INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

CHEMISTRY OF OXYGEN



DWI HARKITA NINGRUM (1113031080)
I GUSTI AYU AGUNG CYNTHIA PUTRI (1113031088)



CHEMISTRY EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCCES FACULTY
GANESHA UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION
2012




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CHEMISTRY OF OXYGEN

The mass of earths crust contain about 50 % by weight of oxygen, 89% in water
and 21% in atmosphere. Oxygen is the main elements in earth crust. The discoveries of
oxygen are Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Joseph Priestly in 1773-1774. The oxygen term
invented by Antoine Lavoisier in 1777and succeeded in breaking down experiment with
oxygen Phlogiston theory of combustion and corrosion.The oxygen atom has the
configuration electron 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
. The oxygen needs two electrons to achieve the
completion of the octet rules.The physical and chemical properties of matter are those of
the constituent molecules, and the transformation of matter into different materials
(compounds) is the result of their reactions to form new molecules. Only oxygen in the
group VI A is a gas formed in room temperature, odorless, and colorless. There are three
isotopes of oxygen in nature, such as
16
O(99.759%),
17
O(0.0374%) and
18
O(0.2039%).
There are various oxides of oxygen based such as ionic oxides, covalent or molecular
oxides, and acid base properties of oxides ( basic oxides, acidic oxides, amphoteric
oxides, and other oxides). Oxygen has two allotropes there are dioxygen (O
2
) and
trioxygen or ozone (O
3
).
Oxygen is a diatomic gas, which is tasteless, odorless, and colorless. The element
oxygen has an atomic weight of 16. The oxygen has a density that is greater than air and
it has very low solubility in water. It dissolves to the extent of 3.08 cm
3
(STP) in 100
cm
3
H
2
O at 20
0
and this drops to 2.08 cm
3
at 50
0
. Typical solubilities are Et
2
O 45.0 CCl
4

30.2, Me
2
CO 28.0 and C
6
H
6
22.3. The bond dissociation energy of O
2
is 493.4 kJ mol
-1
,
this is substantially less than for the triply bonded species N
2
(945.4 kJ mol
-1)
but is
much greater than for F
2
(158.8 kJ mol
-
). The melting and boiling point of oxygen are
54.8
0
K (-218.3 C or -360.9 F) and 90.2 K [182.9 C or -297.2 F). The oxygen has
critical temperature of 154.6
0
K (-118.5 C or 181.3 F ) and the critical pressure is 50.15
atm.
Oxygen is an extremely reactive gas which vigorously oxides many elements
directly, either at room temperature or above. Oxygen atoms react spontaneously with
the atoms of all elements except the noble gases to form polyatomic molecules via
covalent bonds. Linear 2-coordinate O occurs in the silyl ether molecule [O(SiPh
3
)
2
].
Planar 3-coordinate O occurs in the neutral gaseous molecular species OLi
3
, ONa
3
and
in both cationic anioniccomplexes. It also occurs in to dimensional layer lattices such as
tunellite, [OB
6
O
8
(OH)
2
]
2-
and in the three dimensional rutile structure. Planar 4-
coordinate O occurs uniquely in NbO which can be considered as a defect NaCl and Nb.
Oxygen has three stable isotopes species, namely
16
O(99.759%),
17
O(0.0374%)
and
18
O(0.2039%) (Sawyer,1991). The isotopes
18
O can be concentrated by fractional
distillation of water and concentrates containing up to 97 % atom
18
O. The oxygen
isotopes have medical applications. O-16 is used in the production of radioactive N-13,
which is used for PET imaging and myocardial perfusion. O-17 can be used as a tracer
in the study of cerebral oxygen utilization. Large quantities of O-18 are used for the
production of F-18. F-18 is used to produce
2-
[
18
F] fluoro-2-deoxyglucose (FDG) which
is used as a tracer in positron emission tomography or PET. Millions of these FDG-PET
medical procedures are performed annually to investigate a range of diseases in various
human organs. Oxygen isotopes can be obtained from Trace Sciences International.
The most frequently used method to prepare oxygen in the laboratory is through
the decomposition of potassium chlorate (KC1O
3
). The potassium chlorate is heated and
oxygen is evolved leaving KCl (Gould, 1961).
2KClO
3

heat
2KCl + 3O
2

The best method for the controlled preparation of very pure O
2
is the thermal
decomposition of recrystallized, predict,degassed KMNO
4
in a vacuum line. Mn
VI
and
Mn
IV
are both formed and the reaction can formally be represented as:
2KmnO
4
213-2350
K
2
MnO
4
+ MnO
2
+O
2

