Wind Actions

Acknowledgements
This lecture is based on teaching resources drawn from: Action Package: PowerPoint
Teaching Resource Pack for Structural Design Actions to AS/NZS1170.2:2002,
published by G N Boughton and D J Falck, 1
st
Edition, TimberEd Services Pty Ltd,
2002. The permission given by the authors for all slides and student summaries to be
copied by any means for education purposes is gratefully acknowledged.
Wind loads and wind effects
- AS/NZS1170.2:2011
- Companion standard: AS/NZS1170 Structural design actions
AS/NZS1170.0 Part 0: General Principles
Significant changes and additional clauses incorporated in
AS/NZS 1170.2:2011
- A torsional loading requirement
- Windborne debris impact loading criteria
- Requirement to treat closed doors and windows, particularly roller doors,
as potential dominant openings
- Consideration of wind loads on internal walls and ceilings
- Revised action combination factor
- Some changes to local pressure factor

Amendments and proposed amendments to AS/NZS1170.2:2011
- Changes to wind profiles in tropical cyclone and hurricanes, i.e. the terrain
height multipliers in Regions C and D
- Terrain category for over-water winds treated as Terrain Category 1
- For an ocean fetch, inshore region of breaking waves may be treated as an
intermediate Terrain Category 1
- Proposed re-definition of peak gust from 3 second gust to 0.2 second
gust to compensate for recent evidence of incompatible wind speed data
collected by different wind measuring instruments (Dines anemometer
versus cup anemometer) with different response characteristics.
Useful guide and handbook on wind loads and wind effects
- A guide to AS/NZS 1170.2:2002 Wind actions, 2011 update, by Holmes and King
- Wind loading handbook for Australia and New Zealand Background to AS/NZS
1170.2 Wind actions, 2012, by Holmes, Kwok, Ginger
The structure of wind near the ground
Major storm types
Extra-tropical depressions
Large pressure system
Normal weather pattern
Predictable wind
Prevailing wind directional characteristics
Tropical cyclones, hurricanes, typhoons
Large pressure system
Extreme winds
Thunderstorms, tornadoes
Unpredictable
Narrow path
Extreme winds
<AS/NZS 1170.2: 2011>
Includes: Buildings & structures
Height 200 m
Roof spans <100 m
Need additional information for:

Off-shore structures
Transmission towers
Bridges



Forces caused by pressures induced by wind passing over
structure
Wind Actions
Flow lines
Pressure on
Windward wall
Air moving
towards surface
Pressure
<AS/NZS 1170.2: 2011>
Suction on Roof
Suction on
Leeward wall
Suction
Air moving away from surface
Windward
wall
Leeward
wall
Pressure from wind on windward surfaces
Wind direction
Wind damage scenario
Pressure
Suction on roof surfaces
Wind direction
Wind damage scenario
Suction on side wall
Wind direction
Wind damage scenario
Wind direction
Suction on leeward wall
Wind damage scenario
Other Effects
Internal pressure
Drag on individual members
Drag on long roofs or side walls
Dynamic effects
Wind Actions
Distributed - derived from pressures
that act over complete surfaces
Estimated - from meteorological
models of wind speed for events in a region
and estimated aerodynamics of building
Short-term - <3 second peak gust
Wind Actions - Design Strategy
1. Calculate Site Wind Speed V
sit,

(wind characteristics at site
before considering buildings)

2. Determine Design Wind Speed V
des,

(wind speeds in major directions
for consideration in building design)
3. Determine Design wind pressure p on surfaces
4. Calculate Wind actions on elements
Wind from at least four directions
Forces on surfaces or structural elements from
wind pressure or suction
frictional drag
Action effects (forces and moments) on complete structures
) M M M ( M V V
t s cat , z d R , sit
=

1. Site wind Speed V

sit,

<2.3>
Find for each Cardinal Direction N, NE, E, SE, SW, W, NW
Regional 3 sec gust
wind speed (m/s)
Wind directional
multiplier
Terrain and structure
height multiplier
Shielding multiplier
Topographic multiplier
Recurrence intervals for
environmental actions
Importance Level
In resisting environmental actions (wind,
earthquake, snow), designer must select
recurrence interval
Event severity for ultimate limit states
Number of
people using
structure?
Importance
of structure
to community?
Risk to life
if failure?
(Given in BCA)
Recurrence intervals for wind speeds
Use BCA (Table B1.2a) to determine Importance Level
Buildings which are utilized by a large number of people
have a higher Importance Level
2 =most normal structures
3 =most public or large buildings
Power Plant
4 =essential services or
dangerous activities
1 =least risk to people
Recurrence intervals for Ultimate
wind speeds
Annual Probability of Exceedance for
Ultimate Limit States Events
BCA Table B1.2b
Importance
level
Annual Probability of
exceedance(Years)
Cyclonic Non-cyclonic
1 Low hazard 1:500 1:200
2 Normal 1:500 1:500
3 Large number of people 1:1000 1:1000
4 Post-disaster or hazardous 1:2000 1:2000
Increasing risk
Means average recurrence interval ~ 500 years
The geometric distribution and return period

A structure is designed so that the stresses in its members will attain the permissible stress under
the action of extreme winds with a return period R, or a mean recurrence interval, of 50 years.

