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Efficiency limit and example of a photonic solar cell

Marius Peters, Jan Christoph Goldschmidt, and Benedikt Blsi



Citation: Journal of Applied Physics 110, 043104 (2011); doi: 10.1063/1.3622669
View online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3622669
View Table of Contents: http://scitation.aip.org/content/aip/journal/jap/110/4?ver=pdfcov
Published by the AIP Publishing

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Efficiency limit and example of a photonic solar cell
Marius Peters,
a)
Jan Christoph Goldschmidt, and Benedikt Bla si
Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE, Heidenhofstrae 2, D-79110 Freiburg, Germany
(Received 13 April 2011; accepted 8 July 2011; published online 16 August 2011)
Restricting the angular emission characteristics of a solar cell results in a reduction of entropy
generation and allows for higher solar cell efciencies. In this paper, we present the concept of a
photonic solar cell which exhibits the combination of a solar cell and a photonic crystal. The basic
idea is to structure a solar cell in such a way that the applied structure is a photonic crystal
consisting of the solar cell material. The aim of having a solar cell in the form of a photonic crystal
is to restrict the emission of the solar cell into certain angles This reduction reduces the radiative
losses and results in a higher V
OC
and, consequently, a higher efciency of the cell. To calculate
the efciency of a photonic solar cell we introduce an adaptation of the detailed balance approach.
This adaptation takes into account the reduced radiative losses due to the presence of a photonic
band structure. In the second part of the paper we use this approach to calculate the efciency for
an exemplary system. The exemplary system is an idealized edge lter, similar to a Bragg stack.
The idealization concerns the reection characteristic of this lter and its dependence on the
polarization. For this idealized system we calculate an efciency that exceeds that of a
conventional solar cell by up to 2.5% absolute. VC
2011 American Institute of Physics.
[doi:10.1063/1.3622669]
I. INTRODUCTION
Solar energy conversion can benet considerably from
photonic concepts. Some examples are diffractive structures
for improved light trapping,
14
light management by spec-
trally selective lters,
59
or radiation management for photo-
thermal or photovoltaic conversion.
10,11
Another pathway
for improvements is the management of the directional emis-
sion characteristic of a solar cell. While sunlight impinges
on the solar cell in only a very small angular range, the pho-
tons emerging from radiative recombination inside the solar
cell are emitted into the complete hemisphere.
As a consequence, the incident solar radiation and radia-
tion emitted by the solar cell occupy different volumes in
phase space.
12
This results in the generation of etendue
related entropy and, consequently, in a reduction of solar cell
efciency. Restricting the angular emission characteristics
changes the thermodynamic working conditions under which
the solar cell operates,
13
reduces the entropy generation, and
consequently increases the efciency. Additionally, restrict-
ing the directional range into which light can leave the solar
cell can increase the efciency by a second mechanism:
Non-absorbed radiation might be trapped inside the solar
cell, which increases the likelihood of absorption. This topic
has already been discussed in the 1990s.
1416
Recently, several strategies have been suggested for the
management of the angular solar cell emission characteristics.
Some examples include directionally selectively emitting
surfaces,
17
the applications of micro lens arrays,
18
or of pho-
tonic crystals.
19
All of these strategies, however, do not affect
the emission process within the solar cell itself but rather con-
stitute light trapping mechanisms for emitted radiation.
As a contrasting approach, we introduce the concept of
a photonic solar cell in this paper. A photonic solar cell com-
bines a solar cell with a photonic crystal (PC)
20
(Fig. 1).
Typically, photonic crystals feature photonic band gaps
(PBG). A PBG denes a certain frequency range within
which photons are not allowed within the PC. This feature
results in a strongly modied angular emission pattern which
is the effect upon which this study concentrates.
Within a PBG, radiation can neither be absorbed from
nor emitted into the PC. The photonic solar cell uses this
PBG to restrict the emission of photons from radiative
recombination to certain directions directly inside the solar
cell.
In this paper, we start by introducing and discussing the
concept of a photonic solar cell. To calculate the efciency
limit, we propose an adapted detailed balance approach that
takes into account the changed emission of the cell due to
the presence of a PBG. In the second part of the paper we