Manganese dioxide (MnO
2
) is added to the reaction as a catalyst. A catalyst is a
substance which speed up a reaction but is not changed after the reaction is completed.
The MnO
2
, causes the reaction to take place more rapidly at a lower temperature.
alternate methods of producing oxygen in the laboratory are sodium peroxide and water.

2Na
2
O
2
+ 2H
2
O 4 NaOH + O
2

(sodium peroxide) (sodium hydroxides)
Hydrogen peroxide and manganese dioxide:
2H
2
O
2
2H
2
O + O
2

(hydrogen peroxide)
Electrolysis of water:
2H
2
O
2
current
2H
2
+O
2
Ozone is a very reactive form of oxygen, acting as an oxidizing agent. Aside
from its use in purifying drinking water, ozone at low altitudes in the atmosphere is
usually considered an unwanted pollutant. On the other hand, the ozone layer that forms
at an altitude of approximately 27 km above the earths surface is considered to be
essential and beneficial. Ozone is an irritating pale blue gas, heavier than the air, very
reactive and unstable, which cannot be stored and transported, so it has to be generated
in situ. It is explosive and toxic, even at low concentrations. In the Earths
stratosphere, it occurs naturally (with concentrations between 5 and 10 ppm), ozone
absorbs ultraviolet radiation very strongly in the region 220-330 nm. it is effective in
filtering out dangerous UV-B radiation, 290 nm < l < 320 nm (UV-A radiation, 320 nm-
400 nm, is relatively less harmful and UV-C radiation, < 290 nm does not penetrate to
the troposphere.) If UV-B were not absorbed by ozone, severe damage would result to
exposed forms of life on the earth (Ullmanns, 1991).
By analysis of the electronic structure, the molecule is considered to have the
following resonant structure:
O
O
O
O
O
O


It is worthy to mention the toxic character of ozone, specially at high
concentrations. While ozone is considered to be a toxic gas, there are factors which
mitigate the immediate danger to individuals working with it. Toxicity is dependent on
concentration and length of exposure. The ozone layer is beneficial because ozone
absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation emitted by the sun.
There are two reactions by which stratospheric ozone is produced are,
O
2
+ hv O + O (l < 242.4 nm)
O + O
2
+ M O3 + M (energy-absorbing N
2
or O
2
)
and it is destroyed by photodissociation,
O
3
+ hv O
2
+ O (l < 325 nm)
and a series of reactions from which the net result is the following:
O + O
3
2O
2
(Manahan,2000)
The principal cause of ozone depletion is the presence in the stratosphere of
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs) are small molecules with
halogen atoms bonded to central carbons. CFCs play a major role in ozone depletion.
Specific examples of CFCs include CFCl
3
(CFC-11) and CF
2
Cl
2
(CFC-12). These
compounds are nonflammable, relatively inert, volatile yet readily liquefied, and
nontoxic an extremely useful set of properties. CFCs have been used as coolants for
refrigeration, in foam plastics manufacture, as aerosol propellants, and as industrial
solvents. Unfortunately, the same properties that make them useful are also the reason
for their destructive effect on the stratospheric ozone.
Destruction of the stratospheric ozone layer by CFCs begins when a photon of
high enough energy breaks a carbon-chlorine bond in a CFC molecule. This produces a
chlorine atom, as shown here using CFC-12 as an example.
CF
2
Cl
2(g)
+ hvCF
2
Cl

(g)
+ Cl

(g)
The chlorine atom, a free radical, then participates in what is called a chain
reaction mechanism. It first combines with an ozone molecule, producing a chlorine
monoxide (ClO

) radical and an oxygen molecule.

