLANs
Open versus closed systems
Relationship to virtual LANs (VLANs)
Getting connected

You will now learn how to define a wireless network more precisely.
Rev. 8.21 1 33
BSS and BSSID
Rev. 8.21 29
BSS and BSSID
BSS
AP
W
i
r
e
d

n
e
t
w
o
r
k
One AP and its stations compose a BSS.
Each BSS has a 48-bit identifier (usually the APs MAC address)
called the BSSID.
The BSSID distinguishes one BSS from another.

Any one or more stations and their AP compose a BSS. (As mentioned earlier, an
IBSS does not have an AP because the stations connect to each other instead of to
a wired network.)
Each BSS has a unique, 48-bit identifier called the BSSID, which is usually the
MAC address of the APs wireless interface (its radio). Every frame transmitted to
and from the stations in a BSS contains the BSSID in the frame header, identifying
the frame as belonging to a particular APs coverage area. Thus the BSSID
distinguishes the BSS from others and increases efficiency by allowing the AP and
stations to ignore frames not belonging to their BSS.
The ProCurve AP 420 pictured in the slide supports one BSSIDwhich is the
same as the APs wireless interface MAC address. The AP 530 supports one
BSSID on each radio for each of its 16 WLANs.
When a new station joins a cell, it appends the APs BSSID to all frames as the
receiver address in the 802.11 header.
1 34 Rev. 8.21
ESS and SSID
Rev. 8.21 30
ESS and SSID
W
i
r
e
d

n
e
t
w
o
r
k
AP
AP
AP
BSS 1
BSS 2
BSS 3
ESS
Two or more BSSs compose an extended service set (ESS).
Each ESS is identified by an extended service set identifier (ESSID).
The ESSID is commonly called the SSID, or network name.

Several BSSs, each with their own BSSID specifying the AP, may belong to the
same ESS. That is, even though they may be spatially separate wireless networks,
they behave as if they are the same network.
This slide illustrates several BSSs composing one ESS. For ease of illustration, the
BSSs are spatially separated, but they need not be. In actual wireless networks,
some overlap is desirable to enable roaming.
Each ESS has a unique, 48-bit identifier called the ESSID, which functions as the
networks name. Although ESSID is more precise, the industry commonly uses the
general term SSID to signify the network name. For example, the command line
interface (CLI) and the graphical user interface (GUI) for most APs use SSID.
Like the BSSID, the SSID is included in the 802.11 header of every frame
transmitted on a wireless network.
Rev. 8.21 1 35
WLAN
Rev. 8.21 31
WLAN
A WLAN defines settings for an ESS.
The SSID identifies the WLAN.
Like VLANs in Ethernet networks, WLANs divide stations into
separate broadcast domains.
VLANs
VLAN 10 VLAN 20
WLAN 1 WLAN 1
WLAN 2
WLAN 2
SSID:
wireless 20
SSID:
wireless 20
SSID:
wireless 10
SSID:
wireless 10
WLANs
A
B
C

An ESS can also be called a WLAN, which defines various settings for the ESS
such as the SSID and security options.
WLANs on wireless networks can be compared to VLANs on Ethernet networks.
VLANs isolate users into separate broadcast areas. Even though users may connect
to the same network devices, they are effectively in different networks. VLANs
are important both for managing user traffic and for maintaining security.
WLANs fill a similar purpose in wireless networks: they divide users into different
groups, steering each user toward the appropriate resources and access levels. J ust
as VLANs on a switch effectively transform the switch into several virtual
switches, WLANs on an AP effectively divide the AP into several virtual APs,
each providing a separate network connection to a group of mobile users.
Like a VLAN, a WLAN creates a broadcast domainwhich acts like one unified
network regardless of the physical location of the hardware. The slide above shows
two APs that support two WLANs. As far as logical connectivity is concerned, the
WLAN to which a station connects is more important than the stations location.
For example, station A connects to WLAN 1 through AP 1, station B to WLAN 2
through AP 1, and station C to WLAN 1 through AP 2. Station A and station C are
connecting to the same WLAN. Station A and station B are connecting to different
WLANs, even though they are located side by side.
IT managers can exercise a great deal of control over wireless access through
carefully planned WLAN options.

1 36 Rev. 8.21
Note
In much of the industry the term WLAN is used interchangeably with wireless
network. While this use of WLAN is correct, the term wireless network can
also be used to describe all wireless components of a larger networkall the
APs, wireless stations, and wireless services-enabled switches, which might
together support multiple WLANs. In this module, WLAN describes the
broadcast domain defined by an SSID.
Rev. 8.21 1 37
Multiple BSSIDs and WLANs
Rev. 8.21 32
Multiple BSSIDs and WLANs
When you create a WLAN, the AP maps it to a BSSID.
A BSSID can carry one or more WLANs.
WLAN 1
WLAN 2
SSID:
Guests
SSID:
Employees
AP 530 Radio 1 MAC address:
00:14:aa:aa:aa:20
16 BSSIDs (virtual MAC
addresses):
00:14:aa:aa:aa:20
00:14:aa:aa:aa:21
.
.
00:14:aa:aa:aa:2f
Maps WLAN 1
to this BSSID
AP 530
AP 420 Radio MAC address:
00:0d:bb:bb:bb:10
Maps WLAN 2
to this BSSID
Maps both WLANs
to this BSSID
AP 420
WLAN 1
WLAN 2
SSID:
Guests
SSID:
Employees

As indicated on the previous slide, your companys APs might support multiple
WLANs. Each AP carries traffic for these WLANs within its own BSS. An AP
might carry traffic for several WLANs within the same BSS, or it might provide
separate BSSs for separate WLANs. It all depends on how many BSSIDs the
AP has.
For example, the AP 530 supports up to 16 BSSIDs per radio. It can carry one
WLAN on each BSSID, for a potential total of 16 WLANs enabled on either or
both radios. (That is, even though the AP has 32 total BSSIDs, it supports only 16
WLANs with individual configurable settings. The settings for a WLAN on radio
1 are copied to that WLAN on radio 2.) When you enable a WLAN on a radio, the
AP 530 automatically assigns it to the next available of that radios pool of 16
BSSIDs.
The AP 420, on the other hand, has a single BSSID and carries traffic for multiple
WLANs on that single identifier.
The ProCurve RP 210 has four BSSIDs, and the ProCurve RP 220 and ProCurve
RP 230 have four BSSIDs per radio. Each BSSID can carry traffic for up to four
WLANs, for a total of 16 WLANs on each RP. (If you use the advanced mode
configuration, the dual-radio RPs 220 and 230 can support up to 32 WLANs.)
1 38 Rev. 8.21
Open Versus Closed Systems
Rev. 8.21 33
Open Versus Closed Systems
Open systemSSID(s) advertised in beacon frames
Closed systemSSID(s) not advertised
AP
AP
SSID: publicwifi
S
S
I
D
:

p
u
b
l
i
c
w
i
f
i
Closed System
Open System
Stations that
know SSID
Station that does
not know SSID
S
S
I
D
:


In an open system WLAN, such as a public hotspot, APs advertise their SSID
at regular intervals, basically inviting anyone with a wireless device to join
the WLAN.
Many APs operate in open system by default. However, as a modest security
feature, IT managers can configure APs to operate in closed system mode,
disabling the automatic advertisement of the SSID.
In this case, users must already know the SSID in order to join the WLAN. If an
AP supports only closed system WLANs, stations within range may detect its
radio signal, but their client utilities will not display any available wireless
networks. To join a network, users must manually configure their wireless
configuration utility with the correct SSID.
As a security measure, a closed system will deter only the most casual
unauthorized users and should not be considered a reliable protection against
attacks. More determined attackers can use wireless sniffers to detect the SSID,
which, even in closed systems, is included in plaintext in the header of every data
frame.
Because the source address of the beacon frame, which is used to advertise the
SSID, is a BSSID, the number of SSIDs an AP can advertise depends on how it
implements BSSIDs. For example, the AP 420 supports only one BSSID, which
can be mapped to multiple WLANs. As a result, the AP 420 can advertise only the
SSID for the primary WLAN. You can configure the primary WLAN to operate in
open or closed system mode, but all others must operate in closed system mode.
Rev. 8.21 1 39
The RPs adopted by the Wireless Module can operate up to four SSIDs in open
system mode (eight with advanced configuration on dual-radio RPs).
By contrast, the AP 530 can advertise all of its SSIDs because each one is carried
on a separate BSSID. Thus, for each WLAN, you can choose either open or closed
system mode.
1 40 Rev. 8.21
Stitching It All Together
Rev. 8.21 34
Stitching It All Together
Wired network
BSSID:
1713
BSSID:
1712
BSSID:
1711
Wireless services-
enabled switch
SSID:
guest
WLAN 1
WLAN 2
WLAN 3
SSID:
private
SSID:
mywireless
WLAN 1
WLAN 2
WLAN 3
WLAN 1