use this approach to calculate the efciency limit for an
idealized exemplary structure. The idealized structure is a
photonic solar cell with a Bragg-like characteristic. The
assumed Bragg-like characteristic concerns the angular de-
pendent reection of the structure toward incident solar radi-
ation. Idealizations include the assumption of a step function
for the spectral reectance and a negligence of the polariza-
tion effects. We show that under these idealized conditions,
the radiative efciency limit for a photonic solar cell consid-
erably exceeds that of a standard solar cell..
A. The concept of a photonic solar cell
An inuence on the spontaneous emission in photonic
crystals was predicted by Yablonovitch
21
and the modica-
tion of the thermal emission of a photonic crystal slab was
demonstrated by Lin.
22
This effect can be used in a photonic
a)
Electronic mail: marius.peters@ise.fraunhofer.de.
0021-8979/2011/110(4)/043104/5/$30.00 VC
2011 American Institute of Physics 110, 043104-1
JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS 110, 043104 (2011)
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solar cell to restrict radiative processes within the solar cell
into certain directions, which are dened by the PBG.
Even without any PC, light emitted into directions that
are subject to total internal reection (TIR) is trapped inside
the solar cell. Note that light which is subject to TIR also
contributes to the radiative balance between the incident and
emitted radiation. Since only light within the escape cone of
the TIR couples to propagating directions outside the solar
cell, the phase space is lled by directions corresponding to
the escape cone of the TIR inside the solar cell. Conversely,
light trapped by TIR increases the internal intensity. This
occurs until a new equilibrium is reached due to the reab-
sorption (and reemission) processes. The emission character-
istic of a black or gray body, therefore, does not depend on
the refractive index of the used solar cell material.
Since directions of light propagation outside the solar
cell couple only to directions inside the escape cone inside
the solar cell, only the PBGs for directions within the escape
cone are considered in this paper. Measuring the reectance
characteristic of a photonic structure for light incident from
air, these directions are marked by a high reectance. It is
important that the PBG shall not cover the direction from
which sunlight impinges on the solar cell. Otherwise this
light would be reected and cannot be used by the solar cell.
Preventing the solar cell from emitting light into certain
directions, the disparity between the phase spaces of incident
and emitted light are reduced, which reduces the generation
of entropy. This entropy reduction is the physical reason
why the efciency limit of a photonic solar cell exceeds the
one of a classical solar cell.
A photonic solar cell is realized by arranging two or
more materials with different refractive indices in a periodic
order. The period length of the arrangement is within the
same dimension as the considered light. A simple example
of such an arrangement is shown in Fig. 1(b). Here two mate-
rials are used that are arranged in a structure of stacked
layers of spheres (opal). Another possibility would be to use
stacked layers, for example, in the form of a Bragg stack or
an edge lter. In this arrangement, the photonic solar cell
can either be realized by using the whole stack as the bulk
material for a solar cell or by stacking independent thin solar
cells alternating with other materials. One example could be
an organic bulk-heterojunction solar cell in which the com-
ponents are periodically arranged. It is noteworthy that this
is an approach different to the use of a 3D photonic crystal
TiO
2
matrix that has been suggested for dye sensitized solar
cells.
23
In that context, the PC is used for increased absorp-
tion due to local eld enhancement, and not for the manage-
ment of the angular emission characteristic.
B. Current voltage characteristics of a photonic solar
cell
Following the approach of detailed balance,
24
and
according to Wurfel,
25
the current voltage relation of a solar
cell in the radiative limit is given by
jV e
0
exp
e
0
V
kT
_ _
1
_ _ _
k
G
0
dj
0
c
k e
0
_
k
G
0
dj
c;sun
k:
(1)
In this equation, e
0
is the elementary charge, k is the Boltz-
mann constant, and T is the ambient temperature. Here, k
G
is
the wavelength corresponding to the band-edge energy of the
semiconductor material used to construct the solar cell. The
upper integral boundaries reect the assumption that for
wavelengths above k
G
, light is neither absorbed nor emitted
due to the electric bandgap of the semiconductor. The second
integral,
_
k
G
0
dj
c;sun
k, represents the absorbed photocurrent
density, i.e., the number of photons from the solar spectrum
per unit time and unit area absorbed by the solar cell. The in-
tegral,
_
k
G
0
dj
0
c
