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An industrial cooked dish is one of the food products with the most complex agri-food chain. A life cycle assessment has been carried out to identify and quantify the environmental performance of the production and distribution of a cooked tuna with tomato dish. The major causes of these costs and its environmental impact take place during the eco-design and development of a product.
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An industrial cooked dish is one of the food products with the most complex agri-food chain. A life cycle assessment has been carried out to identify and quantify the environmental performance of the production and distribution of a cooked tuna with tomato dish. The major causes of these costs and its environmental impact take place during the eco-design and development of a product.
An industrial cooked dish is one of the food products with the most complex agri-food chain. A life cycle assessment has been carried out to identify and quantify the environmental performance of the production and distribution of a cooked tuna with tomato dish. The major causes of these costs and its environmental impact take place during the eco-design and development of a product.
Life cycle assessment to eco-design food products:
industrial cooked dish case study
J. Zua * , L. Arana Food Research Division AZTI-Tecnalia, Txatxarramendi ugartea z/g, 48395 Sukarrieta (Bizkaia e Biscay), Spain Received 1 February 2007; received in revised form 11 January 2008; accepted 15 January 2008 Available online 21 March 2008 Abstract An industrial cooked dish is one of the food products with the most complex agri-food chain. In this study, an eco-design pilot experiment has been performed as a way to develop more efcient and sustainable agri-food products throughout its whole life cycle. To achieve this, a life cycle assessment (LCA) has been carried out to identify and quantify the environmental performance of the production and distribution of a cooked tuna with tomato dish. The most important stages of the life cycle have been established taking into consideration the full environmental impact as well as the potential reductions achievable by the application of various improvements. 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Life cycle assessment; Food product; Eco-design; Product impact reduction 1. Introduction The cost and environmental impact attributed to the sale and consumption of any food product are associated to the type of manufactured product, its raw materials, the type and design of the packaging used, the required manufacturing processes for its production, the distribution and commercial- ization, and the consumers use, among others. Therefore, the total cost and the global impact are accumulated throughout the whole agri-food chain. The major causes of these costs and its environmental im- pact take place during the eco-design and development of a product; it is at these stages when the raw and auxiliary materials, as well as the type of processes necessary for the de- velopment, transportation, conservation and so on are dened. In order to make sustainable food products available in the markets, it is necessary to develop a technique which mini- mizes those necessities during the design and development of the food products so that it is possible to reduce both costs and impact throughout its whole life cycle while maintaining the food quality and safety. The process of including environ- mental, efcient and cost saving criteria when designing a product is called eco-design. The aim of this project is to carry out an eco-design pilot experiment on a real food product as a way to develop mea- sures, techniques and strategies oriented to obtain more ef- cient food products. Eco-designed food uses less resources and produces less waste and emissions throughout its whole life cycle, reduces the pollutants in the product, optimizes all the stages of the agri-food chain and reduces associated costs and environmental impacts overcoming the possible in- teractions between the reduction of the environmental impact in the design of the product and the maintenance of the food quality and safety. To achieve this, life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology was applied to a specic cooked dish product from a represen- tative Spanish company. In order to establish which stage e input or output e or other aspect of the product life cycle is generating more impacts on the environment, hypothetical scenario analyses were conducted. With this information, the kind of measures and stages with the greatest opportunity for improvement were identied [1]. In addition, this scenario analysis provides the main aspects of the product on which the research should be focused. * Corresponding author. Tel.: 34 94 602 94 00; fax: 34 94 687 00 06. E-mail address: jzua@suk.azti.es (J. Zua). 