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Testing a Ratio for the Relationship Between Wave Height and
Water Depth: Ohiwa Beach.
Rod Turner (4805922)
Coastal Processes
ABSTRACT
The height that waves can attain when shoaling impacts upon coastal geomorphology.
Knowledge of breaking waves is a valuable predictive tool for coastal engineers charged with
the design of defensive structures such as sea walls and breakwaters (Shand et al., 2007).
Breaking waves also provide hydrodynamic energy that can create sediment transporting
currents (Komar, 1998).
Waves break because the velocity of the water particles in the crest of the wave exceeds the
celerity of the wave form due to over-steepening and as a result the wave-crest topples
forward (Komar, 1998). In 1894, a Scottish scientist and mathematician, J. McCowan argued
that the point at which waves break was relative to the water depth at that point. He further
concluded that waves could only achieve a maximum height that was a ratio of .78 of the
water depth at the break point. This can be better understood by considering that a shoaling
wave can only achieve a maximum height of 78% of the water depth at breaking point. This
knowledge provides invaluable insight for predicting coastal defence strategies.
This research project took McCowans Critical Break Height theory (1894) and tested it in
the hydrodynamic ocean environment of Ohiwa Beach. The results show a strong correlation
with McGowans expectations, which is of great significance considering that local boundary
influences could have adversely influenced the result.
KEY WORDS: Ohiwa, Critical break height, Water depth ratio, McCowan, Hydro dynamics.

INTRODUCTION
When waves break they release their stored energy. It is at the breakpoint that maximum
disturbance of the sea bed occurs (Masselink and Hughes, 2003). After breaking, the wave
energy is dissipated across the break zone and diminishes before reaching the beach face
(Short, 1999). There has been considerable interest as to where and why waves break. This
interest is due to the impact that breaking waves can have on morphological change,
especially with regards to the current phase of erosion apparent along the Worlds coastlines.
Knowledge of wave breaker point is invaluable to coastal engineers and is vital to predicting
the best forms of coastal defence. Breaking waves set up currents and disturb sediments that
can then become available for transport both across and alongshore (Longuet-Higgins, 1970).
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Identifying the characteristics of breaking waves will allow coastal engineers to mitigate the
adverse effects of such processes along inhabited coastlines..
In 1894 McCowan devised a theory explaining that the maximum height waves can achieve
when shoaling is controlled by water depth (Komar, 1998). His theory resulted in equation 1.