k, represents the dark saturation photocurrent
density, i.e., the number of photons per unit area and unit
time emitted by the solar cell in the dark.
A further assumption that is typically used is that a solar
cell is a gray body. In contrast to a blackbody, a gray body
emits (and absorbs) only photons with an energy above a cer-
tain threshold energy, which, for a solar cell, is the band-
edge of the used bulk material. This property was already
used in Eq. (1) and enters into the integral boundaries. The
integration is not performed over the complete spectrum but
only until the wavelength corresponding to the band-edge of
the considered semiconductor.
Using the gray body assumption, the number of photons
emitted into the hemisphere by the solar cell per unit area,
unit time, and unit wavelength (k) is given by Plancks
formula,
FIG. 1. (Color online) Sketch of the concept of a photonic solar cell. (a)
Possible paths for light emitted within a classical solar cell are shown. In a
simple picture, there are only two options: (I) light is either emitted into the
escape cone and leaves the solar cell, or (II) it is emitted into a direction in
which it is subject to TIR and remains trapped. (b) In the photonic solar cell
certain paths (III) are blocked because of the presence of a PBG (black
region). Within a PBG, light is neither absorbed nor emitted. However, due
to our design, no sunlight is received from directions in which the PBG is
present; only the emission of a photonic solar cell is affected.
043104-2 Peters, Goldschmidt, and Blasi J. Appl. Phys. 110, 043104 (2011)
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dj
0
c
k; T 2p
c
k
4
1
exp
hc
kTk
_ _
1
; (2)
for wavelengths above the bandgap, k
G
, and without any
photonic crystal. A photonic structure affects the dark satura-
tion current density by restricting the solid angle into which
the solar cell is allowed to emit light. This feature depends
on the wavelength and the direction of the corresponding
~
k
vector within the structure. Assuming ideal conditions within
a PBG, light can neither be absorbed nor emitted. To charac-
terize the solid angle into which the solar cell emits light, we
introduce the factor, p
~
k; k, which denes the directional
emission characteristic. Assuming that the emission process
within the solar cell is independent of the direction, p
~
k; k
for an idealized Bragg-like system is given by,
p
~
k; k p
0
1 for
~
k 62 PBG
0 for
~
k 2 PBG
_
: (3)
This all-or-nothing approach is crude; however, it marks an
upper limit for what can be achieved by Bragg-like struc-
tures. With state of the art edge lters, however, this charac-
teristic can be approximated. Hemispherical integration and
normalization results in
1
p
0
_
p
~
k; k dX 2pPk: (4)
Equation (4) describes the solid angle into which a photonic
solar cell may emit radiation. The optical properties of the
photonic structure are condensed in the wavelength depend-
ent suppression factor, Pk, for which Eq. (4) serves as a
denition. The factor, Pk, can have values between 0 for a
complete photonic bandgap and 1 for a structure without
PBG. Inserting Eq. (4) into Eq. (2), the dark saturation pho-
tocurrent density of a photonic solar cell is obtained,
dj
0
c
k; T 2pPk
c
k
4
1
exp
hc
kTk
_ _
1
: (5)
C. Example: idealized Bragg stack
By using Eqs. (1)(5), the current-voltage characteristic of a
photonic solar cell can be calculated. Knowing the current-
voltage characteristic, the characteristics for a photonic solar
cell such as the radiative efciency limit, g, the correspond-
ing short circuit current density, j
SC
, and open circuit volt-
age, V
OC
, can be derived.
25
The maximum efciency is
obtained, if the angular range at every instant is restricted to
the solid angle under which the solar cell receives radiation
from the sun. In this case no etendue-related entropy is gen-
erated and the efciency equals the one obtained for the
maximum concentration. For crystalline silicon, the ef-
ciency limit under this assumption is increased from the
ShockleyQueisser limit of 31% to a maximum of 41%.
13
However, until now there is no known structure that
allows the restriction of the directional emission of the solar
cell in such a way. Existing photonic structures show PBGs
that allow for only restricting the emission in a certain spec-
tral range. Furthermore, the restriction will depend on the
frequency of the incident light. It must, therefore, be
assumed that the efciency increase induced by a real pho-
tonic crystal is much lower than the maximum given in the
preceding text. The aim of this section is to use the theoreti-
cal approach introduced earlier to calculate the efciency of
a photonic solar cell with a more realistic photonic band
structure.
For this purpose we start with a very simple, idealized
photonic structure. This structure is an idealized Bragg-
stack.
A Bragg stack consists of periodic k
0
=4 layers and has a
PBG at k
0
(h = 0

