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k
G
: (6)
This setting would result in a small loss of generated photo-
current, because light coming from the sun has a certain
spreading and light under non-normal incidence would be
reected. Corresponding reection losses can be avoided by
slightly shifting k
0
(h 0
) k
G
is a very good
approximation.
For non-normal incidence, the band-edge is shifted to-
ward a shorter wavelength, according to Braggs condition,
FIG. 2. (Color online) Sketch of a possible setup for a photonic solar cell in
the form of a Bragg stack. The Bragg stack, which is periodically stacked
layers with different refractive indices, is one possible realization of a
Bragg-like photonic solar cell. Other geometries are possible, though, and to
some extent even complex 3D photonic crystals can be considered to be
Bragg-like. Note that the solar cell needs to be part of the stack and must
therefore have an appropriate thickness.
043104-3 Peters, Goldschmidt, and Blasi J. Appl. Phys. 110, 043104 (2011)
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k
0
h k
G
1
sin
2
h
n
2
_ _
: (7)
In this equation, n is the average refractive index of the pho-
tonic structure. Please note that a correct determination of the
average refractive index in a photonic crystal is non-trivial.
Note also that Eq. (7) only indicates something about the shape
of the directional dependence of a certain lter characteristic
such as, for example, its reection edge. This shape can be
deduced directly from Braggs equation and it has also been
experimentally shown that similar characteristics can be found
for many different photonic crystals.
24,25
The shape depends
only on the average refractive index and not on the refractive
index contrast. This fact is remarkable, especially because all
further results deduced from this equation will also only
depend on the average refractive index. To provide an effec-
tive suppression of the emission, however, it can be expected
that a considerable refractive index contrast is required. The
role of the refractive index contrast has been omitted for the
moment and will be subject to future investigations.
The angle, h
c
(k), marks the critical angle below which
photons are allowed in the structure and above which they
are not. Depending on the wavelength, this critical angle is
given by
h
c
k sin
1
n
1
k
k
G
_ _
2
_
_
_
_
: (8)
We will use this equation as a denition for an ideal Bragg-
like photonic solar cell: All light incident on the photonic so-
lar cell with an angle smaller than h
c
k shall be absorbed
and all light with an angle greater than h
c
k shall be
reected. The characteristics of an idealized Bragg-like pho-
tonic solar cell are shown in Fig. 3.
It needs to be said here that the described system is
highly idealized. The reection of the system is a step func-
tion and the inuence of polarization is not considered at all.
The considerations given can, therefore, be nothing more
than an upper limit of what can be achieved with a real pho-
tonic structure.
The fraction of light emitted into the angular acceptance
range dened by the critical angle h
c
is given by
Pk
_
2p
0
_
h
c
0
cosh sinhdhd/
_
2p
0
_
p=2
0
cosh sinhdhd/
sin
2
h
c
n
2
1
k
k
G
_ _
2
_ _
: (9)
The domain of denition for this equation is
Pk 2 k
G
1
1
n
2
_
; k
G
_ _
: (10)
Outside this domain, the PBG does not inuence the emis-
sion or absorption of the solar cell. In the simple model pre-
sented here, we assume that light with a longer wavelength
is completely reected, i.e., the PBG has a sufcient width.
For lower wavelengths, the solar cell absorption and emis-
sion is unaffected by the PBG (see Fig. 3). Note that we tac-
itly assumed that light is incident on the solar cell only under
(mostly) normal incidence. This condition is strictly valid
only for a tracked system. If the direction of incidence varies
only in a certain range, however, the requirement that no
incident light shall be blocked by the PBG can be satised
by shifting the edge of the PBG to higher wavelengths. This
procedure comes with this cost: that less emitted light is
affected by the PBG.
By inserting Eq. (9) into Eqs. (5) and (1) the radiative
efciency limit, g, for a photonic solar cell can be calculated.
FOR the given assumptions, it is notable that this quantity
only depends on the average refractive index of the photonic
structure.
We have calculated g for a photonic solar cell for vary-
ing electrical bandgaps, represented by the cut-off wave-
length, k
G
, and varying average refractive indices.
Additionally, we calculated the radiative efciency limit,g
ref
,
for a solar cell under the same conditions but without pho-
tonic structure. The efciency difference induced by the pho-
tonic structure, g g
ref
, in dependence of k
G
and n is shown
in Fig. 4.
For low average refractive indices, the efciency of the
Bragg-like photonic solar cell exceeds that of a conventional
solar cell by up to 2.6% absolute.
Such a positive effect of the simple Bragg structure
might be surprising at rst glance, because the angular emis-
sion is only restricted for the wavelength close to the edge of
the photonic structure, k
0
(h 0
)
.
For a
gray body emitter, a photonic structure with a Bragg-like
FIG. 3. (Color online) Ideal optical characteristics of a photonic solar cell in
the form of a Bragg-like system with an average refractive index of n 1.5.
An ideal Bragg-like system is dened by an angular characteristic which fol-
lows the Bragg condition [see Eq. (7)]. The cause for this characteristic is
the bandgap in the photonic band structure of the idealized Bragg-like struc-
ture. Such a system can be used to create a directionally selectively emitting
device if the edge of the PBG for normal incidence and the electrical
bandgap of the solar cell coincide. For normal incidence, the photonic struc-
ture allows all light to pass, which can be absorbed by the solar cell. In that
way, the absorption of the solar cell is not affected. Light under oblique inci-
dence close to the band-edge, however, will be blocked due to the blue-shift
of the PBG (black region). Therefore, the emission of light close to the elec-
tric band-edge of the solar cell is inuenced.
043104-4 Peters, Goldschmidt, and Blasi J. Appl. Phys. 110, 043104 (2011)
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characteristic therefore efciently reduces the emission of
photons.
A nal remark has to be made about the presented
results. The adaptation of the detailed balance model used
here considers a reduction of radiative recombination due to
the presence of a PBG. However, in this simple model, the
radiative recombination is the only loss mechanism consid-
ered. For all present solar cells, non-radiative recombination
processes are much more important than radiative losses.
The presented approach is therefore only interesting for devi-
ces that work close to the radiative limit. Similar considera-
tions could be interesting, however, for managing the
angular characteristics of light-emitting diodes. For solar
cells, the photonic structure will also provide a certain light
trapping effect for weakly absorbed radiation. This issue will
be subject of future consideration.
II. SUMMARY
In this paper, we presented the concept of a photonic so-
lar cell. This concept combines a solar cell and a photonic
crystal. The aim of this approach is to restrict the angular
range into which the solar cell emits radiation. This restric-
tion affects the etendue-related entropy generation of the so-
lar cell and inuences the potential efciency of the system.
As a simple exemplary system, we discussed the realization
of a photonic solar cell in the form of a Bragg stack. Two
materials with different refractive indices are arranged in
alternating layers. This setup can be used in several ways as
a photonic solar cell: either the whole stack forms the basis
for a solar cell, or thin independent solar cells are stacked in
alternating layers. We presented an adaptation of the
approach of detailed balance to consider the effects of a pho-
tonic band structure on the dark saturation current density.
We used this approach to calculate the potential efciency
for the Bragg-like photonic solar cell. We found that the ef-
ciency increase of the photonic solar cell depends on the
effective refractive index of the bulk material. For low effec-
tive refractive indices, the efciency of a photonic solar cell
exceeds that of a conventional solar cell by up to 2.6%
absolute.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank Johannes U