0959-6526/$ - see front matter 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2008.01.010 Available online at www.sciencedirect.com Journal of Cleaner Production 16 (2008) 1915e1921 www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro 2. Food product denition The initial product selected as the object of study (selected as the functional unit within the life cycle assessment) is a 2- kg tray of pasteurized tuna with tomato. This is a common product currently commercialized at a national level and is a typical dish in Spanish cuisine, where elaborated sh dishes are widespread and tuna is one of the most popular sh in Spain. The cooked tuna with tomato dish has been selected to carry out this pilot eco-design because it presents one of the highest complexity levels in the food sector, due to the fact that it has a high number of raw materials of different in- ternational origins and many life cycle stages. It is also a multi-process product. The target clients of this product are catering, retail store chains and distributors at a national level. The formulation of the product is based on sh (tuna), which is the principal ingredient, some vegetables (tomato, onion and pepper among others) and others such as oil and some spices. The product is packaged in a 70-g, high-density polyethyl- ene (HDPE) rectangular tray, with a lm cover made of ori- ented polyamide (OPA) and polyethylene (PE) with a weight of 10.2 g and a thickness of 30 mm. Moreover, this package is microwavable. In general terms, the manufacturing process of the cooked dish means defrosting and cleaning the tuna, preparing the sauce, mixing both ingredients, decreasing of temperature, vacuum-packaging, a pasteurizing phase, refrigeration, label- ling, storage at 4
C and expedition at the same temperature. The product needs to remain cold for its preservation and has a 90-day shelf life. It is not ready to be presented to the nal consumer, so it needs to be transferred to other ceramic containers in order to obtain an appropriate nice presentation for public sale. 3. Life cycle assessment 3.1. System denition The life cycle system of the product has been dened (from the raw materials extraction and farming, to the nal disposal of the packaging of the product after its consumption) taking into account the whole agri-food chain, as well as the func- tional unit (the reference used to quantify all data), the system boundaries and the time horizon considered. To dene the most suitable life cycle structure, life cycle assessments previ- ously undertaken have been considered [2e4]. The life cycle system (complete food chain) has been divided into four phases, which are shown in Fig. 1 and are de- scribed briey as follows: Fishing and supply of tunids: the tuna is caught in the At- lantic Ocean and frozen on board. It is then unloaded at a port in Africa and transported by plane and truck to a dis- tributing plant in the north of Spain. Here, the tuna steaks are made, packed in cardboard boxes and sent to the manufacturing plant by trucks. Product elaboration: the raw materials, tuna and other in- gredients, are received at the manufacturing plant and, de- pending on their origin, stored at room temperature, in cold stores or in freezers for a period of time (tuna 10 h, rest of ingredients 72 h). The tuna is then defrosted and cut up into pieces, discarding bones and other parts which is an approximate 15% loss. The sauce is prepared with the rest of the ingredients and then mixed with the tuna. Finally, the tuna with tomato is vacuum-packaged in a tray made of HDPE with a PE lm and an OPA bar- rier layer. The components of the package come from Norway and are distributed by a company in Barcelona, which involves signicant transportation. Once packaged, it is pasteurized in an autoclave, using water heated by gas that is not reused. Then there is a rst step of reduc- tion of the temperature in the same autoclave with cold water to subsequently achieve a decrease of the tempera- ture to 4
C. Finally it is stored cold at 4
C for 15e30 days. Distribution and sale: the trays of tuna with tomato are packed in cardboard boxes and transported in a refrigerated truck at 4
C to the logistics centre. From there they are distributed to the point of sale (610 km on average). In the retail store chains, the product is transferred to a ce- ramic container and then to a polypropylene (PP) tray to be sold to the public. Use and elimination: a microwave and suitable containers and crockery are required for the consumption of the prod- uct. These must be cleaned using water and detergent. The sewage goes through the drains to a sewage treatment plant, whereas the trays of HDPE and PP are either sent to the landll (85%) or recycled (15%). 