Enterprise wireless networks can comprise many smaller WLANs, each identified
by a unique SSID. Those WLANs, in turn, might include several APs, each with
its own BSSID for that WLAN.
This slide illustrates a simple network made up of two RPs, which support the
same three WLANs named guest, private, and mywireless. The WLANs do
not interfere with one another because the SSIDs separate traffic into broadcast
domains. (That is to say, the WLANs are logically separateactual transmissions
may potentially interfere with each other because the collision domain is defined
by the radio, not the WLAN.) The RP in the foreground maps separate SSIDs to
separate BSSIDs, but this is not mandatory. All three SSIDs could in fact be
assigned to just one BSSID.
When a user enters the RPs coverage area, his wireless client displays two
available wireless connections: mywireless and guest. (Because WLAN 2 is
designed for employee use only, it operates in closed system mode, and its SSID,
private, is not advertised.) The user would then choose an SSID and associate
with an RP beaconing that SSID.
The WLAN determines settings for the connection. For example, all stations in the
mywireless network authenticate in the same way, use the same security
settings, and receive the same broadcasts. Once associated, a station can roam
from RP to RP and maintain its connection to the WLAN, probably without the
user even noticing the change.
Rev. 8.21 1 41
Each time a station transmits a wireless frame, the station includes its current RPs
BSSID and the WLANs SSID in the frames header. The RP receives the frame
and forwards it to the wired network accordingly, as described on the next slide.
1 42 Rev. 8.21
Assigning Wireless Traffic to VLANs on the Wired Network
Rev. 8.21 35
Assigning Wireless Traffic to VLANs
on the Wired Network
On the wired side, the AP assigns a WLANs incoming traffic:
To the specified VLAN
To the user-based VLAN (overrides WLAN setting)
WLAN 2
WLAN 1
SSID:
Employees
SSID:
Guest
AP
Switch
VLAN 10
WLAN 1 frame

As discussed earlier, an AP (or the Wireless Module) is the interface between the
wireless and the Ethernet network. When a mobile station needs to send traffic to a
device in the Ethernet network, it sends the traffic to its AP, which forwards the
traffic on the stations behalf.
An important part of the APs role, therefore, is determining the VLAN in which
to forward incoming wireless traffic. ProCurve wireless products can make this
decision based on:
WLAN, by forwarding all traffic from a particular WLAN in the VLAN you
choose
The VLAN associated with the WLAN is somewhat like a ProCurve switchs
authorized VLAN. Any user allowed to connect to the WLAN is placed in
that VLANunless you have configured a user-based, or dynamic, VLAN.
User, by assigning a users traffic to a particular VLAN
Rev. 8.21 1 43
Discussion Topics
Rev. 8.21 36
Discussion Topics
Getting connected
Scanning and beaconing
802.11 authentication
Association
Supplemental authentication

When you attempt to connect to a wireless network, a number of steps, usually
transparent to you, must occur before you can begin using the wireless link. This
section describes these stepswhich are the same whether you are connecting to
an AP or to an RP controlled by the Wireless Module.
1 44 Rev. 8.21
Scanning and Beaconing
Rev. 8.21 37
Scanning and Beaconing
Is anybody
out there?
Beacon frames
broadcast at
regular intervals
Station detects
beacon, begins
handshake process
AP
Im here. My SSID is ABCWireless.
-OR-
Im here, but in a closed system.
AP
Active scanningstation probes
Passive scanningstation listens for beacons
SSID: publicwifi

When a station wants to connect to a wireless network, it must first know whether
an AP is within range, and if so, what WLAN or WLANs the AP supports. This
process of discovery is called scanning.
A station can scan for APs in two ways:
Active scanning
Passive scanning
Active Scanning
In active scanning (also called probing), stations send out probe request frames on
a particular channel. APs within range operating on that channel respond with a
probe response frame containing information about their capabilities, data rates,
and so on. The slide illustrates this process in the upper exchange between station
and AP.
Rev. 8.21 1 45
Passive Scanning
In passive scanning, stations listen for beacon frames from APs within range.
Broadcast at regular intervals by APs, beacons are management frames containing
the following information:
Radio settings
Capabilities
SSID
Time stamps
Other data
Wireless stations within range detect the beacon frames and can then move to the
next step in the connection process. The slide illustrates beaconing and passive
scanning in the lower exchange between station and AP.
A station can listen for beacon frames on all supported channels. This type of
passive scanning is called sweeping.
Preparing to Connect
If multiple APs are within range, the station chooses which one to associate with
based on signal strength. At the same time, the station builds a table to keep track
of SSIDs and other connection data. If the station changes location, it can more
quickly reconnect to another AP that supports the correct SSID using the data
compiled in the table.
1 46 Rev. 8.21
Getting Connected
Rev. 8.21 38
Getting Connected
Open-System Authentication
Association
802.11 Authentication
(required, 2 options)
Shared-Key Authentication
Network Access
Supplemental authentication

When a scan shows that APs are within range and wireless network access is
available, the station begins the process of joining the network.
802.11 Authentication
First, the station initiates a series of negotiations with the AP. These negotiations
are often referred to as a handshake, but in the 802.11 standards they are more
formally known as authentication.
The most basic option for 802.11 authentication is open-system authentication. If
Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) is enabled, stations can instead use shared-key
authentication to prove their legitimacy to the AP or Wireless Module.
802.11 Association
If the 802.11 authentication is successful, a station proceeds to a formal
association with the AP.
Rev. 8.21 1 47
Supplemental Authentication
The term authentication can mean different things in wireless networks, and you
must evaluate which meaning is intended when the term is used. In reality, 802.11
open-system authentication is more a pre-association handshake than actual
authentication: open-system authentication does not establish identity and
legitimacy as the term authentication typically implies. Shared-key authentication,
which was developed to provide true authentication for wireless networks, is
flawed in many ways.
To overcome the limitations of open-system and shared-key authentication, many
WLANs require supplemental authentication after the 802.11 association. This
supplemental authentication is recommended as a much more stringent protection
measure than those outlined in the 802.11 standard.
1 48 Rev. 8.21
Rev. 8.21 39
Authentication request
Authentication response
1
2
All stations can authenticate.
AP

As the name implies, open-system authentication allows any station to be validated
by the APno true secrets are exchanged.
The process consists of two frames and is always initiated by the station, also
called the supplicant. The station sends the AP an authentication request frame,
which contains its MAC address and a value indicating the open-system
authentication method.
The AP responds with an authentication response frame that contains the result of
the request. Typically, the result is successful authentication, and the station is free
to proceed to associate.
At this point in the connection process, the station is authenticated, but not yet
associated. It cannot yet send data to the wired network.

Note
Do not confuse 802.11 open-system authentication with open system
operations for beaconing the SSID. An AP can operate in closed system and
use open-system authentication. In this case, the AP does not beacon the SSID,
and a stations authentication request must include the correct SSID.
Conversely, an AP can advertise the SSID (operate in open system) and use
shared-key authentication. (Currently, however, the most typical
implementation is open system beaconing and open-system authentication.)
Rev. 8.21 1 49
Rev. 8.21 40
Authentication request
Authentication response
+ challenge text
1
2
Encrypted challenge text
Authentication
success or failure
3
4
AP
Stations must encrypt a challenge with the correct key to
authenticate.

A slightly more elaborate authentication exchange can take place if a WLAN is
configured to use WEP security.

Note
WLANs using WEP can also require open-system authentication. In fact, this
is the recommended option.
Shared-key authentication assumes that each device is already in possession of the
same key, enabling the device to encrypt and decrypt data contained in frames. In
order to join the network, the station must prove to the AP that it has the correct
key and should therefore be granted network access.
The following frames are exchanged for shared-key authentication:
1. The station issues an authentication request frame, containing the stations
MAC address and a value indicating shared-key authentication.
2. The AP issues a response frame containing challenge texta 128-byte,
randomly generated data stream.
1 50 Rev. 8.21
3. Using the key it should already possess, the station encrypts the challenge
text from the AP and sends it back.
4. Using the same key, the AP decrypts the challenge text received from the
station. If the decrypted challenge text matches that sent in the second frame,
the authentication is successful. The final frame in the exchange indicates
authentication success or failure.
If successful, the station may then proceed to the association process. As with
open-system authentication, the station is now authenticated but not yet associated
and cannot yet send data to the wired network.

Note
A WLAN that uses shared-key authentication cannot use the more secure
supplemental authentication of 802.1X after association. For the best possible
security, use open-system authentication in the pre-association stage and
supplemental authentication after association.

Rev. 8.21 1 51
Association
Rev. 8.21 41
Association
Association request frame
Association response:
Association ID (AID)
1
2
Stations cannot send data until associated.
Association follows authentication.
AP

If the pre-association authentication is successful, the station sends an association
request frame to the AP, which can accept or reject the request. If it accepts the
association, the AP assigns an AID to the station and allocates RAM and other
resources to the connection. The AP registers the station on the network so that
frames destined for the new station are sent to the correct AP for processing.
If no supplemental authentication is in place, the station is now authenticated and
associated and is a part of the network. The station is allowed to transmit data
frames, and the AP begins to process frames for it. The association remains active
until it is terminated by either party. Stations cannot associate with more than one
AP at a time. They can, however, roam and re-associate to a new AP in the
same WLAN.
1 52 Rev. 8.21
Rev. 8.21 42
Association comes up
Authentication exchange
1
2
Success or failure 3
After associating, stations must authenticate to a network RADIUS
server.
The exact procedure depends on which supplemental authentication
method is used.
AP
RADIUS
server
2
2
3
3