Equation 1: McCowans 1894 critical break height ratio. yb = critical break height ratio, Hb = wave height at
breakpoint, hb = water depth at breakpoint. (Masselink and Hughes, 2003).
This equation tells us that if the water is 1 metre deep then a shoaling wave can only attain a
height of .78 metres before the wave will over-steepen and topple forward. Waves break
when the horizontal shoreward velocity of water particles in the crest of the wave exceeds the
shoreward velocity at the base of the wave form (Komar, 1998). In McCowans equation
wave height is a ratio of the water depth.
There are many boundary influences that could affect this ratio in real-world situations and
consequently there has been a multitude of academic research around the topic. The gradient
of the beach has been found to affect the ratio (Galvin, 1968), as has wind direction and
strength (Douglass, 1990), wave break type (Iribarren and Nogales, 1949), sea bed roughness
(Kaphuis, 1987), effect of wave grouping (Shand et al, 2007), and the influences of barred
beaches (Hardisty and Laver, 1989) to name but a few.
Much of the research centres on mathematical hypothesis and testing in wave tank
environments. Less work has been carried out in the field. Biesel (1951) modelled breaking
wave form as did Longuet-Higgins and Stewart (1964) and Cokelet (1976). However, it is
difficult to factor all the boundary influences that might affect the outcome in a real world
environment into the limitations of a model. Weishar and Byrne (1978) found that research in
actual conditions did not match model predictions. Even less research has been undertaken in
coastal waters in New Zealand, hence the decision to test McCowans ratio in the
hydrodynamic environment of Ohiwa Beach.
OBJECTIVES
It is difficult to factor real time boundary influences into test tank experimentation and to
replicate their actual impact when compiling mathematical equations. Independent research
suggests that McCowans ratio can vary from .5 to 1.2 depending on boundary conditions.
Douglass (1990) found that in a test tank, onshore winds caused the waves to break early and
at a lower height, while offshore winds tended to hold up the wave face allowing it to exceed
the critical break height ratio and thus break closer to shore in shallower water. The
cumulative effect of multiple boundary influences may result in different outcomes to what a
mathematical equation might suggest. To be able to really test McCowans equation in the
face of natural contra- indications it is necessary to gather the required data from a real life,
uncontrolled environment, using information gathered from that specific location. Thus the
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objective of this research project is to test McCowans equation in a real beach environment
by using data gathered on site and in real time. This is the only way that one can determine
whether the mathematical theory proposed by McCowan replicated the natural environment.
STUDY SITE
The research project was undertaken at Ohiwa Beach. Ohiwa Beach was an ideal location for
this research because it is a flat, dissipative beach with a low gradient. It is the type of
environment where breaking waves have significant impact on coastal geomorphology and so
is very relevant to the research objective. Ohiwa Beach lies on the leeward East Coast of the
North Island of New Zealand. It is situated in the Bay of Plenty and is sheltered from
predominant swells from the Southern Ocean by East Cape, however, it is vulnerable to
tropical climatic conditions from the North and the North-East (See figure One).

Figure 1: Map of the North Island of New Zealand showing the East Coast location of Ohiwa Beach.
Ohiwa Beach is most vulnerable to the climatic conditions known as La Nina Southern
Oscillation, and this research was carried out under such conditions. La Nina conditions
inflate water temperature in this region, raise water levels due to reduced water density
(thermal expansion properties), and result in more frequent North, North-East weather
influences and possible storm surges.
The beach gradient was measured to be 1.40 on the day (07/09/2010) (Refer to table 1) and
the tidal range was 1.65 metres. The tidal range was calculated from water depth data
collected on location across the deployment period and was used in preference to public
Ohiwa
Beac
N
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predictions that were published online by NIWA for Ohiwa Harbour entrance (NIWA,
07/09/2010). Ohiwa is in the wave climate area designated Northern New Zealand thus
normally experiences wave heights of .5 metres to 1.5 metres with wave periods between 5
and 7 seconds (Hume et al, 1992). Actual wave height reached 1.07 metres while wave
period varied from 5.4 seconds to 7.9 seconds. (Refer to figure 2 for actual research site).
Beach rise (m) Run (m) Atan X
Atan =
Beach gradient in degrees ()
Ohiwa 1.475 60.2 0.0245 1.40

Table 1: Beach gradient = rise/run. Rise is vertical height from water edge to high tide mark. Run is horizontal
distance between water edge and high tide mark. Measurements were taken from the beach profile (see fig. 4).


Figure 2: Site of the research project on Ohiwa Beach, Bay of Plenty, New Zealand.
METHODS
Field sampling.
It was necessary to obtain measurements of breaking wave height (Hb) as well as measuring
the depth of the water under the breaking waves (hb). This data would allow us to apply
McCowans equation to the hydrodynamic environment at Ohiwa Beach. It was proposed to
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obtain these measurements by deploying kpsi pressure monitors across the surf zone. The
kpsi monitors were programmed and bolted on to heavy metal plates to stabilise and anchor
them in the wave environment. Floating marked buoys were attached to the metal plates so
that the instruments could be visually located in the surf to assist our observations of
instrument relationship to break point as well as to facilitate recovery at the conclusion of the
research period. Deploying a further pressure sensor (baro) on the subaerial beach was
necessary to determine atmospheric pressure that would be deducted from the kpsi sensors in
the surf zone (see figure 3). The kpsis in the surf zone were recording a combination of
atmospheric pressure and pressure exerted by the column of water above them and this
measurement needed to be reduced to water depth alone. The difficulty was in placing the
monitors under the break point when there was no way of knowing where the break point
would be. A shortage of kpsi meant only two could be deployed in the water and this
restricted the chance of gaining accurate wave heights at breaker point. Ideally the use of
more monitors would have enabled them to have been lined diabathically across the surf
zone. Because of the dynamic surf environment it was only possible to place the kpsis in the
surf zone at low tide. Once they had been deployed they could not be moved again until the
low tide in 24hrs time as the intermittent 12 hr low tide would fall at midnight.


