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Modal Testing.
Part II: Experimental Modal Analysis
Experimental modal analysis (EMA) is a method used to
determine the modal parameters (natural frequency,
damping, and mode shapes) of a mechanical system.
Software packages are available to simplify the curve-fitting
of modal test data and provide animations of the resulting
mode shapes.
Resonance problems can be solved by either changing the
natural frequency that is being excited or removing the
dynamic force that excites the resonance. In many cases, the
dynamic force is developed as part of the normal operation
of the equipment and cannot be removed. Thus, the natural
frequency must be changed.
Knowledge of the mode shape associated with each
natural frequency of concern is necessary to evaluate
structural and/or mechanical modifications that need to be
made to a vibrating mechanical system. The mode shape
provides information about the location (position and
orientation) of a modification within the mechanical system
for the greatest beneficial effect. This information can be
used to optimize the design of modifications made for the
purpose of altering the modal characteristics of a machine or
structure.
EMA requires impact response data for many locations
and directions, referred to as degrees of freedom. The
number of degrees of freedom of the test must be sufficient
to accurately define all mode shapes of interest. The relative
magnitude and phase information at all degrees of freedom
are plotted to provide an animation of the mode shapes. If
the number of degrees of freedom is not sufficient, a visual
aliasing of the mode shape can occur. This is analogous to
the aliasing errors experienced in digital signal analysis of
data with insufficient sampling.
EMA can be performed using either of two impact test
methods fixed excitation and fixed response. In the fixed
excitation test, the impact location and direction remain
stationary for the entire test. The degree of freedom
associated with the impact force is referred to as the
reference or driving point. The response transducer is moved
to obtain data at all of the degree-of-freedom locations. This
is referred to as roving with the response transducer.
The fixed response method requires that a response
transducer remains stationary at a single data location while
the impact hammer is moved to excite the mechanical
system at each degree of freedom. This is referred to as
roving with the impact hammer. The location of the fixed
response transducer is the reference or driving point.
The principle of Maxwells Reciprocity states that the
results obtained using either test method will be identical if
the mechanical system is perfectly linear elastic. However,
very few industrial mechanical systems are perfectly linear
elastic. Nonlinearities introduced by such factors as bolted
connections, fluid films, and load-related support stiffness
affect the results of the modal test.
The fixed excitation method is recommended to minimize
the effect of structural and mechanical nonlinearities. The
participation of a nonlinearity in any mode shape will be
nearly constant if the force used to excite the mechanical
system is applied in the same place during the entire test.
The fixed response method is typically used to test
mechanical systems constructed of nonmagnetic materials
(i.e., aluminum, nickel-based super-alloys, concrete). For
these tests the response transducer must be attached using
epoxy cement or some other adhesive. The time required to
complete a modal test of a complex mechanical system can
be prohibitive if the fixed excitation method is used and the
response transducer must be cemented to the mechanical
system at each data location. For nonmagnetic structures,
the fixed response method is much faster, requiring a single
transducer to be cemented to the mechanical system as a
reference point. Data are then obtained by exciting the
system at each degree of freedom with the impact hammer.
For the fixed excitation method, the impact force should
be located at a degree of freedom (location and direction)
that excites as many natural frequencies as possible and has
a high level of modal participation at each natural frequency.
Sometimes it is not possible to excite all of the natural
Robert J. Sayer, PE
Applied Structural Dynamics
Medina, Ohio
Summary. Part II of this article describes the process
of experimental modal analysis. Included are special
considerations involving rotating parts, shop testing
versus field testing, and validation of testing.
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frequencies of concern using a single impact location. For
these cases, either multiple modal tests or a multiple input
multiple output (MIMO) test [1] may be necessary to
identify all of the natural frequencies and mode shapes.
Special Consideration for Rotating Parts
The operating natural frequencies of rotating parts of
machines, such as fan wheels, pump impellers, and turbine
blades, can be different from the at-rest natural frequencies.
Impact tests are performed on a rotor when it is in an idle
condition. Therefore, the impact test provides the at-rest
natural frequencies of the rotor. During operation, the rotor
will become stiffer due to centrifugal stresses and
gyroscopic effects. Because natural frequency is a function
of stiffness and mass, and the mass of the rotor is
unchanged, the natural frequencies will increase as the
centrifugal stress-stiffening effects increase. Figure 1
displays the relationship between the principal natural
frequencies of a centrifugal fan wheel versus operating
speed. Note that, because centrifugal stress increases with
the square of rotational speed, the rate of increase in natural
frequency is more rapid at higher speeds.
Shop Testing versus Field Testing
The modal characteristics of a machine can be markedly
affected by the structural dynamic characteristics of the
supporting system upon which the machine is placed [2].