When a WLAN requires supplemental authentication, another process follows
successful association before a user is granted network access. The station is still
authenticated and associated, but is not yet permitted to fully access the network.
The exact authentication process varies, depending on the selected method.
Supplemental authentication is vital to wireless network security because it
ensures that only authorized users access the network. Pre-association
authentication may attempt to use the MAC address or shared keys to grant access
to the correct stations, but methods such as 802.1X more rigorously ensure that
only legitimate users connect.
802.1X, one of the most common supplemental authentication methods, shuts
down the association until the user authenticates. 802.1X authentication is defined
by IEEE standards. Based on user credentials and digital certificates, these
standards address security weaknesses in the original 802.11 standards.
This slide shows a general overview of 802.1X authentication:
1. The association between a station and AP opens.
2. The AP then helps the station authenticate itself to a network Remote
Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS) server. Depending on the
authentication method chosen, the station and the server might exchange
certificates, challenge text, encryption keys, or other security parameters.
Rev. 8.21 1 53
3. When the process is finished, the RADIUS server sends an authentication
success or failure frame, and the AP forwards it to the station. If
authentication is successful, the station also receives the encryption keys it
will use to decrypt received frames and encrypt transmitted frames.
The user perceives the successful completion of supplemental authentication as the
interface coming up or the wireless network being online, and he is now permitted
to access network resources appropriate for his credentials.
To improve network security, 802.1X authentication can be reinitiated at random
or regular intervals throughout a session, ensuring that encryption keys are
changed often enough to make interception and eavesdropping more difficult.
1 54 Rev. 8.21
Summary
Rev. 8.21 43
Summary
Main features of 802.11a, b, g, h, and n standards
Three operating modes for wireless networks
Logical architecture for wireless networks (BSSID, SSID, and WLAN)
Frames exchanged to enable communication between an AP and a
station

In this module, you have learned about:
Main features of 802.11a, b, g, h, and n standards
Three operating modes for wireless networks
Logical architecture for wireless networks (BSSID, SSID, and WLAN)
Frames exchanged to enable communication between an AP and a station

Rev. 8.21 2 1
Introduction to Radio Technologies
Module 2
Objectives
This module introduces you to the properties of radios as they relate to wireless
communications. After you complete this module, you should be able to:
Define radio technology terms related to radio frequency (RF) propagation
and power
Calculate range, explaining in particular the effects of Effective Isotropic
Radiated Power (EIRP) and receiver sensitivity
Explain how data rate sets correspond to a cells operating mode and
theoretical capacity
2 2 Rev. 8.21
Discussion Topics
Rev. 8.21 3
Discussion Topics
Radio Wave Basics
Radio waves
Signal propagation
Causes and types of signal loss
Power measurements
Formulas for distance planning
Theory of capacity
Background information on ProCurve antennas

The first section of this guide covers the properties of radio waves, explaining how
a wireless radio signal propagates through spaces. You will also learn about
potential problems with a signal and how those problems can be overcome.
Rev. 8.21 2 3
Radio Waves
Rev. 8.21 4
Radio Waves
Radio signals are waves of electromagnetic energy cycling at
regular intervals.
Phase 1 Phase 1
Phase 2 Phase 2
Amplitude
Trough
Crest Crest
Wavelength

Radio signals travel as cyclical waves the parts of which repeat at regular and
predictable intervals. Any given point on the wave is a phasea cyclically
repeated state. For example, one phase is the crest, which is the waves highest
point. The distance between two identical phasesfor example, from crest to
crestis the wavelength. In the diagram above, the black line intersects two
phases, each repeated twice. These two phases happen to be the points at which the
wave is at rest. Phase 1 is ascending toward the crest, and Phase 2 descending
toward the trough.
The strength of the wave, or the amount of energy it transmits, is reflected in its
amplitudethe measurement of the wave from its at-rest position to the crest. The
higher the amplitude of the wave, the higher the energy and the stronger the signal.
2 4 Rev. 8.21
Radio Wave Frequency
Rev. 8.21 5
Radio Wave Frequency
Frequency is the number of times per second a waves cycle repeats
itself:
KHz = thousands of cycles per second
MHz = millions/second
GHz = billions/second
Higher frequency:
Smaller wavelength
Shorter range
Travels along line of sight (LOS)
Absorbed by solid objects
Reflected by mirror surfaces
High
frequency
Low
frequency

The term frequency refers to the number of times per second a waves cycle
repeats itself. Because the speed at which radio waves are propagated is constant
(the speed of light), the higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength. (In other
words, more wave cycles must fit into the same space.)
The wavelength of a radio signal affects the lower limit for the radio antenna size.
AP antennas are often dipole antenna, which for the best quality must be no less
than half the wavelength (although various technologies can now compress the
size).
The radio spectrum includes a broad range of frequencies, from the extremely low
3 Hz (wavelength 100,000 km) to the extremely high 300 GHz (wavelength 1 mm)
used in radio astronomy.
Radios approved for wireless networks operate in a range named the super high
frequency band. The 802.11b/g channels use the unlicensed channels 1 through 13
at 2.4122.484 GHz; the 802.11a standard, the 5 GHz channels. (The wavelength
of wireless network radio waves therefore ranges from about 6 to 12.5 cm.)
The higher a waves frequency, the shorter the range (given equal energy). The
relatively high frequency used in all wireless networks limits their scope (though
more so on 802.11a networks than 802.11b or g networks). Often, this limitation is
an advantage: you dont want your network spreading out into areas you cannot
control, and you dont want your neighbors signals interfering with your own.
Rev. 8.21 2 5
Relatively high frequency radio waves, such as those used in wireless networks,
have properties somewhat similar to visible light. These properties make it easier
for you to eyeball potential obstacles. That is, a low frequency radio wave, with its
long wavelength, swings back and forth across the straight line to the receiver,
making it difficult to eyeball the precise path. On the other hand, a high frequency,
low wavelength, wireless signal travels along a roughly straight line of sight (LOS)
to each receiver. You only have to worry about the obstacles in the LOS.
Also like visible light, wireless network radio waves tend to be at least partially
absorbed by solid objects and reflected by mirror surfaces such as metal and
glassalbeit to a to lesser degree than visible light. A wireless radio signal usually
has little trouble penetrating objects such as furniture, doors, windows, cubicle
walls, and interior walls, although it might have difficulty penetrating brick walls
or walls containing metallic mesh. Mesh in particular poses a problem because the
holes are often close to the same size as the waves and so interfere greatly with the
shape of the wave.
2 6 Rev. 8.21
Signal Propagation
Rev. 8.21 6
Signal Propagation
Signal power falls as a square of distance.
When the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) falls too low, the signal is lost.
Background noise
Distance from AP
P
o
w
e
r
SNR
Threshold
Signal lost

In open space without obstructions, radio waves naturally weaken in direct
proportion to the square of the distance from the transmitter. The wavelength and
frequencythe overall pattern of the waveremain the same; however, the
waves overall energy and therefore amplitude decrease.
A receiver detects a wave by comparing it to a floor of background noise. The
wave rises and falls above that noise in a predictable fashion. The SNR compares
the strength of the signal to the background noise. The higher the SNR, the clearer
the signal.
When a signal weakens, the receiver finds it harder to distinguish between the
wave and the background noise; the SNR drops. When the SNR falls too low, the
signal drops. The point at which the signal is no longer usable is the threshold and
depends on a property of the receiving radio called its sensitivity.
Consequently, wireless network connections are typically more stable the closer
the receiver is to the transmitter: the SNR tends to be higher.
Rev. 8.21 2 7
ObstructionsCauses of Signal Loss
Rev. 8.21 7
ObstructionsCauses of Signal
Loss
Office furniture
Partitions
Construction materials surrounding stations and APs
Building architecture
Indoor or outdoor topography
Sloping floors or ceilings
Brick courtyard with glass ceiling
Obstruction
Weaker signal:
Partially reflected
Partially absorbed

Given the relatively small distances involved in most wireless networksinside a
building or from site to site on a campusdistance is often a secondary factor in
reception problems. Another problem arises from the fact that radio waves do not
propagate untroubled through open air. Instead, they must traverse a world full of
objects, including walls, glass, metal, and even people. Radio waves penetrate
these objects, but they are also absorbed and reflected to different degrees,
depending on the objects physical properties. For example, a concrete wall
between a transmitter and receiver absorbs more signal than a cubicle partition,
and a metal bookshelf or filing cabinet can reflect the wave enough that the signal
is completely lost on the other side.
Thus the quality of a received radio signal often depends more on the quality of the
signal paththe space and objects the signal must cross to reach the receiver
than its length.
How an obstacle affects the signal depends on:
The obstacles material properties
The placement of the obstacle in the signal path
Remember also that signal paths may change whenever a device moves or the
networks environment changes, and such a change may impact one or more of the
networks users. For example, if a user changes location within the coverage area,
or if a large reflective item is introduced, the original signal path may be degraded
or completely disrupted.
2 8 Rev. 8.21
A great many common objects, some of which are listed in this slide, can affect
radio waves, causing the types of interference discussed in the following slides.
You should pay particular attention to the materials of which partitions and walls
are constructed. Radio waves of the frequencies used for wireless networks find it
difficult to penetrate concrete. Metallic and glass surfaces reflect the signal, which
can also prevent it from reaching desired locations.
You should also pay attention to the shapes of surfaces. Sloping floors or ceilings
can reflect signals, as can courtyards with glass ceilings.
Most network interface cards (NICs) now compensate for interference with
techniques such as diversity reception; however, some obstructions are too great
for a station to receive a high quality signal without moving to a new location. The
ProCurve Mobility course will give you tips on finding the best placement for
APs, radio ports (RPs), and stations to minimize interference.
Rev. 8.21 2 9
Types of Signal Loss
Rev. 8.21 8
Types of Signal Loss
ShadowingAn obstruction
blocks the signal.
MultipathSignals arrive via
both direct and reflected paths,
causing phase shift.
DropoutComplete signal loss
is usually corrected by moving
antenna a few inches.
Multipath
Shadowing