The probability of occurrence in any one year of the permissible stress for a return period R of 50
years is
p = 1/R = 1/50 = 0.02

The probability of occurrence of the permissible stress for a return period R of 50 years for at least
once in n years is
P(n) = 1 - (1 - p)
n


Therefore for n = 25
P(25) = 1 - {1 - (1/50)}
25
= 1 - {1 - (0.02)}
25
0.396

For n = 50
P(50) = 1 - {1 - (1/50)}
50
= 1 - {1 - (0.02)}
50
0.63

That is, in an expected 50 years life time of a typical structure, the permissible stress for a return
period R of 50 years can be expected to have an approximately 63% chance of occurring at least
once, which represents a reasonably high probability of occurrence.

The probability of occurrence of the ultimate limit state stress, with an equivalent return period R
of 1000 years, for at least once in 50 years, the expected life of a typical structure, is
P(50) = 1 - {1 - (1/1000)}
50
= 1 - {1 - (0.001)}
50
0.0488
Recurrence intervals for
Serviceability wind speeds
Annual Probability of Exceedance for
Serviceability Events
AS 1170.0 Appendix C
Function Category Probability
1 1:20
2 1:20
3 1:20
4 1:20
Increasing risk
Means average recurrence interval ~ 20 years
Regional Wind Speed V
R

Region A (1-7) - thunderstorm events
(Regions A6 and A7 apply to New Zealand)
<Table 3.1>
Wind velocity varies
for location - some
regions prone to
extreme wind events
Regions are prone to different extreme events
Hence, design Regional Wind Speed V
R
varies with location
Each region (letter) reflects different severity of wind events
Each sub-region (number) reflects local character sites
Region W special for Cook Strait, NZ
Region B - decaying tropical cyclones
Region C - tropical cyclones
Region D - severe tropical cyclones
Region A4
Regional Wind Speeds
Port Hedland
20
Region D
Severe Tropical
Cyclones
Toowoomba
30
Region A1
Perth
Kalgoorlie
30
Region A3
Region A2
Sydney
Region A5
Cairns
25
Region B
Intermediate
Bundaberg
25
27
Region C
Tropical Cyclones
Additional factors F
C
and F
D
to account for uncertainties in the prediction of design wind speeds
in tropical cyclone regions:
For R 50 years, F
C
=1.05 and F
D
=1.1
For R <50 years, F
C
=F
D
=1.0
Wind Direction multiplier M
d

M
d
accounts for differences in gust wind speeds for
different directions at a particular site
used in design for strength and serviceability
Regions A and W <Table 3.2 >based on local
meteorological station data
N
Regions B,C and D <3.3.2 >
max. wind speed likely to occur in any direction due to
decaying or full-blown tropical cyclones
M
d
=0.95 for determining resultant forces and
overturning moments on complete buildings or wind
actions resisted by major structural elements.
M
d
=1.0 all other cases, including cladding and
immediate supporting members.
Terrain/height multiplier M
z,cat

Terrain - examine roughness
of ground for some kilometres up-wind of site
Can have quite different M
z,cat
for wind
from different directions

<Tables 4.1(A) and (B) >
Wind velocity increases with height
above ground

Velocity increase is a function of
ground roughness and
turbulence in air stream
Velocity
Decreasing roughness
Terrain/height multiplier M
z,cat
1 Exposed, very open, obstructions <1.5m
e.g. desert, snow field, water for serviceability wind only
4 Urban, closely spaced obstructions >10m
e.g. city centres, heavy industrial areas
3 Suburban, closely spaced obstructions 3 - 5 m
e.g. forests, suburbs, light industrial areas
2 Open, scattered obstructions 1.5 - 10m
e.g. farmland, airports, water for
ultimate limit state design wind
Terrain/height multiplier M
z,cat
Height (z) m
Multiplier (M
z,cat
)
Terrain
Category 1
Terrain
Category 2
Terrain
Category 3
Terrain
Category 4
3 0.99 0.91 0.83 0.75
5 1.05 0.91 0.83 0.75
10 1.12 1.00 0.83 0.75
20 1.19 1.08 0.94 0.75
40 1.24 1.16 1.04 0.85
100 1.29 1.24 1.16 1.03
Height (z) m

