Job knowledge 67:

Welding Defects and Distortion

A General Review of Geometric Shape
Imperfections - Types and Causes
Part I- Introduction
In the job knowledge series welding imperfections such as cracks, lack of fusion,
penetration and porosity have been discussed. This article looks at those imperfections
related to poor geometric shape and will concentrate on the following:
Excess weld metal
Undercut
Overlap
Linear misalignment
Incompletely filled groove
Such imperfections might be considered as anomalies in the joint and they will always
be present to some degree so that it becomes necessary to separate the acceptable
from the unacceptable. This is done by following guidance given by the application
standard, which was the basis for the component design, and/or by direction, as set
out in the job contract. Examples of standards that might be referred to are:
PD 5500 Specification for unfired fusion welded pressure vessels.
BS 2640 Specification for Class II oxy-acetylene welding of carbon steel pipework for
carrying fluids
BS EN 25817 Arc welded joints in steel - guidance on quality levels for imperfections
AWS D1.1 Structural welding code - Steel
Excess weld metal
(also called cap height,
overfill or reinforcement)
This is weld metal lying outside the
plane joining the weld toes. Note that
the term 'reinforcement', although
used extensively in the ASME/AWS
specifications is avoided in Europe as
it implies it adds strength to the
welded joint, which is rarely the case.
Common causes
This imperfection is formed when excessive weld metal is added to the joint, which is
usually a result of poor welder technique for manual processes but may be due to poor
parameter selection when the process is mechanised. That is, too much filler metal for
the travel speed used. In multi-run welding a poor selection of individual bead sizes can
Fig.1. Excess weld metal



result in a bead build-up pattern that overfills the joint. Different processes and
parameters ( eg voltage) can result in different excess weld metal shapes.
Acceptance
The acceptability of this imperfection is very dependent on the application in which the
product will be used. Most standards have limit, related to material thickness ( eg10%),
but also have a maximum upper limits. Both the ratio and the maximum may be
related to the severity of service that the component is expected to see. The following
table gives examples taken from BS EN 25817.
Excess weld metal limits for quality levels:
Severity of service Moderate, D Stringent, B
Limit (up to maximum) h = 1mm + 0.25 b h = 1mm + 0.25 b
Maximum 10 mm 3 mm
Transition required smooth smooth
Where: h = height of excess & b = width of bead (see figure)
An important reason for limiting the height of excess weld metal is that it represents a
non-value added cost. However, it must be remembered that the height of the weld
cap influences the resultant toe blend. A sharp transition causes a local stress
concentration that can contribute to loss of strength, which is particularly important in
fatigue situations. As a result most specifications state that 'smooth transition is
required'.
Avoidance
If the imperfection is a result of welder technique then welder retraining is required.
For mechanised techniques an increase in travel speed or voltage will help to reduce
cap height.
Undercut
This is an irregular groove at the toe
of a run in the parent metal.
The figure shows undercut at surface of
a completed joint but it may also be
found at the toes of each pass of a multi-
run weld. The latter can result in slag
becoming trapped in the undercut region.
Common causes
When arc and gas welding, undercut is probably the most common shape imperfection.
With single-sided pipe welds it may also be found at the bore surface. It may also be
seen on the vertical face of fillet welds made in the horizontal vertical position.
Fig.2. Undercut