Because real-world environments are rarely simple, predicting the effects of
obstacles is rarely simple either. However, you will encounter three common types
of signal disruption:
Shadowing
Multipath
Dropout
Shadowing
Shadowing occurs when an object or structure intervenes in the signal path to
either absorb or deflect the RF signal. The best way to cure shadowing is to
relocate the users antenna to a position where the signal path improves.
Multipath
Multipath occurs when signals of near-equal strength arrive at the receiver via two
different signal pathsone reflected and one line of sight. Because the reflected
signal has traveled over a longer path, it arrives out of phase with the primary
signal and distorts it, corrupting signal quality. Multipath may be eliminated by
identifying the source of the reflection and removing it or by moving the users
antenna to a more favorable location.
2 10 Rev. 8.21
Dropout
A combination of multipath and shadowing effects can cause the signal to simply
drop out for no single definable reason. Relocating the users antenna a few inches
will often eliminate the dropout and restore a strong RF path.
Rev. 8.21 2 11
Phase Shift and Signal Strength
Rev. 8.21 9
Phase Shift and Signal Strength
Two copies of the wave arrive at the receiver.
If the same phase arrives at different time intervals, subtractive
phase shift causes signal distortion or loss.
Subtractive
phase shift:
Waves
cancel one
another,
signal lost
Phase
shift

The previous slide stated that reflection can cause signal distortion or even
complete signal loss. This slide explains the phenomenon more completely.
Multipath causes two (or more) copies of a wave to reach the receiver at the same
time. A receiver has no way of distinguishing between a signal that arrives over
the direct line-of-sight path and a signal that arrives over a reflected path. It simply
combines the waves as they arrive.
If the multiple copies of the wave happen to arrive with the same phase at the same
time, the two simply add together and increase the signal strength. Such additive
effects occur when the transmitter and receiver are placed such that reflection
delays the wave an amount of time equal to a multiplier of one cycle.
However, because copies of the wave travel over different paths, different phases
might arrive at the same time. The waves are said to be out of phase, and
distortion occurs. The copies of the wave cancel each other out, the amplitude
decreases, and the signal weakens.
The more out of phase the waves are, the more the signal fades. When the waves
are 180 degrees out of phase, the signal drops entirely, as shown in the slide.
In this way, reflective surfaces can cause the fading of, and potentially the
complete cancellation of, a signal. Precise measurement of phase shift requires
sophisticated equipment and is probably not necessary to establish and manage a
wireless network. However, when possible, you should eliminate, minimize, or
control reflection points.
2 12 Rev. 8.21
Overcoming Poor Reception
Rev. 8.21 10
Overcoming Poor Reception
Diversity reception:
Uses two independent radio
systems
Reduces signal loss from phase
shift and dropout
Votes which radio provides the
best signal path to the receiver
Diversity reception
Antenna A Antenna B
Transceiver A Transceiver B
Voting
processor

Diversity receivers can greatly diminish the effects of multipath interference. Such
systems provide two independent radio transceivers with antennas spaced a short
distance aparteach capable of transmitting and receiving signals from other
devices. The device monitors signal quality from both transceivers simultaneously,
and through a process called voting determines which transceiver should be used
when communicating with each remote location. At 2.4 GHz, even just a few
inches of antenna spacing is usually sufficient to overcome most unwanted
reflection and dropout.
ProCurve APs 420 and 530 as well as the ProCurve RPs 210, 220, and 230 feature
diversity radio systems designed to reduce signal loss.
Rev. 8.21 2 13
Measuring Wireless Power
Rev. 8.21 11
Measuring Wireless Power
Power in the
wired world
Power in the
wireless world
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
-
9
0
d
B
m
-
8
0
d
B
m
-
7
0
d
B
m
-
6
0
d
B
m
-
5
0
d
B
m
-
4
0
d
B
m
-
3
0
d
B
m
-
2
0
d
B
m
-
1
0
d
B
m
0
d
B
m
1
0
d
B
m
2
0
d
B
m
3
0
d
B
m
W
W
W
W
W
W
2 W = 33 dBm
1 W = 30 dBm
.1 W = 20 dBm
.01 W = 10 dBm
.001 W = 1mW = 0 dBm
.0001 W = -10 dBm
.
.
.0001 nW = -90 dBm
.
W = Watt
dBm = dB above or below one milliwatt (mW)

Understanding how power is measured in the wireless world allows you to plan the
correct transmit power based on distances between devices and receiver
sensitivity. The standard measurement in wireless communication power is dBm,
which stands for decibels above one milliwatta ratio measuring the power of a
wireless signal relative to watts, a more familiar power measurement.
In other words, 1 mW is the baseline measurement of power in the wireless world
and equals 0 dBm. Positive dBm values are greater than 1 mW, and negative dBm
values are less than 1 mW.
Remember that dBm are relative units, so negative dBm values do not indicate
negative power or signal loss; instead, a negative dBm value simply means
decibels below one mW. (For example, radio receiver sensitivity, which is the
lowest power required for the receiver to distinguish the signal, is often expressed
as a negative dBm value.)
Watts and dBm have a logarithmic relationship, as illustrated in the diagram
above. (The precise equation is 1 dBm = 10logmW.)
An increment of 10 dB equates to a tenfold increase in power. Because the
baseline power is 1 mW, 10 dBm is 10 mW (10 times the power of 1 mW), 30
dBm is 1 W (1000 times the power of 1 mW), and so forth.
2 14 Rev. 8.21
Discussion Topics
Rev. 8.21 12
Discussion Topics
Radio wave basics
Formulas for Distance Planning
Calculating EIRP
Calculating path loss
Calculating RSL and range
Transmit power and cell size
Theory of capacity

This section teaches you how to estimate a radios range based on factors such as
the transmit power and the path between the transmitter and the receiver.
Rev. 8.21 2 15
Calculating Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
(EIRP)
Rev. 8.21 13
Calculating Effective Isotropic
Radiated Power (EIRP)
EIRP =
Transmit power (dBm)
Cables and connectors (dB)

+
Antenna gain (dBi)
Site A Cable (-.22 dB)
Antenna
(6.5 dBi)
Radio
Transmits at 15 dBm
Connector
(-.25 dB)
Pigtail (-1 dB)
Connector
(-.25 dB)
EIRP
19.78 dBi

EIRP is the measurement of signal strength generated by a radio system and output
through the antenna. It refers to how much total power the signal gains in the radio
system.
EIRP is measured in units of decibels over isotropic (dBi). The ratio compares the
device in question to an isotropic radiator: the greater the dBi value, the higher the
gain. An isotropic radiator is a theoretical device emitting energy in all directions
equallya spherical radiation pattern. No antenna is actually an isotropic radiator;
for EIRP measurements, dBi simply provides a basis for consistent comparison
between different radios and antennas.
EIRP is the sum of two main sources of power less one source of power loss. To
calculate EIRP, consider:
The radios transmission power
The loss caused by cables and connectors
The gain of the antenna
2 16 Rev. 8.21
The figure shows how to calculate EIRP for a simple site: take the radio transmit
power specified in dBm; subtract any loss associated with a pigtail cable, lightning
arrestor, extension cable, and the connectors that join these devices; and then add
antenna gain. (Note that dBi is used to express both gain and loss, with loss in
negative dBi.) That is:
EIRP = Transmit power Cable loss + Antenna gain
You will learn how to configure and check transmit power in ProCurve Mobility.
You can find the values for cable and connector losses, as well as for antenna
gains, in the documentation for those products.
The slide shows the calculation for EIRP for an AP 420 radio operating at 15 dBm
and connected to a 6.5 dBi gain antenna:
15 dBm (1 dB + .25 dB + .22 dB + .25 dB) + 6.5 dBi = 19.78 dBi
Rev. 8.21 2 17
Adjusting EIRP Affects Coverage
Rev. 8.21 14
Adjusting EIRP Affects Coverage
The higher the EIRP, the larger the cell
100%
200%
Free space
100 %
100%
200%
Cluttered environment
Power Range Size
50%
71%
50%
10%
32%
10%
+3 dB
10 dB
140%
3 dB
Full
power
+3 dB
3 dB
0 dB

Now that you understand EIRP and how the signal fades through space, you can
consider how adjusting the EIRP affects range and coverage. You can adjust the
EIRP by reducing the transmit power or by adding an external antenna; you will
learn how to do both a bit later. Because range depends on many factors, you
cannot relate EIRP directly to an exact range. However, you can see how adjusting
the value changes the relative cell size.
Power falls off as a square of distance. Therefore, coverage area (which is distance
squared) corresponds directly to power. Halving a radios EIRP (reducing it by 3
dB) cuts the cell size in half; doubling the EIRP doubles the cell size, and so forth.
The radios range, on the other hand, changes as a square root. For example, at 50
percent power, a radio has roughly 70 percent the range it has at full power.
Note that these rules apply to free space. In a real-world environment, coverage
areas are smaller, and so are the gradations between cell sizes at various transmit
powers. To increase the cell size, you might need to add a higher-gain antenna.
Similarly, to decrease the cell size, you might need to reduce the transmit power
more than you expect. Experiment with various settings on your APs and RPs or
use PMMs site-planning tool, as described in Module 8: Designing Wireless
Networks of the ProCurve Mobility course.