Figure 3: The north facing transect line at low tide near Ohiwa Beach camp. The position of the two kpsis and
the baro are indicated. Kpsi 1 is located on the nearshore edge of the offshore bar while kpsi 2 is located in the
inshore trough.

kpsi 1
kpsi 2
baro
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A standard dumpy level across-shore transect profile survey was taken of the beach face onto
which the kpsi positions were plotted along with mean sea level and high and low tide
elevations (see figure 4).

Figure 4: Across shore transect profile of Ohiwa Beach at the location of the field research. The profile shows
the location of the KPSI in the surf zone, the position of the baro on the subaerial beach and elevations of mean
sea level, as well as high and low tide. Datum is mean sea level.
The beach grade was monitored to see what effect beach slope had on critical break height at
Ohiwa (Galvin, 1968).Visual observations were then conducted and notes made as to the
position of the breaking waves at the various times and tide heights. This information would
be very useful later when evaluating the processed data and correlating the data with where
waves were breaking and when. Breaker type was also noted and timed because wave
elevation can determine how waves break and wave break type can be an indicator of break
height (Battjes, 1974). Wind direction and strength was also monitored to see if wind was
causing waves to break early or whether it was holding up the wave face and delaying
breaking (Douglass, 1990).
The kpsi were pre-programmed to record water depth at 2Hz (2 recordings per second) for
bursts of 20 minutes. These 20 minute bursts were programmed to occur every hour on the
hour for 16hrs (16 bursts was all the kpsi would accommodate). Each 20 minute burst
gathered 2400 water depth recordings. 16 burst would thus return an anticipated 38400
measurements from each kpsi. The kpsis were timed to begin recording at 3pm on Tuesday,
07/09/2010. This time corresponded with mid-incoming tide and was designed to monitor a
further full out-going tide, another full incoming tide on the 08/09/2010, and then 1hour of
the next out-going tide. This tidal range sample was considered to be adequate to test
McCowans Equation. The kpsis could then be retrieved at low tide, mid day on 8/09/2010.
The baro recorded constantly at 1Hz.
Laboratory analysis.
The aim of this research project was to find a value for Hb and a value for hb so that
McCowans equation could be tested. Once the kpsi had been retrieved the data was
downloaded selecting the option to receive the data in metres water depth. Similarly, the baro
was down loaded. The data received was entered into an excel worksheet and was reduced by
deducting the baro result from the kpsi results. The baro had recorded continuously at 1Hz
Bar/ kpsi 1
trough
kpsi 2
low tide
MSL/dumpy 1
high tide
dumpy/2 (cp)
berm
dune toe
baro
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
e
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n

(
m
)
Distance (m)
Ohiwa Beach Transect Profile
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and although the variation was small temporally it was necessary to co-relate the time period
with the kpsi bursts because the slight variation across the baro time was significant. It was
necessary to keep in mind that this research was testing the precision of a mathematical
equation to results from actual field sampling, so accuracy of data collected would have a
critical influence on the outcome. The best way to match the baro data to the kpsi data for
reduction was, having regard to the Hz recording rate difference, to average the baro data
across the 20 minute time period of each kpsi burst. The baro showed a minimal variation
over 20 minutes (refer to table 2 for sample data).
Baro test 10 test 10 reduced
10.39814 10.86504 0.466845238
10.39847 10.86671 0.468515238
10.39698 10.91312 0.514925238
10.3979 10.97371 0.575515238
10.39809 10.95736 0.559165238
10.3979 10.96177 0.563575238
10.398 10.94722 0.549025238
10.39789 11.03705 0.638855238
10.39826 10.99387 0.595675238
10.3983 10.95971 0.561515238
10.39869 10.9593 0.561105238
10.39886 10.94206 0.543865238
10.39981 10.93265 0.534455238
10.3992 10.93733 0.539135238