A wide spreading arc (high arc voltage) with insufficient fill (low current or high travel
speed) is the usual cause. However, welder technique, especially when weaving, and
the way the welding torch is angled can both cause and be used to overcome
undercutting ( ie angled to push the weld metal to fill the melted groove). High welding
current will also cause undercut - this is generally associated with the need for a high
travel speed to avoid overfilling of the joint.
Acceptance
Largely because this imperfection is widespread, most standards permit some level of
undercut although they do require that a 'smooth transition is required. The limits in BS
EN 25817 range from 0.5mm (stringent) to 1.5mm (moderate) while AWS D1.1 has a
limit of 1mm. Standards may also place limits on the length of the undercut. For
example, BS 2640 says, 'not exceed a total of 25mm in any 100mm length of weld'.
Measuring undercut can be a problem because of the small size of the imperfection
compared with the general environment where there can be mill scale, irregularities in
the surface and spatter.
In critical applications the imperfection can be 'corrected' by blend grinding or by
depositing an additional weld bead.
Avoidance
This imperfection may be avoided by reducing travel speed and/or the welding current
and by maintaining the correct arc length.
Overlap (cold lapping)
This is an imperfection at a toe or root
of a weld caused by metal flowing on
to the surface of the parent metal
without fusing to it. It may occur in
both fillet and butt welds.
Common causes
This is often caused by poor
manipulation of the electrode or welding
gun, especially when the weld pool is large and 'cold', where the welder allows gravity to
influence the weld shape before solidification. Tightly adherent oxides or scale on the metal
surface can also prevent the weld metal fusing with the parent metal to cause the overlap
imperfection.
Avoidance
Avoidance is achieved through an acceptable level of welder skill and a reduction in
weld pool size (obtained by reducing current or increasing travel speed). Adequate
cleaning of the parent plate is also important.
Fig.3. Overlap



Acceptance
Standards rarely allow the presence of this imperfection, unless the length is short ( eg
BS EN 25817 for moderate quality level D). Overlap can be very difficult to detect,
especially if it is extremely small.
Linear misalignment
(Also known in the USA as high-low).
This imperfection relates to deviations
from the correct position/alignment of
the joint.
Common causes
This is primarily a result of poor
component fit-up before welding,
which can be compounded by
variations in the shape and thickness
of components ( eg out of roundness of pipe). Tacks that break during welding may
allow the components to move relative to one another, again resulting in misalignment.
Acceptance
The acceptability of this defect is related to the design function of the structure or pipe line
either in terms of the ability to take load across the misalignment or because such a step
impedes the flow of fluid.
Acceptance varies with the application.
BS EN 25817 relates misalignment to wall thickness but sets maximum limits ( eg
linear misalignment, for moderate limits of imperfections D, = 0.25 x material
thickness in mm, with a maximum of 5mm).
AWS D1.1 allows 10% of the wall thickness up to a maximum of 3mm
BS2640 gives limits for size and alignment as follows:
Outside diameter
Over
mm
Up to and
including
mm
Maximum permissible
difference in internal diameter
mm
Maximum out of
alignment at the bore
mm
- 42.2 1.0 1.0
42.4 114.3 2.0 1.0
114.3 - 3.0 2.0
The consequence of linear misalignment can, when welding is carried out from one side,
be lack of root or sidewall fusion to give a sharp continuous imperfection along the
higher weld face toe. In some situations linear misalignment in the bore of a pipe can
lead to in-service problems where turbulence of the carrier fluid in the pipe creates
subsequent erosion.

Fig.4 Linear misalignment




Incomplete filled groove
This is a continuous, or intermittent,
channel in the surface of a weld,
running along its length, due to
insufficient weld metal.
Common causes
This problem arises when there has
been insufficient filler metal (current
or wire feed too low or too high a
travel speed) so that the joint has not
been sufficiently filled. The result is that the thickness of weldment is less than that
specified in the design, which could lead to failure.
Acceptance
Most standards will not accept this type of imperfection, except perhaps over short lengths
and even then a smooth transition is required. The designer expects the joint to be
adequately filled, but not too much so (see excess weld metal).
Often the presence of this imperfection is an indication of poor workmanship and could
suggest that further training is required.
Continuation
Part 2 looks at shape imperfections such as excess penetration and root concavity and
highlights shape imperfections related to fillet welded joints.
Copyright 2003 TWI Ltd
Information and advice from TWI and its partners are provided in good faith and based, where appropriate, on
the best engineering knowledge available at the time and incorporated into TWI's website in accordance with
TWI's ISO 9001:2000 accredited status. No warranty expressed or implied is given regarding the results or
effects of applying information or advice obtained from the website, nor is any responsibility accepted for any
consequential loss or damage.

Incomplete filled groove