2 18 Rev. 8.21
Cabling Cautions
Rev. 8.21 15
5m cable
-2.85 dB gain
Cabling Cautions
Cables and connectors create negative gain.
Use high-quality, low-loss product.
When possible, keep cables short.
AP 420
13 dBm transmit power
Vertical
antenna
4 dBi gain
Gain reduced to 1.15 dBi

The connectors and cables between a radio and its antenna are important
components of EIRP calculation and distance planning. Dont overlook them!
Cables are especially costly in terms of signal loss. The example above shows an
AP with an external antenna attached (perhaps mounted on a mast outside). While
the antenna has a reasonable gain of 4 dBi, the cable and connectors eat up a full
2.85 dBi, leaving a net gain of 1.15 dBi for the investment in cable and antenna.
The most common antenna cables available today are the LMR195 and the
LMR400. With its high loss (-.19dBi/foot), the LMR195 is best suited for
connecting a desktop antenna to a wireless device on the same surface; the cable
should be no longer than a couple of feet. The LMR400 loses approximately
.064dBi per foot, which is significantly better, but still not suited for long cable
lengths. Some cables on the market lose up to .75dBi/footalways check the
cable specifications.
If possible, place APs so that antennas will not need to be deployed further than
one meter from the radio, maximizing EIRP.
Rev. 8.21 2 19
Calculating Path Loss
Rev. 8.21 16
Signal attenuation between the transmitter and the receiver
Depends on:
Frequency
Distance between the two devices
Medium through which the signal travels
Free-space path loss: (Lp) = (32.4 + 20 log
10
F) + (20 log
10
D)
Lp = Path loss in dBi, F = Frequency in GHz, and D = Distance in m
For 802.11b/g, Lp = 40.0 + 20 log
10
D
For 802.11a, Lp = 46.4 + 20 log
10
D
Example:
Lp = 40 + (20 * log 2500)
Lp = 40 + (20 * 3.9)
Lp = 40 + 68
Lp = 108 dBi
Calculating Path Loss
AP 530
2
.
5

k
m
802.11g
AP 530
-108 dB

Having calculated EIRP, you must next figure out how much the signal degrades
between transmitter and receiver; path loss measures that attenuation.
Path loss is based on three general factors:
Frequency
Distance between the transmitter and receiver
Medium through which the signal travels
For example, if, at one point, the signal must cross a brick wall, it will degrade
more than in an area through which the signal simply travels through free space.
The equation in the slide derives path loss based on:
Distance
Frequency
Free space between the two endpoints
Free space is literal here. The equation does not take any obstructions into
account, even the air. The calculated signal loss originates entirely from the
spreading of the signal through space and is related to the distance between the
transmitter and receiver in terms of wavelength.
2 20 Rev. 8.21
The equation uses these variables:
Lp = free-space path loss
F = frequency in GHz
D = distance, or path length, in meters
Make sure to use the correct units; otherwise, the constant 32.4, which takes these
units (as well as constants related to calculating the surface area of a sphere) into
account, is incorrect.
Wireless networks use one of two frequencies, so you can use these simplified
equations:
For 802.11b/g, Lp = 40.0 + 20 log
10
D
For 802.11a, Lp = 46.4 + 20 log
10
D
Rev. 8.21 2 21
Real-World Path Loss
Rev. 8.21 17
Real-World Path Loss
In free space, power falls off as a square of distance.
Scattering exponent: 2
Distance component of path loss equation: 20 log D
In a real-world environment, power falls off more quickly.
The more cluttered the environment, the higher the scattering
exponent.
Scattering exponent * 10 log D = Distance component of the equation
For major obstacles, add dB to the equation.
High scattering
5 + (32.4 + 20 log F) + 40 log D
Obstacle
Closed Offices

The free space equation may give you an accurate picture for path loss if your
company sets up operations in the middle of a desert. But the clutter of the real
world complicates the model.
The free space equation assumes that power falls off as a square of the distance.
Because dBs are logarithmically related to power, this assumption emerges as the
20 coefficient in the equation: 10 * log D
2
= 20 * log D.
Obstacles distributed throughout a coverage area tend to increase scattering
exponentially. Because all real-world environments include obstacles, if only the
air, a more realistic path loss equation would use a different exponent than 2 and a
different coefficient than 20.
Scattering Exponent
The following are scattering exponents for some typical environments. Although
these values are only approximations, you can use them to plan more realistic
coverage areas:
Open outdoors spaces2 for short distances; add .5 for each 200 m to take
into account the effects of the air
Outdoors with trees or buildings (urban areas, parks, and so forth)
3 or 4
Indoors with open spaces (warehouses and so forth)2.5
2 22 Rev. 8.21
Indoors with cubicles or other partitions3.5
Indoors with walls (fully divided offices, hospitals, houses, and so
forth)4 or 5
Thus, if your company has a building with fully divided offices, you might use this
equation to calculate path loss:
(32.4 + 20 log F) + (40 log D)
Far from insignificant, the increase in the scattering exponent from 2 to 4 could
decrease range tenfold and coverage area one hundredfold.
Major Obstructions in the Signal Path
Altering the scattering exponent attempts to account for landscapes as a whole.
You should also add an absolute loss for each major obstruction in the signal path.
For example, add between 3 and 8 dB to the total path loss for floor-to-ceiling
partitions through which the signal must pass. The Module 8: Designing Wireless
Networks of the ProCurve Mobility course gives you more tips for dealing with
obstructions.
Antenna Type
You should also consider your type of antenna when determining a realistic path
loss equation. Directional antennas, particularly high-gain directional antennas,
usually experience less scattering than omnidirectional antennas. However, an
obstruction directly in the signal path, particularly an obstruction near the antenna,
can have a great effect on the directionally focused signal.
Finally, remember: the world is not tidy, and no model or equation is perfect.
Equations such as these can help you to estimate path loss, but nothing can replace
rigorous testing of the signal throughout the desired coverage area.
Rev. 8.21 2 23
Calculating Received Signal Level (RSL)
and Range
Rev. 8.21 18
Calculating Received Signal
Level (RSL) and Range
RSL = Transmitter EIRP (dBi) Path loss (dB) + Receiver antenna gain (dBi)
Two devices are in range when RSL > receiver sensitivity threshold
Site AAP 530
Transmit power: 15 dBm
Antenna gain: 6.4 dBi
Receiver Sensitivity: -83 dBm
Site BAP 530
Transmit power: 17 dBm
Antenna gain: 2.5 dBi
Receiver Sensitivity: -83 dBm
Distance = 50 meters
Path loss = -82.5 dB
Site A to Site B 21.4 dBi 85.5 dB + 2.5 dBi = -58.6 dBm
Site B to Site A 19.5 dBi 85.5 dB + 6.4 dBi = -56.6 dBm

You can now calculate the signal level when the radio wave reaches the receiver,
called the received signal level (RSL). First, determine the EIRP of the transmitter,
as you learned how to do earlier, subtracting any calculated path loss from this
value. The receivers antenna acts like your outer ear, focusing and amplifying the
signal. To account for this focusing, add the antennas gain to the equation (which
you can assume is the antennas maximum gain as long as it is properly oriented in
line with the transmitting antenna). The end result is the RSL:
RSL = Transmitter EIRP Path loss + Receiver antenna gain
If the RSL is higher than the receivers threshold (the level at which the device can
receive the signal without significant error), the receiver accepts the signal. The
threshold is determined by the receiver sensitivity. For example, if the receiver
sensitivity at 11 Mbps is -80 dBm, the RSL must be higher than this level or the
devices range is exceeded. (This module later lists the receiver sensitivity of
ProCurve products.)
To determine whether the two devices shown above (one AP 530 with an external
antenna and one with an internal antenna) are within range of each other, you must
determine both whether the signal can reach Site B when Site A transmits and
whether the signal can reach Site A when Site B transmits.
2 24 Rev. 8.21
First, consider the Site A device as the transmitter.
1. Calculate the EIRP of Site A. The antenna gain listed in the slide already
includes cable loss.
15 dBm + 6.4 dBi = 21.4 dBi
2. Calculate path loss between the sites (for this example, assume an open indoor
environment). The APs operate in the 2.4 GHz range.
Loss = 40 + 25 log 50 = 82.5 dB
3. Calculate the RSL at Site B using the equation shown in the slide.
21.4 dBi 85.5 dBi + 2.5 dBi = -58.6 dBm
4. Compare the RSL to the Site B devices receiver sensitivity.
-58.6 dBm is above the -83 dBm sensitivity threshold.
Next, consider the Site B device as the transmitter:
5. Calculate the EIRP of Site B.
17 dBm + 2.5 dBi = 19.5 dBi
6. Calculate the RSL at Site A using the equation shown in the slide. The path
loss is the same as that calculated previously.
19.5 dBi 82.5 dB + 6.4 dBi = 56.6 dBm
7. Compare the RSL to the Site A devices receiver sensitivity.
-56.6 dBm is above the -83 dBm sensitivity threshold.
The two devices can communicate.
Rev. 8.21 2 25
System Gain and Fade Margin
Rev. 8.21 19
System gain
Difference between output power
(EIRP) and receiver threshold
Maximize to increase range and
quality
Fade margin
Difference between the RSL and the
threshold
Maximize for stable connections
Total
EIRP
(dBm)
Threshold
(minimum
usable signal
strength)
System
gain
System Gain and Fade Margin
Target RSL
Fade
margin

System Gain
The system gain is the difference between the systems output power (EIRP) and
the receiver threshold. You can think of the system gain as the signal strength
radios provide above the minimum threshold in order to offset the effects of
distance, interference, and obstructions.
Of course, to achieve any sort of range, system gain must be significantly higher
than the desired RSL. A radio might transmit a signal at 20 dBm, but path loss
could very well lower the RSL to, for example, -50 dBm.
High system gain is desirable because it can:
Allow longer distance connections
Create higher RSL
Improve system performance
Improve immunity to interference
Allow smaller receiver antennas with less gain
Overcome cable loss
Increasing EIRP and receiver sensitivity works to maximize overall system gain.
In other words, you can increase system gain in two ways: raise the output power
or lower the threshold.
2 26 Rev. 8.21
You can increase output power by:
Increasing transmit power
Adding external antennas
Minimizing cable loss
Higher-quality equipment can increase receiver sensitivity, which lowers the
threshold.
Fade Margin
Signals always weaken over space; they might also change over time. The RSL for
a transmission may drop due to slight changes in the receivers position, the
introduction of a new obstruction, or even changes in the weather.
The fade margin can be considered a buffer zone between the RSL and the
threshold at which the signal becomes unusable. In theory, the fade margin can be
zero. However, any change in the environment would then disrupt the signal, and
wireless network environments change frequently.
Clearly, the larger the fade margin, the more stable the connection due to the
greater allowance for path interference and other noise. You may not always have
control over receiver sensitivity, but the RSL, like the system gain, can be adjusted
by modifying some of the variables leading to its derivation. The stronger the RSL,
the larger the fade margin will be, and fade margin should be maximized in all
wireless designs, especially for outdoor links and longer-distance connections.
A good minimum fade margin is generally considered to be between 10 and 20 dB.
Rev. 8.21 2 27
Formulas Relating EIRP, Range, and Coverage
Area
Rev. 8.21 20
Formulas Relating EIRP, Range,
and Coverage Area
Free space:
Range Power
Coverage Area Power
For example:
Half power 70% range and half the coverage area
Twice power 140% range and twice the coverage area
Real-world environments:
Range
Scattering exponent
Power
Coverage Area (
Scattering exponent
Power)
2
For example, in an office with scattering exponent 3.5:
Half power 80% range and two-thirds the coverage area
Twice power 120% range and 150% the coverage area
Is proportional to