Multiplier (M
z,cat
)

Terrain Category 1 & 2 Terrain Category 3 & 4

3 0.90 0.80
5 0.95 0.80
10 1.00 0.89
20 1.13 1.05
40 1.25 1.25
100 1.40 1.40
Ultimate Limit States
Regions C & D only
Ultimate Limit States
Regions A, W, B
Serviceability Limit State All Regions use <Table 4.1 (A)>
<Table 4.1 (A)>
Excerpt from
<Table 4.1 (B)>
Excerpt from
Melbourne
Wind
Wind
Terrain/height multiplier M
z,cat
Changes in terrain category
Wind velocity changes slowly as
wind encounters different terrain
Takes over 1000 m for wind profile
of new terrain to be fully
established
Averaging of terrain category over distance upwind of
site depending on max structure height <Table 4.2()>
(use lagged response x
i
<Clause 4.2.3>)
Consider permanence of obstructions
2.0
1.0
Few trees, long grass
Crops
0.8 High density metropolitan
0.4
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.002
Roughness length z
o
<Table 4.2(B)>
City buildings
(10 30 m)
Centres of small towns
(Flat) natural snow surface
Rough open water, airfields
0.2
Suburban areas
Terrain Category 4
Terrain Category 3
Terrain Category 2
Terrain Category 1
M
s
factor allows for the protection of the design site by buildings
immediately upwind
Shielding multiplier M
s

Buildings upwind
can decrease wind
velocity at design site
<Table 4.3 >
Not shielded
Shielded
Only buildings the same size or larger than the designed building
can provide shield.
Shielding from trees and vegetation not permitted.
Buildings must be close <20h
t
of the design site
M
s
= 0.7 to 1.0
0.85 for typical suburban housing

Shielding multiplier M
s
Can have different M
s
from different directions
Buildings taller than design
building in this sector can
shield the design building for
this wind direction
buildings (not trees) within 45
o
sector radius and 20h of
design site can provide shielding
Wind direction
site
45
o
20h
t
Topographic multiplier M
t
Models effect of land shape on wind speeds
Two very different phenomena:
M
h
(hill shape multiplier)

acceleration of wind over hills,
ranges and escarpments
(used anywhere within
Australia and New Zealand)

Applies to all hills
M
lee
(lee effect multiplier)
specific high and long mountain
ranges can drag high level
winds down to ground level
(currently only used in NZ;
elsewhere uses value of 1.0)

Applies only to specific ranges
Hill Shape Multiplier M
h
May be different for different wind directions
Function of cross-sectional shape of hill taken in wind direction
Position of building in relation to crest (x)
Height of building above ground (z)
Upwind slope of hill (H/2L
u
)
o
M
h

hill
Design site
Wind direction
x
Hill properties
H
H = hill height
H/2
H/2 =half hill height
L
u
L
u
=distance from centre to half hill height
L
2
L
2
L
2
=edge of topographic zones
x
x =distance from crest to building site
Wind direction
Design site
2. Design Wind Speed V
des,
The building orthogonal design wind speed (V
des,
) =
Wind speeds normal to the faces of the structure at the
proposed site
Dependent on height and configuration of structure
If orientation of building is known
use speed profile for each orthogonal axis
If orientation of building is not known
use max directional wind speed for all directions
<2.3>
Design Wind Speed V
des,
Where orientation of structure
on site is unknown
Where orientation of structure on site is known
determine V
sit,
(including M
d
M
z,cat
M
s
M
t
)
for 8 directions
Interpolate to find winds
normal to building axes
M
d
=1.0 and take worst case of
V
sit,
as V
des,
and use for all parts
of structure
Calculate V
sit
=V
R
M
d
M
z,cat
M
s
M
t
for each direction
Interpolate between cardinal points
Superimpose building orientation
NW
N
NE
E
SE
S
SW
W
Read building wind speed
V
des
90
0
V
des
180
0
V
des
270
0
V
des
0
0
3. Design wind pressure (p) and
distributed forces (f)
dyn fig des air
C C V p
2
,
] [ ) 5 . 0 (

=
<2.4 >
Pressure always acts normal to surface
-ve indicates away from surface
Suction
+ve indicates towards surface
Pressure
similar expressions
Shear of air over surface causes frictional drag
[ ]
dyn fig des air
C C V f
2
,
) 5 . 0 (

=
wind
A V
2
1
C f Force ; V
2
1
C p essure Pr
2
p
2
p
= =
[ ]
dyn fig des air
C C V f p
2
,
) 5 . 0 ( ,

=
Design wind pressure
Related to shape of roof or building, and the structures
response to fluctuations in wind