Table 2: The Baro column shows a data sample as downloaded from the baro. This data shows atmospheric
pressure only. Test 10 raw column shows a kpsi 1 data sample for test 10 that includes both atmospheric
pressure and water depth pressure. 2400 water depth recordings were made over the 20 minute burst. Test 10
reduced column is a sample of kpsi 1 data that has been reduced by having atmospheric pressure (baro)
deducted to give water depth only. (Note: These are indicative data samples only and while they relate to the
same test period and time they are not co-related in this table. This is because the baro pressure was standardised
by taking the average (10.31819) for the entire 20 minute period to compensate for the Hz variation.

The kpsis recording at 2Hz returned 2400 depth statistics in each 20 minute burst. Once that
data had been reduced it needed to be analysed. This was facilitated using zero-down-across
software from Matlab. This software was able to analyse 2040 points at a time and so could
accommodate only the first 17 minutes of each 20 minute burst from the kpsi. This was
considered to be a sufficient sample for the purposes of this research and 28 tests were
analysed, 14 from kpsi 1 and 14 from kpsi 2. While each kpsi could accommodate 16 bursts,
2 bursts were found to be corrupt upon down-loading so each monitor was reduced to 14
returns. Although being reduced to 28 tests and having these tests reduced to 17 minutes each
there were still 57,000 water level readings available for analysis from the 16 hour test period
which was adequate for the exercise and meant that between 4000 and 5000 waves had been
measured and analysed. Matlab returned a range of significant wave data (see table 3).
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The most important return from this analysis for this research was Largest Crest-to-Trough
Wave (H Max). This value represented the highest elevation that any wave reached at that
location (kpsi 1 or 2) in the 16 hour period. This value represents Hb in McCowans
equation.
Significant wave height (Hs) = 0.265248
RMS wave height (Hrms) = 0.196181
Largest crest-to-trough wave (H max)= 0.444541
Mean height of largest 1/10 of (H_1/10th) = 0.34259
Mean period of Hs (Ts) = 12.62
Mean wave period (Tz) = 7.952055
Period of Hmax (Tmax) = 24
Mean period of largest 1/10 of waves (T_
1/10th) = 17.5625
Table 3: This table shows the data resulting from the analysis by zero-down-across Matlab. This analysis applies
to test 10 from kpsi 1. The value of particular importance is Largest Crest- to-Trough Wave.
The second component of McCowans equation that had to be found was water depth at
breakpoint (hb). The reduced data for each burst was averaged to find the onsite mean water
level at the kpsi location. Water depth was constantly in flux so this component would be
difficult to emulate with mathematic precision. It was decided to use an individual average
depth from each 20 minute period and this component could be ascertained from the 2400
depth recordings in that period.
RESULTS
Having established Hb values and hb values for the 16 hour periods from two locations in the
surf zone at Ohiwa it was possible to apply McCowans equation and test his mathematical
theory. The results indicated a variation in ratio from 0.339 at kpsi 2 in the trough at low tide
to 0.808 at kpsi1 location on the offshore bar also at low tide (see figure 5).