Because range depends on factors other than EIRP, you cannot map EIRP directly
to an exact range. You can see, though, how EIRP, range, and cell size relate. This
self-study guide gives you the formulas you need. You will learn more about
planning cells for your own environment in the ProCurve Mobility course.
Free Space
Remember that, in theory, power falls off as a square of distance. Therefore, the
maximum distance from the AP (or RP) is proportional to the square-root of the
power. Cell size is a coverage area, which is the range squared and directly
proportional to the power.
For example, you halve an AP radios power (reduce it by 3 dB). To calculate the
theoretical reduction in range, take the square-root of .5. The range, you find, is
.71 or about 70 percent. Calculating the change in the coverage area is easy: when
you halve the power, you halve the area as well.
Similarly, doubling the radios power (for example, by adding a 3 dBi-gain
antenna) increases the range by 140 percent and doubles the coverage area.

2 28 Rev. 8.21
Note
The coverage area is proportional to the square of the range only when the
radio transmits in all directions equally. An antenna may give directional
coverage. In this case, the range still increases proportional to the square-root
of the power, but the increase in coverage area may be less than expected.

The table below shows howin the theoretical world of free spacetransmit
power relates to cell size and maximum distance between a station and AP.
Transmit Power
as a Percentage
of Maximum
Transmit Power
as a Reduction
in dB
Cell Size as a
Percentage of
Size at Maximum
Power
Range as a
Percentage of
Range at
Maximum Power
80 1 80 89
63 2 63 79
50 3 50 71
40 4 40 63
32 5 32 56
25 6 25 50
20 7 20 45
16 8 16 40
13 9 13 36
10 10 10 32

Real-World Environments
The relationships described above are theoretical. In real-world environments,
power falls off more quickly. Cells are smaller no matter what the radios EIRP
and so are the differences between cell sizes at various powers. In other words, to
shrink a cell, you might need to reduce the radios power more than you expected.
Similarly, you might need to add more gain to increase coverage to the desired
level.
In the real-world, the range is proportional to the scattering exponential root of the
power. For example, if the scattering exponent is 3, the range is proportional to the
third-root of the power. As always, the coverage area is proportional to the range
squared (unless, as noted above, the radios antenna does not produce a circular
coverage pattern).
For example, your AP operates in an office with cubicles; you have estimated the
scattering exponent at 3.5. You cut the AP radios transmit power in half. You can
estimate that the reduced range will be about 80 percent of the range at the
previous power (
3.5
.5 = .82). The new coverage area will be about two-thirds the
previous area (.82
2
= .67).
You can perform a similar calculation to estimate the effect of doubling the power,
perhaps by adding a 3 dbi-gain omnidirectional antenna. The range is increased by
about 20 percent (to 120 percent the previous range); the coverage area is
increased by about 50 percent.
Rev. 8.21 2 29
The table below shows how transmit power may relate to cell sizes and maximum
ranges in a cluttered environment with a scattering exponent of 4.
Transmit Power
as a Percentage
of Maximum
Transmit Power
as a Reduction in
dB
Cell Size as a
Percentage of
Size at Maximum
Power
Range as a
Percentage of
Range at
Maximum Power
80 1 89 94
63 2 79 89
50 3 71 84
40 4 63 79
32 5 56 75
25 6 50 71
20 7 45 67
16 8 40 63
13 9 36 60
10 10 32 56

2 30 Rev. 8.21
Discussion Topics
Rev. 8.21 21
Discussion Topics
Radio wave basics
Basic distance planning
Theory of Capacity
Data rate sets
Operation modes
Other factors that affect capacity

You now know how to estimate the range and coverage in the wireless cell
supported by a radio system. The next section gives you a background in the
theory of capacity, which is the amount of data that can be carried in the
wireless cell.
Rev. 8.21 2 31
Data Rate Sets
Rev. 8.21 22
Data Rate Sets
The data rate determines the theoretical maximum capacity.
A stations data rate is determined by the APs data rate sets:
BasicStations must support these rates to associate.
Supported
Stations can use any of these rates after they associate.
A station transmits at the highest rate supported rate.
AP 530
Basic
Rates
Stations can
use the
highest of
these that
they support.
Supported
Rates
All stations
must support
these rates.

The data rate used by stations in the wireless cell determines the theoretical
maximum for capacity. That is, if a station and an AP are communicating at 24
Mbps, the throughput can be no more than 24 Mbps.
As you learned in Module 1: Wireless Network Technologies and Specifications
of this self-study guide, each 802.11 standard supports multiple data rates. The
particular data rate at which a station transmits is affected by the APs data
rate sets:
The basic data rate set includes the rates that a station must support to
associate to the AP.
The supported data rate set includes any rate that the station can use to send
data after it associates.
A station transmits at the highest data rate that it can support in the APs
supported rate set. (The better the signal, the higher the data rates that the
station can support.) The supported data rate set typically includes more data
rates than the basic set, allowing stations that support faster rates to use them.

Note
If the supported data rate set includes rates that are lower than the basic rates,
stations can use those rates only after they associate. In this way, a station
could move further away from the AP and stay connected.
2 32 Rev. 8.21
Operating Modes
Rev. 8.21 23
Operating Modes
6, 12, 24 (default)
6, 12, 24 (default)
6, 12, 24 (default)
1 (default), 2
1 (default), 2, 5.5, 11
Basic Data Rates
802.11a stations 6, 9, 12, 18, 24,
36, 48, 54
802.11a
802.11g stations with
highest throughput (no
interference protection)
6, 9, 12, 18, 24,
36, 48, 54
802.11 pure g
only
802.11g stations with
higher throughput
802.11b and g stations at
b rates
802.11b and g stations
Supported Stations
1, 2, 5.5, 6, 9, 11,
12, 18, 24, 36,
48, 54
1, 2, 5.5, 11
1, 2, 5.5, 6, 9, 11,
12, 18, 24, 36,
48, 54
Supported Data
Rates
Operating
Modes
802.11g only
802.11b only
Mixed
802.11b/g

The various operating modes for 802.11a and 802.11b/g call for particular data
rates in the basic and supported sets. To configure an AP 530 or RP radio to
operate in a particular mode, you must configure its sets to include the correct data
rates, which are shown in the table below.
Operating Mode Basic Rates Supported Rates Supported
Stations
Mixed 802.11b/g 1 (default), 2, 5.5,
11
1, 2, 5.5, 6, 9, 11,
12, 18, 24, 36, 48,
54
802.11b and g
stations
802.11b only 1 (default), 2 1, 2, 5.5, 11 802.11b and g
stations at b rates
802.11g only 6, 12, 24 (default) 1, 2, 5.5, 6, 9, 11,
12, 18, 24, 36, 48,
54
802.11g stations
802.11 pure g only 6, 12, 24 (default) 6, 9, 12, 18, 24,
36, 48, 54
802.11g stations
with higher
throughput (no
interference
protection)
802.11a 6, 12, 24 (default) 6, 9, 12, 18, 24,
36, 48, 54
802.11a stations

Rev. 8.21 2 33
You can also customize your own data rate sets to affect the coverage and capacity
provided by your AP. You will learn about selecting data rates for your needs in
the ProCurve Mobility course.
The sections below give more information about the operation modes.
Mixed 802.11b/g Mode
Working in its mixed b/g mode, the AP supports both 802.11b and g stations.
However, because the devices must transmit broadcasts and preambles at lower
speeds, the cell experiences reduced data throughput, even if there are no 802.11b
clients active in the network.
Stations must send a CTS frame at the lowest possible 802.11b data rate before
transmitting to protect against contention from 802.11b devices. This requirement
is called Protected Mode (because the ability of 802.11b devices to access the
network is protected).
802.11b Only
If you have the AP operate in 802.11b only mode, 802.11g stations can still
connect. However, they cannot use the higher rates.
802.11g Only
To achieve a higher throughput, you can set the AP to operate in 802.11g only
mode, which ignores all 802.11b stations in the service area. However, the AP
radio must still enforce Protected Mode.
802.11 Pure g Only
802.11 pure g only mode raises rates even higher than 802.11g only. However, it
does not protect from interference from 802.11b stations.
802.11a
The 802.11a operating mode is more straight-forward because all stations that
support the standard understand the modulation used for all data rates. By default,
ProCurve radios that operate in 802.11a uses the data rate sets shown in the table
above.
2 34 Rev. 8.21
Other Factors Governing Capacity
Rev. 8.21 24
Other Factors Governing
Capacity
Modulation/demodulation technology
Device capabilities
Requirements imposed by shared media
Half duplex
Acknowledge (ACK) frames
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
Request to send/clear to send (RTS/CTS) frames, if enabled
Overhead from 802.11 headers
Degree of interference