First step : Cl

(g)
+ O
3(g)
ClO

(g)
+ O
2(g)
Second Step : ClO

+ ClO

ClOOCl
Third Step : ClOOCl + hv

ClOO +

Cl
Fourth Step :

ClOO + hv

Cl + O2
The net reaction obtained by adding two Step 1 reactions to Steps 2, 3, and 4 and
canceling species that appear as both reactants and products is the conversion of two
ozone molecules to three oxygen molecules.
Net reaction : 2O
3(g)
3O
2(g)

This chain reaction increases the rate at which stratospheric ozone is destroyed,
but it does not affect the rate at which ozone is formed. It is called a chain reaction
because the reaction steps can repeat over and over. The two chlorine atoms that react
when Step 1 occurs twice are regenerated in Steps 3 and 4, so there is no net change in
concentration of chlorine atoms. It has been estimated that a single chlorine atom can
destroy as many as 100,000 molecules of O
3
before it is inactivated or returned to the
troposphere (probably as HCl)
The oxygen has classify various oxide including ionic oxides, covalent or
molecular oxides, acid base properties of oxides (basic oxides, acidic oxides, amphoteric
oxides, and other oxides), andperoxide and superoxide, and. The classify oxides
according to their acid or base character in aqueous system. Generally, the oxides of the
metals are basic, whereas those of the nonmetals are acidic. There also a number of
important amphoteric oxides.
Ionic metal oxides formed, energy must also be expended to vaporize and to
ionize the metal. Those the stability of ionic metal oxides is a consequence only of the
high lattice energies that are obtained with the small and highly charged oxide ion.
Where the lattice energy is not sufficient to offset the energies for ionization and so on,
oxides with substantial covalent character are formed. Examples of oxides with some
covalent character are BeO, SiO
2
, and oxides of Boron such as B
2
O
3
. Another various
oxide are peroxide and superoxide.
Covalent or molecular oxides are compounds, such as CO
2
,SO
2
,SO
3
, and NO
2
,in
which covalent bonding is dominant.
The covalent oxides of the nonmetals are usually acidic, dissolving in water to
produce solution of acid. There are term acid anhydrides. An example in which N
2
O
5
is
seen to be the acid anhydrides of nitric acid.
N
2
O
5
+ H
2
O 2H
+
+ 2NO
3

Even when these oxides are in soluble in water, they will generally dissolve in these.
Sb
2
O
5
+ 2OH
-
+ 5H
2
O 2Sb(OH
-
)
6

Acidic oxide will often combine directly, by fusion with basic oxide to form salt.
Na
2
O + SiO
2
fusion
Na
2
SiO
3S

Consequently, only those ionic oxides that are insoluble in water are inert to it.
Basic oxides function as basic anhydrides. When insoluble in water they usually dissolve
in dilute acid. The reaction
MgO
(s)
+ 2H
+
(aq)
Mg
2+
+ H
2
O
These oxides behave acidicly toward strong bases and as bases towards strong acid. It is
called amphoteric oxides. The example of ZnO is illustrated in reaction.
ZnO
(s)
+ 2H
+
(aq)
Zn
2+
(aq)
+H
2
O
ZnO + 2OH
-
+ H
2
O Zn
(OH)

There are some which are relatively inert, which dissolve in neither acid or
bases( N
2
O, CO, PbO
2
, MnO
2
). This is last classifying of acid and base oxides called
other oxides. When MnO
2
and PbO
2
do react with acid (HCl) they do so by a redoxs
rather than an acid base reaction.
MnO
2(s)
+ 4 HCl Mn
2+
+ 2Cl
-
+ Cl2 + 2H
2
O
Peroxides and superoxides are derived formally from