Impact tests performed on machines in the shop will not
always provide the same natural frequencies as impact tests
performed in the field. The stiffness of shop test fixtures
frequently does not match the stiffness of the actual
installation in which the machine will operate. Therefore,
the effect of stiffness of a test fixture must be accounted for
when the results of impact tests performed in a shop are
evaluated.
For example, consider the test procedure usually
employed for shop testing large induced-draft fans supplied
to electric power plants. These tests are done with the fan
rotor hanging in flexible nylon straps as shown in Figure 2.
This arrangement approximates a free-free support state and
removes all influence of the support conditions from the
modal test. A numerical finite element analysis is then
performed to project the change in natural frequency that
can be expected when the rotor is supported in the bearing.
Figure 3 is the result of a finite element analysis of the
mode shape for the operating principal natural frequency of
a fan wheel that was correlated to impact data obtained from
a free-free shop test. After it was correlated to the shop test
data, the finite element model was used to evaluate the
effect of actual support conditions (i.e., bearing stiffness and
foundation stiffness) in order to estimate the as-installed
natural frequency of the fan. The finite element model was
also used to estimate the increase in natural frequencies due
to stress-stiffening effects.
Modal Testing Validation
Many checks can be made to insure the validity of an
impact test. If a trigger delay is used for the test, the time
waveform of the response transducer can be viewed to
assess the signal/noise ratio of the data. Figure 4 is the time
waveform of a response that clearly shows the vibration
very low prior to and high after the impact. This time
waveform represents a good response but is truncated far
too soon. For this case, the resolution could be increased by
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Figure 1. Relationship of Natural Frequencies and
Operating Speed.
Figure 2. Fan Rotor in Flexible Straps.
Figure 3. Finite Element Analysis of Mode Shape.
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increasing the number of lines of data, thus, expanding the
data acquisition time and capturing more of the response.
The frequency spectrum of the impact force should be
viewed to insure that sufficient force has been applied
across the entire frequency range of concern. Figure 5 is a
frequency spectrum of an impact force. The magnitude of
the force diminishes as the frequency increases. Although
there is some excitation force up to 150 Hz, this impact
force would be considered appropriate only for modal
testing to around 125 Hz - 130 Hz. This force would not be
considered appropriate for testing at higher frequencies. The
frequency range of the dynamic force could be increased by
using a different hammer or a harder hammer tip.
Coherence will also provide an indication of the validity
of an impact test. Refer to Part I [3] of this article for
information on the significance of coherence and how it is
used in modal testing.
Modal assurance criterion (MAC) is another method
commonly used to evaluate the validity of the results of an
experimental modal analysis. This criterion is based upon
the fact that, although a mechanical system can have several
identical natural frequencies, all mode shapes must be
different. In the numerical solution for natural frequencies of
mechanical systems, eigenvalues (natural frequencies) can
be repeated, but eigenvectors (mode shapes) must be unique
and orthogonal. Based upon this principle, an orthogonality
check of mode shapes determined from an EMA test can be
performed to provide a MAC matrix.
Figure 6 contains a sample of a MAC matrix for a fan
wheel with seven natural frequencies. The numbers in the
matrix represent the degree of similarity between mode
shapes for the various natural frequencies. A value of 1.0
indicates that the mode shapes are identical. A value of 0.0
indicates that the mode shapes are unique. The values along
the diagonal of the matrix are always 1.0 because they
represent a mode shape compared to itself.
Because an experimental modal test is performed using a
finite number of degrees of freedom, the results developed
from the data may not contain all of the detail for some
mode shapes. It is therefore common for off-diagonal MAC
values to be somewhat higher than 0.0. It is recommended
that all off-diagonal terms in the MAC matrix be less than
0.10. High off-diagonal MAC values indicate that the mode
shapes developed from EMA data are too close to each other
and are not truly unique. This often arises when the modal
test is done with an insufficient number of data points
resulting in the aliasing of mode shapes.
References
1. Zaveri, K., Modal Analysis of Large Structures
Multiple Exciter Systems, Bruel & Kjaer, (November
1984).
2. Sayer, R.J., The Effect of Structural Support Conditions
on the Vibration Characteristics of Machinery, Proc. 31st
Ann. Mtg, Vibration Institute, San Antonio, TX (June,
2007).
3. Sayer, R.J., Modal Testing. Part I: Introduction and
Impact Testing, Vibrations, 26 (2) (June 2009).
Figure 4. Time Waveform Response.
Figure 5. Frequency Spectrum of an Impact Force.
Figure 6. Sample of a MAC matrix.
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