3.2. Inventory and ecobalance All inputs and outputs of the products life cycle were char- acterized, quantied and included in a specic LCA program. The data employed came from two main sources: The real data were collected from the company which pro- duces the food product. Information about the equipments, facilities specications and real product needs was ob- tained from production reports, sales registers and water, electricity and materials invoices. These data were consid- ered to be of the highest quality, since they are obtained from the real production of the product. Other data were measured (tray weight, plastics weight, etc.). The rest of the data were obtained from the LCA software database DEAM, that includes highly recognized Euro- pean inventories, such as: APME for packaging plastics production and conversion; ETH for packaging en- ergy, transport, metals and end of life; BUWAL 250 for package steel, steel and pulp and paper; BUWAL 250 Y 232, ETH and Chauvel A. for packaging chemicals; and European Aluminium Association (EAA) for packaging aluminium. 1916 J. Zua, L. Arana / Journal of Cleaner Production 16 (2008) 1915e1921 Table 1 shows that the rst stage of shing and supply of tunids is the most important stage with regards to the quantity or volume of inputs and outputs (86.4% of the total fossil fuels consumption; 97.9% of the total biomass use; 86.9% of air emissions; 93.7% of water efuents). The program used for the LCA e TEAM 4.0 [5] e has been shown to be a powerful tool. In the rst stages it is im- portant to ll all the information correctly, so that the model provided by the system is as realistic as possible. Once the in- ventory has been completed (denition of the system, Table 1 Inventory summary obtained from an LCA software as a result of a characterization and quantication of all inputs and outputs of a tuna with tomato food product life cycle Flow Unit Total LCA (tuna with tomato) Fishing and supply of tunids Product elaboration Distribution and disposal Use and elimination Inputs Oxygen g 13,579.29 9382.71 1831.01 436.76 1928.87 Minerals g 179.09 35.19 104.00 0.13 39.78 Fossil fuels g 7575.12 6548.29 892.85 133.86 0.12 Biomass g 5180.31 5070.49 109.43 0.39 0.00 Land use cm 2 37.50 9.12 28.37 0.01 0.00 Water used (total) l 55.68 27.26 21.08 2.75 4.60 Outputs Air emissions g 23,666.83 20,574.05 2600.37 492.08 0.39 Land emissions g 0.08 0.01 0.03 0.00 0.04 Water efuents g 402.69 377.32 22.75 2.61 0.02 Sewage water l 28.59 3.09 18.59 2.30 4.61 Recovered matter (total) g 24.20 7.54 6.18 0.12 10.36 Waste (total) g 579.47 77.76 307.95 76.34 117.43 Tomato farming Washing and packaging Onion farming Washing and packaging Peppers farming Washing and packaging Oil Sunflower farming Flavouring Raw material extraction Manufacturing and packaging Petroleum extraction Manufacturing of plastic HDPE Manufacturing of HDPE package Reception and storage of RM Sauce preparation Mixing and packaging Preservation process Wood extraction Manufacturing of cardboard Packaging and final storage Manufacturing of packing Distribution Consume of cooked dish Plastic recycling Plastic elimination Sewage treatment Repackaging and or sale Electricity generation Collection potabiliation and supply of water Tuna Fishing and sea Air transport Transport to distributing plant Tuna steaks manufacture Manufacturing and packaging P r o d u c t
e l a b o r a t i o n Fishing and supply of tuna Use and elimination Distribution and disposal Fig. 1. Diagram of the life cycle of the tuna with tomato cooked dish. 1917 J. Zua, L. Arana / Journal of Cleaner Production 16 (2008) 1915e1921 introduction of inputseoutputs, classication and denition of variables), the program allows a multitude of simulations of potential environmental impact when modifying any variable of the product to be eco-designed. 3.3. Impact assessment The calculated inventory and ecobalance generate some en- vironmental impacts. To assess these impacts, rstly, the impact categories to be taken into account have been selected. The cho- sen impacts are those which are expected to cause a larger im- pact and used worldwide to evaluate the environmental impacts caused by anthropogenic activity. The assessment methods used were developed by the Centre of Environmental Science (CML) and Ecobilan. These methods are included in the life cy- cle impact assessment module of TEAM. Using the TEAM 4.0 program (that includes an impact as- sessment module), the environmental impact values for each stage have been obtained. To achieve this, the total inputs and outputs have been assigned to one or more impact cate- gory, using equivalence factors to obtain environmental indi- cators that permit adding different kinds of inputseoutputs to a specic impact category. Impacts selected and the contri- bution of each life cycle stage to each impact category is shown in Table 2. 