(peroxides )and

(superoxides). Alkali metals, Ca, Sr, and Ba form ionic peroxides. For example is
sodium peroxide. Sodium peroxide is made commercially air Oxidation of sodium.
Sodium peroxide is a yellow powder that is very hygroscopic and stable in temperature
of 500
0
C. Ionic Superoxidesare formed by the interaction of O
2
with K, Rb, or Cs as
yellow to orange crystals solids(Cotton,1995).
Water is the most abundant compound on earths surface, covering about 70% of
the planet. In nature water exists in liquid, solid, and gaseous states. At room
temperature, it is a tasteless and odorless liquid, nearly colorless. Many substances
dissolve in water and it is commonly revered to as the universal solvent because of this
water in nature and in use is rarely pure and some of its properties may vary slightly
from those of the pure substance. Water is volatile, mobile liquid with many curious
properties, most of which can be ascribed to extensive H bonding. In the gas phase the
H2O molecule has a bond angle of 104.5
0
(close to tetrahedral) and an interatomic
distance of 95.7 pm. The dipole moment is 1.84 D.
Water is present in nature is never found as pure water. The water still contains
from ions Ca
2+
and Mg
2+
called hard water. Based on properties they, hard water is
divided into two types, namely hard water temporary and hard water remains.
Hard water temporary contains of ions Ca
2+
and Mg
2+
ions of bicarbonate so that
it can be removed by heating.The reactions :
Ca(HCO
3
)
(aq)
CaCO
3(s)
+ H2O
(l)
+ CO
2(g)

Mg(CO
3
)
2
(aq) MgCO
3(s)
+ H
2
O
(l)
+ CO
2(g)
Hard water remains contain of ions Ca
2+
and Mg
2+
can be derived from sulfate
orchloride-soluble compounds. These ions cant be removed by heating, but with the
addition of a solution of Ca(OH)
2
and Na
2
CO
3
solution.The reactions:
Mg
2+
(aq)
+ OH
-
(aq)
Mg(OH)
2(s)

Mg
2+
(aq)
+

(aq)
MgCO
3(s)

Ca
2+
(aq)
+ 2OH
-
(aq)
Ca(OH)
2(s)

Ca
2+
(aq)
+

(aq)
CaCO
3(s)
Oxygen is there in group of VI A. Oxygen has three isotopes, namely
16
O,
17
O,
18
O. Oxygen is a diatomic gas, which is tasteless, odorless, and colorless. The element
oxygen has an atomic weight of 16. Oxygen atoms react spontaneously with the atoms
of all elements except the noble gases to form polyatomic molecules via covalent bonds.
Ozone is a very reactive form of oxygen, acting as an oxidizing agent. Aside from its use
in purifying drinking water, ozone at low altitudes in the atmosphere is usually
considered an unwanted pollutant. The principal cause of ozone depletion is the presence
in the stratosphere of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Oxygen has various oxide,namely
ionic oxide, covalent or molecular oxides, ionic oxide, basic oxides, amphoteric oxide,
and other oxide like peroxide and superoxide. Water is present in nature is never found
as pure water. The water still contains from ions Ca
2+
and Mg
2+
called hard water. Based
on properties they, hard water is divided into two types, namely hard water temporary
and hard water remains.
















REFERENCES

Ullmann.1991.Esyclopedia of industrial chemistry. Environmental protection. New
York Wiley-VCH
Andersen SO, Sarma KM.. 2002. Protecting the ozone layer. London, UK: Earthscan
Press.
Manahan,Stanley. 2000. Enviromental Chemistry Seventh Edition. America: Imprint of
CRC Press LLC.
Cotton, F.Albert. Wilkinson, Geoffrey.1972. Advanced Inorganic Chemistry Second
Edition.London: Interscience Publisher
Cotton, F.Albert. Wilkinson, Geoffrey.Gaus, Paul 1995. Basic Inorganic Chemistry
Third Edition.London: Joh Willey & Sons INC.
Sawyer, Donald. 1991. Oxygen Chemistry.New York: Oxford University
Gould,Erwin S. 1961. InorganicReaction and Structure. New York : Holt, Rinehart and
Winston