) for normal incidence. This photonic


bandgap has a certain width depending on the refractive indi-
ces of the used materials. Assuming ideal conditions for the
Bragg stack, reections outside the peak regions are
neglected and it is assumed that the PBG has a sufcient
width. The reason that we concentrate on Bragg-like direc-
tional characteristics here is that these characteristics are
found for many different photonic structures. Apart from
periodic layer systems, Bragg-like behavior has also been
reported for non-periodic layer systems
26
and for 3D pho-
tonic crystals.
27
A more profound discussion of this issue is
found in (Ref. 28). A sketch of the photonic solar cell in the
form of a Bragg stack is shown in Fig. 2.
The lter shall be designed such that the low wavelength
edge of the PBG k
0
(h 0

) coincides with the electronic


bandgap, k
G
,
k
0
h 0

k
G
: (6)
This setting would result in a small loss of generated photo-
current, because light coming from the sun has a certain
spreading and light under non-normal incidence would be
reected. Corresponding reection losses can be avoided by
slightly shifting k
0
(h 0

) to a shorter wavelength. How-


ever, since the solid angle of the sun, as seen from earth, is
only 0.27

the changes for P(k) induced by this shift are


very small; therefore, k
0
(h 0

) k
G
is a very good
approximation.
For non-normal incidence, the band-edge is shifted to-
ward a shorter wavelength, according to Braggs condition,
FIG. 2. (Color online) Sketch of a possible setup for a photonic solar cell in
the form of a Bragg stack. The Bragg stack, which is periodically stacked
layers with different refractive indices, is one possible realization of a
Bragg-like photonic solar cell. Other geometries are possible, though, and to
some extent even complex 3D photonic crystals can be considered to be
Bragg-like. Note that the solar cell needs to be part of the stack and must
therefore have an appropriate thickness.
043104-3 Peters, Goldschmidt, and Blasi J. Appl. Phys. 110, 043104 (2011)
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k
0
h k
G
1
sin
2
h
n
2
_ _
: (7)
In this equation, n is the average refractive index of the pho-
tonic structure. Please note that a correct determination of the
average refractive index in a photonic crystal is non-trivial.
Note also that Eq. (7) only indicates something about the shape
of the directional dependence of a certain lter characteristic
such as, for example, its reection edge. This shape can be
deduced directly from Braggs equation and it has also been
experimentally shown that similar characteristics can be found
for many different photonic crystals.
24,25
The shape depends
only on the average refractive index and not on the refractive
index contrast. This fact is remarkable, especially because all
further results deduced from this equation will also only
depend on the average refractive index. To provide an effec-
tive suppression of the emission, however, it can be expected
that a considerable refractive index contrast is required. The
role of the refractive index contrast has been omitted for the
moment and will be subject to future investigations.
The angle, h
c
(k), marks the critical angle below which
photons are allowed in the structure and above which they
are not. Depending on the wavelength, this critical angle is
given by
h
c
k sin
1
n

1
k
k
G
_ _
2
_
_
_
_
: (8)
We will use this equation as a denition for an ideal Bragg-
like photonic solar cell: All light incident on the photonic so-
lar cell with an angle smaller than h
c
k shall be absorbed
and all light with an angle greater than h
c
k shall be
reected. The characteristics of an idealized Bragg-like pho-
tonic solar cell are shown in Fig. 3.
It needs to be said here that the described system is
highly idealized. The reection of the system is a step func-
tion and the inuence of polarization is not considered at all.
The considerations given can, therefore, be nothing more
than an upper limit of what can be achieved with a real pho-
tonic structure.
The fraction of light emitted into the angular acceptance
range dened by the critical angle h
c
is given by
Pk
_
2p
0
_
h
c
0
cosh sinhdhd/
_
2p
0
_
p=2
0
cosh sinhdhd/
sin
2
h
c

n
2
1
k
k
G
_ _
2
_ _
: (9)
The domain of denition for this equation is
Pk 2 k
G

1
1
n
2
_
; k
G
_ _
: (10)
Outside this domain, the PBG does not inuence the emis-
sion or absorption of the solar cell. In the simple model pre-
sented here, we assume that light with a longer wavelength
is completely reected, i.e., the PBG has a sufcient width.
For lower wavelengths, the solar cell absorption and emis-
sion is unaffected by the PBG (see Fig. 3). Note that we tac-
itly assumed that light is incident on the solar cell only under
(mostly) normal incidence. This condition is strictly valid
only for a tracked system. If the direction of incidence varies
only in a certain range, however, the requirement that no
incident light shall be blocked by the PBG can be satised
by shifting the edge of the PBG to higher wavelengths. This
procedure comes with this cost: that less emitted light is
affected by the PBG.
By inserting Eq. (9) into Eqs. (5) and (1) the radiative
efciency limit, g, for a photonic solar cell can be calculated.
FOR the given assumptions, it is notable that this quantity
only depends on the average refractive index of the photonic
structure.
We have calculated g for a photonic solar cell for vary-
ing electrical bandgaps, represented by the cut-off wave-
length, k
G
, and varying average refractive indices.
Additionally, we calculated the radiative efciency limit,g
ref
,
for a solar cell under the same conditions but without pho-
tonic structure. The efciency difference induced by the pho-
tonic structure, g g
ref
, in dependence of k
G
and n is shown
in Fig. 4.
For low average refractive indices, the efciency of the
Bragg-like photonic solar cell exceeds that of a conventional
solar cell by up to 2.6% absolute.
Such a positive effect of the simple Bragg structure
might be surprising at rst glance, because the angular emis-
sion is only restricted for the wavelength close to the edge of
the photonic structure, k
0
(h 0