Figure 5: Variation in depth to wave height values from .339 to .808. Higher ratios were achieved in shallowest
water.
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
H
b
/
Y
b
r
a
t
i
o
Test bursts
Variation in yb across the test period
kpsi 1
kpsi2
low tide
high tide
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Variation was relative to water depth and the highest yb ratios were at low tide on the
offshore bar. The highest elevation any wave achieved was .808. As no waves exceeded this
height we can assume that this indicates break height even though it cannot be verified that
the wave actually broke. It is possible that the wave lost amplitude without breaking as it
descended the shoreward slope of the bar. However, we can be certain that across 5000
waves measured the wave height never exceeded 80% of the water depth (.808). This result
represents a very strong correlation with the mathematical hypothesis put forward by
McCowan in 1894, the subject of this research. McCowans equation indicates that critical
break height is 78% of water depth (.78) and this research concurs with and reinforces that
indication.

Discussion
This field research has come very close, in a hostile hydrodynamic environment, to
substantiating the mathematical equation produced by McCowan. However, the project
highlighted difficulties achieving the precision required to emulate an empirical mathematic
equation in a natural environment.
1. Of concern was that there was no guarantee that waves would break over the kpsi
monitors. We appear to have got lucky here. One monitor (kpsi 2) was located in the
trough inshore of the bar and the data returned from this location was of little use to
this research. Waves that were small enough to traverse the bar unbroken would lose
elevation in the deeper water of the trough. There was no chance that a wave that
crossed the shallower bar would then break upon entering deeper water over the
trough. Observations revealed that bores resulting from waves that had already broken
on the bar would reform as they traversed the trough and would continue shoreward to
break again on the intertidal beach-face. However, we do know that no waves
exceeded 80% of the water depth at either kpsi location.
2. The problem of not knowing where the waves will actually break could be reduced by
deploying more kpsi sensors in a transect across the surf zone and perhaps by better
identification of where they should be placed. Unfortunately this is a logistics issue
but emphasises the need to make best use of the available equipment. Surveying the
seabed bathymetry should precede deployment of the sensors. This would have
highlighted the bar trough situation that created unique problems at Ohiwa. Bars
create an extra break point and only small or reformed waves actually break on the
inter- tidal beach face. This research indicates that the highest ratios are achieved in
the shallowest water and that the intertidal beach face has the greatest potential to
exceed McCowans ratio, but unfortunately we did not monitor that location.
3. Hardisty and Laver (1989) deployed marker poles in the surf zone that were video
monitored to locate break point and record water depth but that was in a macro tidal
environment. Such a method would be problematic in a high energy surf environment
such as encountered at Ohiwa.
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4. This research encountered the apparently familiar problem of how to determine break
point (Shand et al, 2007) and that determination was left to the kpsi, deduced on an
elevation maximum basis.
5. Precision measuring of water depth was also a field problem. The method adopted of
averaging 2400 depth recordings across a 20 minute time frame was the best
achievable with the available resources. It needs to be kept in mind that water depth is
in constant flux and this is best explained by figure 6 which illustrates the
compounding shoreward movement of water depth on a rising tide. While critical
break point is depth controlled this depth flux results in the break point constantly
migrating shoreward on a rising tide and offshore on a receding tide confusing the
predictive value of the equation.





Figure: 6. This spectra shows gravity waves of 7 second period being elevated 200mm on convex
humps of gravity waves at 40 second periods while the tide is constantly further elevating at 4.5mm per
minute. This fluctuating depth is the constantly altering break point.

Wave groupiness has been investigated in the wave flume (Shand et al, 2007) who
found that groupiness uniquely affects the shoaling property of every wave in the
group. The second wave was found to shoal higher than the others and the break type
changed from spilling to plunging as well as exceeding the 78% water depth ratio.
Groupiness in our field test did not appear to substantiate this as no waves at the test
points exceeded 80% of water depth.
6. Boundary influences are known to impact on McCowans ratio. Douglass (1990) has
shown in the wave tank that wind direction can cause waves to break early or late
affecting the elevation they reach. Offshore winds can hold up the wave face allowing
78% to be exceeded (Douglass, 1990). However, throughout the research period wind
direction was alongshore from the West and appeared to have a neutral influence on
the Ohiwa results.