3.4. Scenario analysis Different hypothetical scenarios have been selected and calculated in the LCA software to determine the potential dim- inution of impacts that some aspects and material elimination would cause. Since there is a large number of different aspects that can be changed in the product life cycle due to its high- complexity, this task has permitted the identication of which aspects, materials used and energy sources of the product life cycle have a special bearing on the nal impacts. Therefore, it will be known during which phases, stages and aspects it will be necessary to insist on for the subsequent identication of improvement measures. The analysed hypothetical scenarios were as follows: dou- ble OPA instead of LDPE; elimination of HDPE, reduction of sea transport, elimination of air and road transport for distribu- tion, elimination of rejects no water repacking, and in the pro- cess of preservation, no consumption of natural gas and nally no water or power consumption in the manufacturing phase. The LCA software automatically calculates the specic and total changes that each new scenario brings on at each and ev- ery one of the life cycle phases (producing, transporting, etc.) and their subsequent environmental impacts. The improvements produced by the hypothetical scenarios with respect to the current environmental impacts are shown in Table 3. As a result of the scenario analysis mentioned, it has been determined that the tuna ingredient is one of the products that generates a greater impact, since in addition to being the heaviest ingredient, it comes from the South Atlantic Ocean and it is transported by airplane to Spain. Furthermore, it is transported and maintained at freezing temperatures. The rest of the ingredients mean a lesser impact because the whole range of weight and distance is smaller (they come from regions 150 km away), some arriving cooled or frozen and others at room temperature. The plastic packages also have an important effect in most of the categories of impact. This has also been proved in pre- vious studies [6]. In all the categories, transport by road of the product exerts a considerable impact. Other aspects that have a signicant effect on the global impacts of the product are the natural gas and electrical consumption used in the preservation treatment of the product. On the other hand, however, the waste management ele- ment does not affect the total environmental impact [7]. 4. Identication of improvement measures The main food chain stakeholders and product development managers held brainstorming sessions during which they iden- tied improvement measures, techniques and strategies de- signed to reduce both impacts and costs associated to the life cycle of the product. A study into state of the art technol- ogy and investigation about the proposed goals and the devel- opment of new specic actions for the product improvement was also carried out [8]. The proposed improvements established at those sessions were as follows: the enhancement of the concept of the prod- uct, the reduction of the use of materials, the employment of materials with less impact, the improvement of transport ef- ciency and the replacement of raw materials. After a techno-economical and market assessment of all the improvement measures identied, those which were considered Table 2 Summary of environmental impacts related to each life cycle stage Environmental impacts LCA tuna with tomato Fishing and supply of tunids Product elaboration Distribution and sale Use and elimination Air acidication, geq.SO 2 107.98 86.60 18.28 3.09 0.00 Aquatic toxicity, geq.1,4-DCB 127.66 98.95 26.40 2.31 0.01 Depletion of the stratospheric ozone, geq.CFC-11 0.0015 0.0010 0.0004 0.0001 0.0000 Eutrophication, geq.PO 4 3 16.44 13.78 2.03 0.63 0.00 Greenhouse effect, geq.CO 2 23,748.33 20,545.97 2692.19 509.85 0.38 Human toxicity, geq.1,4-DCB 1376.31 971.28 372.61 32.39 0.03 Terrestrial toxicity, geq.1,4-DCB 36.85 27.80 7.86 1.19 0.00 Depletion of non-renewable resources, yr 1 0.43 0.36 0.05 0.01 0.00 1918 J. Zua, L. Arana / Journal of Cleaner Production 16 (2008) 1915e1921 viable and feasible were selected. The product changes pro- posed and the reductions expected are as follows: - The tuna comes from the Pacic and is transported by plane once steaked in the place of origin instead of trans- porting the whole sh from South Africa to Spain: reduc- ing air transport effort by 55%. - The triple waved cardboard separator has been replaced by beehive separators, resulting in an 18% reduction of cardboard. - The inner wings of the cardboard packing have been short- ened and the sides cut to trapezoid form: this will achieve a 10% reduction of cardboard. - The cargo space has been optimized allowing for more packages per box: reduction of required packaging card- board by 15%. - The quantity of product per package has been increased to 3 kg: the reduction of tray weight by 15%, water consump- tion by 10% and electrical consumption by 5% per kg of manufactured product. - A package with more rectangular corners has been manu- factured, meaning a better use of the space: reduction of tray relative weight per kg of product by 5%. - The former HDPE packaging has been replaced by the new PP packaging, which is a polymer with less density, allowing the tray to have thinner walls while maintaining the rigidity: weight reduction of 20%. - It needs less polyamide lm due to the reduction of lm losses achieved when making the tray corners more rect- angular: lm savings from 15% to 7.5%. - Less distribution effort due to the