Overall cell capacity depends on a variety of factors and does not reach the
theoretical maximum indicated by the data rate. Generally, due to factors such as
those discussed below, actual throughput is from 30 to 60 percent of theoretical
throughput.
Modulation Technology
At its most fundamental level, cell capacity is limited by modulation/demodulation
technology that encodes data onto a radio wave. Current technology can only pack
so much data onto a radio wave.
Device Capabilities
Capacity is in part a function of both the APs and stations capabilities. For
example, APs process incoming and outgoing data frames very quickly, but not
without limits. If too many users occupy a cell, performance will suffer because
the APs processing power will be taxed.
All stations may not transmit at the same speedone station might be far from the
station, another may simply have a lower-quality card. Slow stations decrease
throughput for all stations because broadcasts, multicasts, and preambles are
transmitted at the lowest speed required in a basic rate set.
Rev. 8.21 2 35
Limited Media and 802.11 Standards
All devices within a given cell share the same mediumthe air through which the
radio signals travelbut only one signal can be transmitted at a time on the same
channel or collisions and data loss occur. When one user is in a cell, she has on-
demand access to the medium. When many users are in a cell, they must compete
for airtime, which means decreased network performance.
The rules set by 802.11 standards to accommodate the shared medium further limit
a cells capacity. These standards are intended to prevent data collisions and
control access to the broadcast medium. For example, all wireless communications
must be half-duplexonly one end of the link may transmit or receive at a time.
And some networks require stations to send an RTS and receive a CTS frame
before transmitting data frames over a certain size.
Standards also require certain non-negotiable overheaddata required by the
wireless system but which does not form part of the relevant frame payload.
Required ACK framessent by a receiver each time a packet is received intact
are one example of such overhead. Another is the 802.11 header, which is longer
than an Ethernet header; each header may include destination, origin, and
transmitter addresses, initialization vectors (IVs) for encryption keys, and other
Layer 1 and Layer 2 data. While individual overhead requirements may seem
small, the cumulative effect over large networks with many users is substantial. In
practice, throughput may be half the theoretical value, and that is in the best of
circumstances.
Interference
Interference makes it harder for wireless devices to detect radio signals, just as it
would be harder for you to hear someones voice if music started blaring. Too
much interference forces stations to drop to a lower data rate, one that requires less
precise measurement of the modulation. (Similarly, you might be able to pick out
simple words over loud music, but not complicated sentences.)
2 36 Rev. 8.21
Discussion Topics
Rev. 8.21 25
Discussion Topics
Radio wave basics
Formulas for distance planning
Theory of capacity
Antennas
Types of antennas
Properties of ProCurve antennas
Regions
Mounting options and guidelines

This section describes the basic types of antennas and then provides information
about ProCurve external antennas. You will learn more about choosing and
placing antennas in the ProCurve Mobility course.
Rev. 8.21 2 37
Basic Antenna TypesOmnidirectional and
Directional
Rev. 8.21 26
Basic Antenna Types
Omnidirectional and Directional
Antennas focus, or direct, the signal:
Omnidirectional direct the signal equally in all horizontal directions.
Directional direct the signal along a specific, usually conical path.
Antennas add gain along the directed propagation path.
Omnidirectional
Horizontal plane
Directional
Horizontal plane

An antenna is a device that focuses radio waves in particular patterns when
transmitting or when receiving. (For efficiency, this section uses the language of
signal transmission, but the same concepts apply to signal reception.)
Antenna Basics
An antenna does not actually add power to a radio system. Rather it adds gain: by
focusing the signal, the antenna boosts signal strength along the directed
propagation path (at the cost of weakening the signal in other areas).
An antennas gain, measured in dBi, compares the strength of the focused signal to
the strength of the signal produced by an isotropic antenna if connected to an equal
power transmitter. An isotropic antenna (a theoretical construct that does not
actually exist) is an antenna that does not focus the signal at all.
For example, an isotropic antenna connected to a 100 mW radio would propagate a
10 dBm signal in all directions. The signal from a 4 dBi-gain antenna would begin
at 14 dBm. However, that signal would propagate in a certain direction; in areas
outside the antennas propagation path, the signal would be weaker or non-
existent.
2 38 Rev. 8.21
Thus antennas provide very different coverage depending on:
The pattern in which the antenna directs the signal
The gain the antenna provides in the area of highest focus
A wide variety of antennas answer most environmental challenges you will
confront as you build and maintain your wireless network. Antennas carefully
deployed to take full advantage of gain and radiation patterns can increase
connection reliability and extend coverage into specific desired areas, overcoming
physical obstacles and interference.
The two basic types of antennas are omnidirectional and directional. (Either type
can also be a diversity antenna, which is another type of antenna about which you
will learn later.)
Omnidirectional Antennas
Good for covering large areas, omnidirectional antennas radiate horizontally in all
directions, providing 360 degrees of coverage. Omnidirectional antennas might not
focus the signal in a specific horizontal direction, but they do focus it horizontally
and out of the vertical plane.
Directional Antennas
Directional antennas radiate in a flashlight-like pattern by redirecting available
energy in one direction. They are ideal for elongated areas and outdoor point-to-
point applications.
The slide shows a sample coverage pattern for a directional antenna. You will see
more such patterns as you learn about more antennas. The point of maximum gain
(highest focus) is marked 0; this point is perpendicular to the antennas
orientation.
Rev. 8.21 2 39
ProCurve Omnidirectional Antennas
Rev. 8.21 27
ProCurve Omnidirectional
Antennas
.84 m/Reverse SMA
.84 m/Reverse SMA
.84 m/Reverse SMA
Cable Length/
Connector
H: 360
o
/E: 17
o
H: 360
o
/E: 12
o
H: 360
o
/E: 31
o
Angle of
Coverage
AP 530
RP 220
AP 420
AP 530
RP 220
AP 420
AP 530
RP 220
Wireless
Products
Omnidirectional
Outdoor
omnidirectional
Indoor / outdoor
omnidirectional
Description
6.3 dBi J8998A
7.4 dBi J8444A
Net
Gain
Part
4.4 dBi J8441A
Horizontal
J8441A J8998A
J8444A
Vertical
All

ProCurve Networking provides four omnidirectional antennas that offer gain
between 4.4 dBi and 7.4 dBi. As you can see, the coverage patterns also differ. All
offer 360 of horizontal coverage but the high-gain antennas have a narrow
vertical beamwidth.

2 40 Rev. 8.21
ProCurve Directional Antennas
Rev. 8.21 28
ProCurve Directional Antennas
AP 530
RP 220
AP 530
RP 220
Wireless
Products
Directional
Dual band
directional
Description
6.9 dBi .84 m/Reverse SMA H: 68
o
/E: 66
o
J8999A
o
/E: 27
o
J9000A
Cable Length/
Connector
Angle of Coverage Net Gain Part
J8999A
Horizontal
J9000A
J8999A
Vertical
J9000A

ProCurve offers a dual-band patch directional antenna for either 802.11b/g or
802.11a. It also offers a high-gain directional antenna for 802.11a. These antennas
are intended for the AP 530 and the RP 220. See the table above and the self-study
guide for more information.

Rev. 8.21 2 41
Diversity Antenna
Rev. 8.21 29
Diversity Antenna
Includes two closely spaced antennas
Uses the antenna that provides the best signal for each station
Ideal for cluttered areas with shelves, cabinets, and other obstacles
Antenna A Antenna B
Transceiver A Transceiver B
Voting
processor

Designed to minimize multipath interference, diversity antennas are composed of
two conductive elements positioned with a small gap between them and are easily
identified by the dual pigtailsone for each element.
Diversity antennas may be either directional or omnidirectional and are used for
similar purposes as those antennas. For example, use an omnidirectional diversity
antenna to provide coverage over 360 degrees. However, the two elements in these
antennas add the benefit of evening out coverage.
Both conductive elements are always on, and the AP to which they are attached
chooses which antenna is currently providing the best signal. Due to phase shift
and the very short wavelengths at 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz, even a difference of a few
inches between antennas can make a significant difference in signal strength.
2 42 Rev. 8.21
ProCurve Diversity Antenna
Rev. 8.21 30
ProCurve Diversity Antenna
AP 530
RP 220
Wireless
Products
Dual band
diversity
Description
3 dBi .84 m/Reverse SMA H: 360
o
/E: 60
o
J8997A
Cable Length/
Connector
Angle of
Coverage
Net Gain Part
Horizontal Vertical

The table above displays information about the external diversity antenna available
for the AP 530 or the RP 200. This omnidirectional diversity antenna is designed
for either 802.11a or 802.11bg and offers 3 dBi gain.

Rev. 8.21 2 43
Yagi Antenna
Rev. 8.21 31
Yagi Antenna
E-plane
H-plane
Array of antennas
Narrow beamwidth and high-gain
Often used for point-to-point connections

The Yagi antenna (named for one of its developers, Hidetsugu Yagi) is a narrow-
beam directional antenna with a relatively high gain. Such an antenna is sometimes
called a Yagi phased array because it is composed of three or more dipole antennas
as conductive elements arrayed on a common boom. Roof-mounted television
antennas are typical examples of a Yagi, but those designed for wireless networks
are much smaller and usually enclosed in a protective case. Because of its narrow
beam, a Yagi is ideal for long-distance point-to-point (or wireless bridge)
connections, though careful aiming is required.