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1
3
8
7
5
1
1
2
1
4
9
1
8
6
2
2
3
2
6
0
2
9
7
3
3
4
3
7
1
4
0
8
4
4
5
4
8
2
5
1
9
5
5
6
5
9
3
6
3
0
6
6
7
7
0
4
7
4
1
7
7
8
8
1
5
8
5
2
8
8
9
9
2
6
9
6
3
1
0
0
0
1
0
3
7
1
0
7
4
elevation (m)
Spectral sequence
Time at 2Hz
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Waves release their energy upon breaking and this energy is dissipated across the surf zone
and onto the intertidal beach face. Most disturbances occur to the seabed at break point. As a
result seabed bathymetry at break point is in flux and constantly altering the dynamics that
cause waves to break. Predicting where waves will break seems to be an almost impossible
task. Beach gradient affects wave breaking and on flat dissipative beaches sand is shifting
between the offshore bar and the beach berm changing the critical grade in both locations.
Bathymetry is seldom uniform parabathically or diabathically and single wave crests at
Ohiwa were observed to be shoaling, spilling and plunging at the same time due to such
bottom undulations. While this along and across-shore variation in break type, height and
location is due to water depth differences and confirms the hypothesis this research set out to
test, that wave height is restricted by water depth, it means that while McCowan has provided
Coastal Engineers with a valuable predictive tool, his mathematical equation must be used in
conjunction with the realisation that boundary influences can shift the critical break point.
Break point normally progresses landward with the rising tide reinforcing the relationship
between break height and water depth but this pattern is confused on flat dissipative beaches
such as Ohiwa by the formation of offshore bars. Bars relocate the initial breakpoint seaward.
Bigger waves break beyond the bar in deeper water while smaller waves are able to traverse
the bar unbroken if the water depth allows. In effect, such locations have two or more surf
zones depending on bar numbers.
Conclusion
From the analysis of 5000 waves in the surf zone at Ohiwa beach it was ascertained that at
the two across-shore locations monitored waves did not exceed 80% of the water depth at that
point. While this field result indicates a good fit with the mathematical prediction of
McCowan that breaking wave height will not exceed 78% of the water depth under
breakpoint, these results must be treated with caution. This research exercise did not establish
that maximum wave height recorded was in fact break point and this cannot be assumed. The
significant kpsi monitor was situated on the shoreward edge of the offshore bar and the
possibility must be considered that unbroken shoaling waves reached a maximum elevation at
this point before reducing in height as they traversed the deeper trough. The research was
restricted to only two locations in the surf zone and waves may have exceeded these results
on other parts of the beach such as seaward of kpsi 1 where higher waves were breaking on
the leading edge of the bar as well as on the intertidal beach-face inshore. The research
identified that the highest ratios were attained in the shallows and the area most likely to
exceed the ratio, namely the intertidal beach face nearer high water, was not monitored.
While wind direction throughout the monitoring process was neutral research has shown that
offshore winds have the ability to elevate the ratio (Douglass, 1990).
Measurements were coupled with manual observations and these observations tended to
support the results of the processed data. Break point did migrated shoreward with increased
elevation of water level and while break point was found to be depth controlled, factors that
alter the water depth must accompany use of the equation if it is to be of value in predictive
coastal management protection.
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It had been hoped to evaluate the effect of offshore wind on break point but this proved to be
impossible with the wind remaining in a neutral along-shore westerly direction throughout
the research period. Similarly, the proposal to evaluate variation attributable to changing
beach gradient was not possible due to inclement climatic conditions. While it was
recognised that the research area was influenced by a strong La Nina Southern Oscillation
cycle, the effects of this oscillation were not investigated in this research particularly any
likely effect caused by reduced water density, and this is an area that warrants further
research in Southern Hemisphere environments.






















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Weishar, L. and Byrne, R (1978) Field Study of Breaking Wave Characteristics. Proceedings of the 16
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