2 VECTOR CALCULUS

2.1 Introduction

Consider a region R is space in which a scalar ( ) z y x , , u is defined at every point in the region.
Then a scalar field is said to exist in that region. An example of a scalar field is the
gravitational potential. Near the surface of the earth this potential is given approximately as
mgz V = .

Similarly if at every point in a region R , a vector ( ) z y x , , A is defined, then a vector field exists
in that region. The gravitational force field associated with the gravitational potential is an
example of a vector field. This force field is given approximately by mg k

= F near the earths

surface and is position independent.


2.2 Gradient of a Scalar Field

The gradient of a scalar field ( ) z y x , , u , which is denoted by grad u, is defined as

z
k
y
j
x
i grad
c
u c
+
c
u c
+
c
u c
= u

(1)

where x c u c , y c u c , and z c u c , are the partial derivatives of ( ) z y x , , u with respect to x , y ,
and z , respectively.

These partial derivatives are defined as

( ) ( )
x
z y x z y x x
x x A
u A + u
=
c
u c
A
, , , ,
lim
0
(2a)

( ) ( )
y
z y x z y y x
y y A
u A + u
=
c
u c
A
, , , ,
lim
0
(2b)

( ) ( )
z
z y x z z y x
z z A
u A + u
=
c
u c
A
, , , ,
lim
0
(2c)

The gradient of a scalar field ( ) z y x , , u is a vector quantity.


The gradient of a scalar field ( ) z y x , , u as defined in equation (1) may be written as

u V = u
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= u
z
k
y
j
x
i grad

(3)


where V (pronounced del or nabla) is a differential operator defined as


z
k
y
j
x
i
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V

(4)


To illustrate the geometrical property of the gradient of a scalar field ( ) z y x , , u , consider the
infinitesimal displacement r d given by

dz k dy j dx i d

+ + = r (5)

Suppose r d is an infinitesimal displacement between two nearby surfaces defined by
( )
1
, , c z y x = u and ( )
2
, , c z y x = u where
1
c and
2
c are constants.

In the diagram u V is the gradient of ( ) z y x , , u at point P , andu is the angle between u V and r d .

The total differential of uat point P is given by

dz
z
dy
y
dx
x
d
c
u c
+
c
u c
+
c
u c
= u (6)

Equation (6) may be written as

( ) dz k dy j dx i
z
k
y
j
x
i d

+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
u c
+
c
u c
+
c
u c
= u

or using equations (3) and (5)

r d d u V = u (7)

The space rate of change dr du , of uis

dr
d
dr
d r
u V =
u
(8)

But n dr d = r , where n is the unit vector in the direction of r d . Therefore


n
dr
d
u V =
u
(9)

From the definition of the dot product, we have

u u cos cos u V = u V =
u
n
dr
d
(10)

Now suppose r d is in the direction of u V , then 0 = u and 1 cos = u . In this case dr du has it
maximum value given by the magnitude of the gradient thus

u V = |
.
|

\
| u
max
dr
d
(11)


Thus the gradient of a scalar field u is a vector whose magnitude and direction is that of the
maximum space rate of change of the scalar field.