optimization of the cargo space and through making the corners more rectan- gular, which reduces by one third the gaps that existed be- tween the trays: 10% reduction of transport effort (km kg). With these improvements, a new cooked dish product has been re-designed which is much more sustainable and environmentally friendly throughout the whole agri-food chain, including the measures identied and selected as poten- tially viable. The changes of the involved inputs and outputs were introduced in the LCA software to measure the improve- ment achieved in the global inventory. Subsequently, an evaluation of the environmental improve- ment achieved from the potential manufacturing and commer- cialization of the new eco-developed product was made, taking into account the improvements made in the inputeoutput in- ventory. The environmental impact reduction achieved is shown in Table 4. Due mainly to the transport effort reduction, many of the proposed environmental improvements also generated eco- nomic reductions. 5. Conclusions First of all, it has been conrmed that it is possible to re- duce impacts through modications or changes in the cooked tuna with tomato dish, and that many greater reductions are possible if a completely new product is designed. Table 3 Environmental changes induced by the different hypothetical scenarios studied Air acidication, geq.SO 2 Aquatic toxicity, geq.1,4-DCB Depletion of the stratospheric ozone, geq.CFC-11 Eutrophication, geq.PO 4 3 Greenhouse effect (direct. 100 years), geq.CO 2 Human toxicity, geq.1,4-DCB Terrestrial toxicity, geq.1,4-DCB Depletion of non-renewable resources, yr 1 Current inventory 107.98 127.66 0.001 16.44 23,748.33 1376.31 36.85 0.43 Polyethylene lm elimination and double of polyamide 108.05 127.76 0.001 16.46 23,777.28 1377.62 36.86 0.43 High-density polyethylene elimination 103.77 122.93 0.001 15.82 22,790.67 1314.41 34.72 0.40 Sea transport reduction 106.51 124.38 0.001 16.37 23,701.26 1345.22 35.94 0.42 Air transport elimination 47.89 127.66 0.001 7.35 5028.86 1292.69 36.85 0.10 Road transport elimination for distribution 105.28 125.69 0.001 15.85 23,365.74 1362.48 36.72 0.42 Rejections elimination 107.98 127.66 0.001 16.44 23,748.33 1376.31 36.85 0.43 Repacking water elimination 107.98 127.66 0.001 16.44 23,748.33 1376.31 36.85 0.43 Natural gas consumption elimination 107.83 127.53 0.001 16.43 23,596.28 1372.72 36.79 0.42 Water consumption elimination 107.98 127.66 0.001 16.44 23,748.33 1376.31 36.85 0.43 Electricity consumption elimination 107.52 126.75 0.001 16.43 23,688.59 1362.39 36.57 0.42 Table 4 Environmental impacts reductions achieved with the new eco-developed product Impacts Original product Eco-designed product % Reduction Air acidication, geq.SO 2 107.98 102.85 4.75 Aquatic toxicity, geq.1,4-DCB 127.66 102.68 19.57 Depletion of the stratospheric ozone, geq.CFC-11 0.0015 0.0012 16.60 Eutrophication, geq.PO 4 3 16.44 15.11 8.14 Greenhouse effect, geq.CO 2 23,748.33 23,364.87 1.61 Human toxicity, geq.1,4-DCB 1376.31 1203.82 12.53 Terrestrial toxicity, geq.1,4-DCB 36.85 30.03 18.52 Depletion of non-renewable resources, yr 1 0.425 0.427 0.46 1919 J. Zua, L. Arana / Journal of Cleaner Production 16 (2008) 1915e1921 The results of the project can be considered satisfactory since the life cycle assessment is an effective tool which out- puts detailed information of all the agri-food chain and sys- tems that converge in it. However, a complete and accurate analysis of a products life cycle means an arduous data collec- tion process and implication of all the agents who operate in the whole agri-food chain. It has been determined that although the agri-food products have a lower degree of freedom than products from other sec- tors (washing machine, vehicles, etc.), there are a multitude of stages and sub-stages in their life cycle which are liable to be modied in order to be improved and made more efcient. This causes the life cycles and the degrees of freedom of the agri-food products to have a wider range than can initially ap- pear from a quick glance at the products. This study has identied a wide range of improvable as- pects in the product to eco-develop. These aspects are related to the cultivation and extraction/shing of raw materials, elab- oration of ingredients, manufacturing of the agri-food product, the productive efciency, composition of the product, packing and packaging, systems of preservation, models of transport and distribution, presentation to the end user, consumption and nal disposal of the generated waste, among others. It has therefore been necessary to focus the research effort on the eco-development aimed at the improvement of the as- pects of the product that have a greater impact on the LCA. These aspects are as follows: tuna as a raw material (shing and frozen sea transport, long distance air transport, larger rel- ative weight of the product); plastic packages and packing (plastic manufacture from petroleum, transport and packages manufacturing); cardboard packing (wood