Constant 1.2 kg/m
3
Already evaluated from site wind speed

Aerodynamic shape factor: related
to shape of building and aerodynamics
Different expressions for:
Internal pressure
C
fig,i
=C
p,i
K
c,i
External pressure
C
fig,i
=C
p,e
K
a
K
c,e
K
l
K
p
Frictional drag
C
fig
=C
f
K
a
K
c
Dynamic response factor
=1 for normal structures
important for wind-
sensitive structures

Internal Pressure C
fig,i
= C
p,i
K
c,i
Openings Designer selects combinations of openings to
give most adverse effects, given:
Vents that are permanently open
Doors, windows, ventilators that may or may not be left open
Debris attack in tropical cyclones
Dominant openings when one surface has larger
opening area than all of the others
Permeability cracks and gaps in the envelope
that allow air through. 0.01 0.5% wall area
Internal Pressures
Holes in windward wall can be made by debris
Other surfaces may also have openings
Dominant opening in




Windward wall PRESSURE inside
Side wall suction inside
Leeward wall suction inside
Roof space PRESSURE in roof
Internal pressure coefficient C
p,i
<Table 5.1 >
<Part (A)> No dominant opening
(no single surface with more openings than all others combined.
<Part (B)> With dominant openings
Two or three walls equally permeable
(a) Windward wall permeable
(b) Windward wall impermeable
-0.1, +0.2
-0.3
e.g. For maximum pressure
differential across windward wall,
choose most negative value.
Wind direction considered for the
scenario of openings
If two values given, choose the
one with the most adverse effect
C
p,i
Condition
Example
Excerpt from <Table 5.1(A) >
External Pressures on Enclosed Buildings
C
fig,e
= C
p,e
K
a
K
c,e
K
l
K
p
External Pressure
Coefficient

Area reduction factor

Combination factor
used to find actions where pressures on two or
more separate surfaces are combined

Local pressure factor
only applies to cladding, cladding
fasteners and cladding support elements

Permeable cladding reduction factor
only applies to negative pressures on permeable claddings, e.g.
mesh, roof tiles or shade cloth

Surfaces of enclosed buildings for C
p,e
Walls
W =windward wall wind toward W
W
Wind direction
S
S
S =side wall wind parallel to S
L
L =lee wall wind away from L
Roofs
R=side slope wind runs across this slope
R
R
R=crosswind or side slope wind runs across this slope
Roofs
W
L
S
S
Wind direction
D=downward slope wind runs down this slope
D U
U=upwind slope wind runs up this slope
windward wall C
p,e
>0 (~0.8)
<AS1170.2 Table 5.2(A)>
External pressure coefficient C
p,e

leeward wall C
p,e
<0 (-0.5 to -0.2)
<AS1170.2 Table 5.2(B)>depending on width (b)

side walls C
p,e
<0 (-0.65 to -0.2)
<AS1170.2 Table 5.2(C)> worst close to windward edge
Roof C
p,e
(-1.3 to +0.5) (commonly -0.9) function of slope, position
on building, aspect ratio, height of building <AS1170.2 Table 5.3>

b
d
Area averaging and local pressures
Wind pressures vary in both space and time
small gusts roll across structure (smaller than structure size)
high suctions develop near edges (separation)
pressure and suction can alternate near points of re-attachment
Higher uplift near edge
Highest uplift near corner
Area Reduction Factor K
a
and
Local Pressure Factor K

K
a
<5.4.2><Table 5.4>
Area averaging

over large areas of roof or sidewall only
Generally only applies to major structural elements
a
h 25m
K

<5.4.4><Table 5.6>
Peak suctions in separation zones
Function of
size of contributory area
position on buildings
Only applies to cladding,
fixings and some cladding
support members
b
d a
Design pressures are peak pressures or suction
- They may not all occur at the same time and contribute
simultaneously to a structural action effect.
Where any wind action is derived from pressures or
suction on more than one surface, provided one pressure
is not close to zero, e.g. zero or small internal pressure
- can reduce effect of action combination by applying
action combination factor K
c,e
and/or K
c,i

Important: for each contributing surface
K
a
.K
c
0.8

Action Combination Factor K
c
<Table 5.5>
Wind
Permeable cladding factor K
p

reflects general porosity of whole cladding surface
(e.g. tiles, shade-cloth)
K
p
applies for solidity ratio (ratio of solid area to total area of the
surface) less than 0.999 and more than 0.99
K
p
only applies to negative pressures on permeable claddings, e.g.
mesh, roof tiles or shade cloth

<5.4.5 ><Table 5.8>
Note: not leakiness due to windows or doors
Default value =1.0
Allows for dynamic excitation of wind-sensitive structure or
structural elements
Must be calculated if natural frequency <1 Hz
Dynamic Response Factor C
dyn
Along wind excitation
Across wind excitation