2 44 Rev. 8.21
ProCurve Yagi Antenna
Rev. 8.21 32
ProCurve Yagi Antenna
Horizontal Vertical
AP 530
RP 220
Wireless
Products
Yagi
Description
13.8 .52 m/N-type H: 34
o
/E: 30
o
J8448B
Cable Length/
Connector
Angle of
Coverage
Net Gain Part

Approved for use with the AP 530 or the RP 220, the J8448B high-gain Yagi is
designed to concentrate the radio signal in a single direction, ideal for establishing
point-to-point connections in relatively narrow corridors and over long (for
wireless networks) distances. This antenna delivers 14 dBi of gain (13.8 dBi with
its cable), which translates into a system gain of nearly 28 dBi when a similar
antenna is installed at the far end. See the table above and the self-study guide for
more information.

Rev. 8.21 2 45
Summary of ProCurve Antennas
Rev. 8.21 33
Summary of ProCurve External
Antennas
Directional
Dual band directional
Omnidirectional
Dual band diversity
Yagi
Outdoor omnidirectional
Indoor / outdoor
omnidirectional
Description
13.8 dBi .52 m/N-connector H:34
o
/E: 30
o
J8448B
o
/E: 66
o
J8999A
3 dBi .84 m/Reverse SMA H: 360
o
/E: 60
o
J8997A
o
/E: 27
o
J9000A
o
/E: 17
o
J8998A
o
/E: 12
o
J8444A
.84 m/Reverse SMA
Cable Length/
Connector
H: 360
o
/E: 31
o
Angle of
Coverage
Net Gain Part
4.4 dBi J8441A

Use this slide as a quick reference to features of the ProCurve external antennas. In
the ProCurve Mobility course, you will learn more about the antennas and the
meaning of properties such as angle of coverage.
2 46 Rev. 8.21
Summary of Regions Permitting ProCurve External Antennas
Rev. 8.21 34
Summary of Regions Permitting
ProCurve External Antennas

Yagi J8448B

Dual band directional J8999A

Dual band diversity J8997A

Directional J9000A

Omnidirectional J8998A
Outdoor
omnidirectional
J8444A
420
EMEA (ESTI)
530
220
420
NA (FCC)
530
220
AP (ESTI) Description Part
220 530 420

Indoor / outdoor
omnidirectional
J8441A

The table above shows the antennas approved in various regions for ProCurve
wireless products.
Some countries prohibit the use of some antennas on certain channels within a
band, so always makes sure to check regulations. Visit
http://www.hp.com/rnd/support/manuals/rports.htm to download manuals with
more information on this subject.
Rev. 8.21 2 47
Summary of ProCurve External Antenna Mounting Options
Rev. 8.21 35
Summary of ProCurve External
Antenna Mounting Options
I-Beam
Flush
Wall
Articulating
Wall
Mast
Ceiling
Grid
Ceiling
T-Bar
J9000A
J8999A
J8998A
J8997A
J8448B
J8444A
J8441A
Part

This table compares the mounting options available for ProCurve external
antennas. Refer to the slide to verify that you can mount the antenna you have
selected in the proper location.

Note
All ProCurve external antennas ship with all of the hardware necessary for
installing them.
2 48 Rev. 8.21
Connector and Cable Types
Rev. 8.21 36
Connector and Cable Types
Cross-section, LMR 400
N connector
Yagi antenna
Reverse SMA connector
All ProCurve antennas
except the Yagi

You can choose from a variety of connectors and cables depending on your AP
radios frequency and antenna type. Extension cables are necessary when you must
mount the antenna at a distance from the AP or RPfor example, outdoors. Keep
in mind that connectors and cables create negative gain for your system, so its
best to limit them whenever possible.
A final accessory for external antennas, necessary for some installations, is a
terminator.
Connectors
Two varieties of connector are shown here.
The SMA (sub-miniature, variation A) is a small-threaded connector; the Type N,
a large-threaded connector. Both have 50 ohm impedance and can handle up to 18
GHz. Both, therefore, are suitable for wireless radio systems.
All of the ProCurve antennas except the Yagi antenna (J8448B) have reverse SMA
(male) connectors, which can screw directly onto the APs or RPs SMA (female)
connector.
The Yagi antenna has an N (female) connector, which attaches to a 3 m (10 ft)
extension cable. You must connect this cable via a reverse SMA connector to the
AP 530 or RP 220.
Rev. 8.21 2 49
Cable
A standard cable for connecting an antenna to a wireless device is the LMR 400.
Other types exist, but involve significantly greater loss.
The ProCurve antennas include short pigtail cables under 1 m (3.3 ft) long. If your
AP must be further than this from its external antenna, you must add an extension
cable.
Terminator
When you connect an external antenna to one of a radios two connectors, you
must install a terminator on the other connector. The terminator reduces noise and
improves the antennas performance.
2 50 Rev. 8.21
Installing an External AntennaMounting the Antenna
Rev. 8.21 37
Installing an External Antenna
Mounting the Antenna
1. Plan the installation.
Location at least 2 m (6 feet) from other antennas
No one within 25 cm (10 inches) of the antenna
Location clear of obstructions
2. Mount the antenna.
Antenna slightly above stations
Omnidirectional antenna vertically oriented
Directional antenna properly pointed
Outdoor antennas grounded and clear of power lines

This and the next slide give you some guidelines for installing an external antenna
on ProCurve AP 420s, AP 530s, and RP 220s.
1. Plan the Installation
Gather necessary equipment:
The antenna
The AP
Extension cables if installing the antenna more than two or three feet from
the AP
When planning the location, keep these rules in mind:
The antenna must be at least 2 m (6 feet) from other radios.
No one should come within 25 cm (10 inches) of the antenna during normal
operation.
If possible, mount the antenna clear of building supports, reflective objects,
and other objects that might cause dead spots and multipath.
Outdoor installations require a lightning arrestor (J8996A). Some countries
require this device to be installed professionally.
Rev. 8.21 2 51
2. Mount the Antenna
The exact procedure for mounting the antenna depends, of course, on the type that
you have selected. ProCurves Installation and Getting Started Guides can give
you more detailed instructions. In general, remember to use the mounting
equipment included with the antenna and follow these tips:
Mount antennas slightly higher than the stations they will support, above any
obstructions.
Make sure an omnidirectional antenna is vertically oriented. Mount the
antenna at the center of the desired cell and check for a line of sight to all
station locations. (Because radio waves have similar, though not identical,
properties to visible light, this check gives you a rough sense of coverage. Do
not give this check more value than it deserves: for example, the signal
should have little problem going through at least one or two walls.)
Point directional antennas toward the desired coverage area, also tilting the
antenna slightly down (because high-gain antennas tend to have shallow E-
plane coverage).
Make sure all outdoor antennas, cables, and other equipment are grounded
and well away from power and telephone lines.
It is often a good idea to consult with a professional installer, and in some
countries, you must do so. Always check your countrys regulations before
installing an external antenna.
2 52 Rev. 8.21
Installing an External AntennaConnecting It to an AP or RP
Rev. 8.21 38
Installing an External Antenna
Connecting it to an AP or RP
3. Connect the antenna to the AP or RP.
Radio shutdown
AP or RP powered down
Non-diversity antenna on Primary connector; 50 ohm terminator on
Secondary connector
Diversity antenna on Primary and Secondary connector
4. Configure the AP or RP radio.

The order of the next two steps depends on the type of device that you are
installing.
RP radios are automatically enabled as soon as the RP is adopted. Therefore, you
must create a proper radio configuration for the RP 220 before installing the
antenna and returning power to the RP. Complete step 4 first.
Otherwise, you can complete step 3 first.
3. Connect the Antenna to the AP or RP
Before connecting the antenna to the AP or the RP:
1. For APs, make sure the radio is shutdown.
Manually shut down the radio in the screen in which you configure radio
settings.
2. Remove power from the AP or RP.
Only then may you connect the antenna.
Connect a Non-diversity Antenna
Screw the pigtail cable onto the APs Primary reverse SMA connector. (This
connector is on the right side and is clearly labeled.) (For an AP 420, first remove
the original antennas.) You must then install a 50 ohm terminator on the
Secondary connector.
Rev. 8.21 2 53
Connect a Diversity Antenna
A diversity antenna includes two pigtail coaxial cables. Connect one cable to the
Primary connector and one to the Secondary connector.
4. Configure the AP or RP Radio
You must configure the radio to use the external antenna before turning the radio
back on, as explained in the following slides. For example, you might need to
reduce the transmit power. You will learn about configuring your devices in the
ProCurve Mobility course.
2 54 Rev. 8.21
Summary
Rev. 8.21 39
Summary
Properties of radio waves and how they relate to dropped signals
Range and coverage calculations
Capacity theory
ProCurve external antennas

In this module of the self-study guide, you have learned about the properties of
radio waves, studying how a wireless signal propagates through space. In
particular, you learned about potential problems with the signal and how to
overcome those problems. You also learned how to estimate range and coverage
area.
This module also introduced the concept of capacity, or throughput, and described
various factors that can affect capacity.
Finally, you received background information about ProCurve external antennas.
In the ProCurve Mobility course, you will put all of the knowledge into action to
plan wireless cells and coverage for your environment.

To find out more about ProCurve Networking products
and solutions, visit our web site at www.procurve.com
2008 Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P. The information contained herein is
subject to change without notice. The only warranties for HP products and services are set
forth in the express warranty statements accompanying such products and services. Nothing
herein should be construed as constituting an additional warranty. HP shall not be liable for
technical or editorial errors or omissions contained herein.

Wireless Fundamentals v821 C May 08 WW Eng LTR

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Wireless Fundamentals v821 C May 08 WW Eng LTR

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

ProCurve Wireless

Fundamentals Guide: 138

Cables and connectors (dB)

S-ar putea să vă placă și