extraction, card- board manufacturing, transport) and transport of the product for its distribution. It is those raw materials that come from more distant loca- tions (other geographic areas of the world) that are responsible for generating one of the greatest impacts in food products. This is the case for the tuna as a raw material in this re- search. The tuna comes from the Pacic Ocean pre-eviscer- ated and pre-cooked, instead of coming from the South Atlantic Ocean without having undergone any of these processes (more weight to be transported). This change at the point of origin of the tunas results in signicant reduc- tions of impacts for a large number of categories (air acidi- cation, eutrophication, greenhouse effect, human toxicity and depletion of non-renewable resources). However, in some impact categories (aquatic toxicity, depletion of the stratospheric ozone and terrestrial toxicity) they generate no or minimal reduction. This result shows that an interesting option would be to change the origin of these raw materials. The modications raised in the product (substitution of the whole tuna prepared in Spain by tuna prepared at the place of origin, the redesign of the package with regard to form and composition, the reduction of the cardboard pack- aging, the reduction of the product transport effort, among others) have generated satisfactory reductions, as much in the degree of use of natural resources and originated amount of remainders, spills and emissions, as in the impacts that they generate. The expected economic reductions cause an additional in- terest for the sector and it is an additional argument to intro- duce environmental criteria in the design of its products. Furthermore, it is possible to obtain greater savings and en- vironmental improvements of products by changing other as- pects and other stages of the agri-food chain. Further developing applicable measures in the eco-design of new agri-food products in other areas should be considered, such as: optimization of cultivation and agrarian product transfor- mation, selection of raw materials, study of suitability of raw materials processing at point of origin or in the manufacturing plant of nal agri-food product, improvement in the logistic systems of transport, designing the product so that an optimal model of inverse logistic can be designed and modications focused on presentation and consumption of the product (reduce impacts in these stages). However, nowadays there are still some difculties to over- come in the successful eco-design of food products. In many cases, the whole agri-food chain is controlled by different agents with different criteria, and in many cases these are un- connected to each other. The demands of a wholesaler or re- tailer, who are not aware of environmental problems or have not calculated the economic costs of the environmental as- pects, can considerably reduce the options of eco-designing a product. Because of the above, the food product developer or man- ufacturer can only look at certain aspects of their product, as certain improvements may not be accepted by the distributor, wholesaler or client, considerably limiting both the environ- mental and economic improvements. For these reasons, the diffusion of the results of this project, and others related to this line of investigation, will increase the awareness of the agents of the different stages of the agri-food chain regarding the importance of making the products more efcient, with the consumption of less resources and generat- ing less waste, spills and emissions. Thus, a reduction of costs and the sustainable development of the sector are achieved, al- lowing the long-term subsistence of the activity. This aware- ness will further promote the investigation oriented to the induction of economicaleenvironmental improvements in agri-food products as well as to eco-develop new more ef- cient concepts and with lower environmental impacts. Product eco-design is the key to remove the link between economic growth and resource consumption. On the other hand, knowledge of the benets of eco-design will promote communication and understanding between the different agents of the agri-food chain with the aim of combin- ing efciency goals that could shape the product design. References [1] Andersson K, Ohlsson T, Olsson P. Life cycle assessment (LCA) of food products and production systems. Trends in Food Science & Technology May 1994;5:134e8. [2] Hospido A, Moreira MT, Feijoo G. Simplied life cycle assessment of galician milk production. International Dairy Journal 2003;13:783e96. 1920 J. Zua, L. Arana / Journal of Cleaner Production 16 (2008) 1915e1921 [3] Andersson K, Ohlsson T, Olsson P. Screening life cycle assessment (LCA) of tomato ketchup: a case study. Journal of Cleaner Production 1998;6: 277e88. [4] Koroneos C, Roumbas G, Gabari Z, Papagiannidou E, Moussiopoulos N. Life cycle assessment of beer production in Greece. Journal of Cleaner Production 2005;13:433e9. 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