). A gray body, in the given


circumstances (T = 300 K, k
G
1100 nm), however, emits
the most light close to k
G
, which equals k
0
(h 0

)
.
For a
gray body emitter, a photonic structure with a Bragg-like
FIG. 3. (Color online) Ideal optical characteristics of a photonic solar cell in
the form of a Bragg-like system with an average refractive index of n 1.5.
An ideal Bragg-like system is dened by an angular characteristic which fol-
lows the Bragg condition [see Eq. (7)]. The cause for this characteristic is
the bandgap in the photonic band structure of the idealized Bragg-like struc-
ture. Such a system can be used to create a directionally selectively emitting
device if the edge of the PBG for normal incidence and the electrical
bandgap of the solar cell coincide. For normal incidence, the photonic struc-
ture allows all light to pass, which can be absorbed by the solar cell. In that
way, the absorption of the solar cell is not affected. Light under oblique inci-
dence close to the band-edge, however, will be blocked due to the blue-shift
of the PBG (black region). Therefore, the emission of light close to the elec-
tric band-edge of the solar cell is inuenced.
043104-4 Peters, Goldschmidt, and Blasi J. Appl. Phys. 110, 043104 (2011)
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characteristic therefore efciently reduces the emission of
photons.
A nal remark has to be made about the presented
results. The adaptation of the detailed balance model used
here considers a reduction of radiative recombination due to
the presence of a PBG. However, in this simple model, the
radiative recombination is the only loss mechanism consid-
ered. For all present solar cells, non-radiative recombination
processes are much more important than radiative losses.
The presented approach is therefore only interesting for devi-
ces that work close to the radiative limit. Similar considera-
tions could be interesting, however, for managing the
angular characteristics of light-emitting diodes. For solar
cells, the photonic structure will also provide a certain light
trapping effect for weakly absorbed radiation. This issue will
be subject of future consideration.
II. SUMMARY
In this paper, we presented the concept of a photonic so-
lar cell. This concept combines a solar cell and a photonic
crystal. The aim of this approach is to restrict the angular
range into which the solar cell emits radiation. This restric-
tion affects the etendue-related entropy generation of the so-
lar cell and inuences the potential efciency of the system.
As a simple exemplary system, we discussed the realization
of a photonic solar cell in the form of a Bragg stack. Two
materials with different refractive indices are arranged in
alternating layers. This setup can be used in several ways as
a photonic solar cell: either the whole stack forms the basis
for a solar cell, or thin independent solar cells are stacked in
alternating layers. We presented an adaptation of the
approach of detailed balance to consider the effects of a pho-
tonic band structure on the dark saturation current density.
We used this approach to calculate the potential efciency
for the Bragg-like photonic solar cell. We found that the ef-
ciency increase of the photonic solar cell depends on the
effective refractive index of the bulk material. For low effec-
tive refractive indices, the efciency of a photonic solar cell
exceeds that of a conventional solar cell by up to 2.6%
absolute.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank Johannes U

pping from MLU Halle


for fruitful discussions. The research leading to these results
has received funding from the German Federal Ministry of
Education and Research in the project Nanovolt - Optische
Nanostrukturen fur die Photovoltaik (BMBF, Project No.
03SF0322 H) and from the Fraunhofer internal project,
Photonic-Si.
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FIG. 4. (Color online) Difference in efciency between a conventional solar
cell and a photonic solar cell, depending on the effective refractive index
and the electric band-edge of the photonic solar cell. The refractive index
has been varied between n 1.5 and n 4. For low effective refractive indi-
ces the efciency of the photonic solar cell exceeds that of a conventional
solar cell by more than 2.6% absolute. A maximum efciency of g 35.5%
is found for a photonic solar cell with a band-edge corresponding to
k 1100 nm and a refractive index of n 1.5. The efciency of a conven-
tional solar cell under the same conditions is g 33.1%.
043104-5 Peters, Goldschmidt, and Blasi J. Appl. Phys. 110, 043104 (2011)
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