Atoms and isotopes- Protons and electrons even (no charge).

Isotope- If uneven (chemically identical, Physically differ).

Unstable - Radioactive is radioisotope (slowly decay)
Artificial radioisotope Man made. Synthesizes by a reactor or a cyclotron.
A stable isotope is bombarded with speed neutrons and the nucleus absorbs
it.
Forces electrostatic force Pos. charged protons to
repel.
Nuclear force Strong over short distance.
Detecting radiation Geiger counter detects ionizing
radiation.
Wire (anode, high pos. voltage)
Electron run to pos. charge makes click
Cloud chamber (Low tech), Dosimeter
Types of radiation
4
2
o
0
1
|
Alpha (particle)
- Gains 2 proton and 2 neutrons
Beta (Particle) A neutron turns
into a proton.
For both Electromagnetic field
react bends
Decay series Parent nuclide
decays daughter nuclide grand
daughter nuclide (until stable)
Earth (4.5 billion years old)
4 naturally occurring decay series
- The
Uraniumseriesinwhichuranium-23
8eventuallybecomeslead-206
- The Actiniumseriesin which
uranium-235eventuallybecomeslea
d-207
- The
Thoriumseriesinwhichthorium-232
eventuallybecomeslead-208
- The Neptunium series in which neptunium-237 eventually becomes bismuth-209.

Half life The time it takes for half the nuclei of the radio-isotope to decay. T1/2 (We use half lifes as it
is impossible to predict when any nuclide will decay)
Becquerels (Bq) 1 Bq = 1 Disintegration per second unit of activity.
Radiation Dose (effect on humans) Non harmful (Micro waves, visable light, infrared and UV-A
radiation) Harmful high energy (Alpha, Beta, Gamma, X-ray, UV-B and UV-C)
Absorbed Dose How much radiation is measured by each Kilogram of target material.
Grays (GY)=Energy absorbed by tissue (Joules)/Mass of tissue (kg), 1GY=1J/Kg
Dose equivalent Takes into account quality factor. 1 Sievert (Sv) is the same damage no matter what
type. Absorbed dose*Quality factor (e.g. Alpha = 20)(1 uSv= 0.000001)
Effective Dose Dose equivalent*weighting factor (Part of body)
Exposure effects Somatic effects (short term), vomiting death. Genetic (hereditary) effects (Long
term), Organs damaged, effect DNA cause mutation.
Nuclear Fission 1936 Niels Bohr liquid drop model. A neutron bombards an atom causing it to split.
Fissile A nuclei that is able to undergo fission. (Uranium-235 and 239)
Energy E=MC
2
(2*10
8
= speed of light) (1ev=1.6*10
-19
)
Fertile That nuclei can capture a neutron and hence become fissile (e.g Uranium-238)
Chain reactions Uranium-235 710 million years (0.7%), Uranium-338 4.8 billion years (99.3%)
1:>1 Sub critical, no chain reaction, dies out quickly
Table1.1 the properties of alpha, beta and gamma radiations
Property o particle | particle ray (light)
Mass Heavy (4) Light (0) None (0)
Charge +2 1 None
Typical energy ~5-10 MeV ~1.4 MeV ~10.1 MeV
Range in air A few cm 1 or 2 m Many meters
Penetration in
matter
~10
2
mm
A few mm High
Ionizing ability High
Reasonabl
e
Poor
Speed 10% Light 90% Light Light
Elements beyond Bismuth (z=83) are always
unstable. Radioactive
)
1:1 Critical reaction, sustained or controlled reaction
1:<1 Super critical reaction, uncontrolled, weapons or bombs.
Critical mass Concentration, shape, size (sphere best shape)
Energy release during a fission reaction Energy and mass are equivalent. E=MC
2
(M is mass
defect), MInitial>MFinal= Mass defect
Fusion More mass = more energy. Fusion takes a lot of energy to take place because nucleis need to
have enough kinetic energy to overcome the electrostatic force. In the sun, high energy, high
temperatures and high pressure. Protons and neutron are the same before and after fusion but have
less mass.
- Fuel rods - long,thinrodscontainingpelletsofenricheduranium
- A moderator A material that allowstheneutrons
- Control rods - A materialthatabsorbsneutrons
- A coolant - A liquidorgastoabsorbheatenergythathasbeenproduced by nuclear fission
- A Radiation Shield A thickconcretewallthatpreventsneutronsescaping from the reactor.
Electricity 2 Pos. or 2 Neg. repel and 1 Pos. 1 Neg. attract. Charge cant be destroyed or created.
Electrostatic induction Rod, negatively charge (electric field). paper, neutral electrons. Electrons
will repel. (induced charge)
Conductors and insulators Conductors allow movement (e.g. Metel). Insulators dont allow
movement (e.g Glass, thermis). Wood dosnt feed either. Semi conductors conduct electricity. Can be
doped with certain elements so they conduct quite well. E.g. Silicon and Germanium.
SI units (scientific interaction) used for charge is the Coulomb (C) and
elementary charge (e)
Electric forces Coulombs Law describes the forces acting between two
charged particles (separated by distance)
Inverse Square Law

Electric fieldE=

, From pos. to neg.

Electric current Movement of charge (rate of transfer), 1Amp(A)=1coulomb(C) per second(s).
I=

, Direction of current is always same direction of protons. Ammeter is connected in series.

EMF electric potential, The energy required to force a charge to move around a
circuit.1Volt(V)=Joules(J) per coulomb(C).
Ohms Law I proportional (o) to V. Ohms Law holds true if the Resistance(R) is a constant. R=

1 Ohm (O)=Joules (J)*Second(s) per coulomb(C)
2
.Resistance is the ability to impede the flow of
electrons. Factors: Lent of wire (L) (Longer the greater the R), Thickness (A) (Thicker the less R)
A=tr
2
, the conductor used (P), R=

.
Electric potential energy Transmitted over long distances. I=I*V*t in joules.
Electrical power P=I*V (watts). 1Watt(W)=Joules(J) per Second(S).
Kirchhoffs Law 1. In any electric circuit the sum of all currents flowing
into any point is equal to the sum of currents flowing out of it.
2. The total potential drop around a closed circuit must be equal to the
EMF in the circuit.
Series Re = R1+R2+R3, VT=V1+V2+V3, V=I*R
Parallel -

, EMF will extend battery life (Pos. and neg. on

same side)
Chemical Cells Electronegativity An atoms ability to attract electrons.
Electrons flow towards the material
with higher electronegativity. Lithium can restore electrons
Household wiring Active wire - from fuse connects to meter.
Neutral wire - Completes circuit.
Earth wire - Electricity to earth in case of a malfunction.
Cables connect all lights to meter box.
Electrical safety Fuse or circuit breaker, tiny wore melts when there is too much
current
Switch should cut active wire,Earth wire touches metal case and sends electricity to
1C=6.242*10
18
e
1e = 1.602*10
-19
C
q1 q2
|__________r__________| Fe=K*(q1*q2)/r
2
(coulombs Law)

If the voltage increases by a
certain ratio then the
current must decrease by
the same ratio.
P=I*V
V=I*R
P=I
2
*R
P=V
2
/R

ground.