A HISTORY OF THE CYBERNETICS MOVEMENT

IN THE UNITED STATES

Stuart A. Umpleby
Research Program in Social and Organizational Learning
The George Washington Uniersity
Washington! "# $%%&$ USA
umpleby'g(u.edu
September )! $%%&
Published in the Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences!
*ol. +,! -o. $! Summer $%%&! pp. &./)).
A HISTORY OF THE CYBERNETICS MOVEMENT
IN THE UNITED STATES
Stuart A. Umpleby
The George Washington Uniersity
Washington! "# $%%&$ USA
umpleby'g(u.edu
ABSTRACT
0ey eents in the history o1 cybernetics and the American Society 1or #ybernetics are discussed! among
them the origin o1 cybernetics in the 2acy 3oundation con1erences in the late ,+.%s and early ,+&%s4
di11erent interpretations o1 cybernetics by seeral pro1essional societies4 reasons (hy the U.S.
goernment did or did not support cybernetics in the ,+&%s! )%s! and 5%s4 early e6periments in
cyberspace in the ,+5%s4 conersations (ith Soiet scientists in the ,+7%s4 the deelopment o1 8second
order9 cybernetics in the ,++%s4 and increased interest in cybernetics in :urope and the United States in
the $%%%s! due at least in part to improed understanding o1 the assumptions underlying the cybernetics
moement. The history o1 cybernetics in the United States is ie(ed 1rom the perspectie o1 the
American Society 1or #ybernetics ;AS#< and seeral =uestions are addressed as to its 1uture.
THE ORIGIN OF CYBERNETICS
#ybernetics as a 1ield o1 scienti1ic actiity in the United States began in the years a1ter World War >>.
?et(een ,+.) and ,+&@ the Aosiah 2acy! Ar. 3oundation sponsored a series o1 con1erences in -e( BorC
#ity on the subDect o1 8#ircular #ausal and 3eedbacC 2echanisms in ?iological and Social Systems.9
The chair o1 the con1erences (as Warren 2c#ulloch o1 2>T. Only the last 1ie con1erences (ere
recorded in (ritten proceedings. These hae no( been republished ;Pias! $%%.<. A1ter -orbert Wiener
published his booC Cybernetics in ,+.7! Eeinz on 3oerster suggested that the name o1 the con1erences
be changed to 8#yberneticsF #ircular #ausal and 3eedbacC 2echanisms in ?iological and Social
Systems.9 >n this (ay the meetings became Cno(n as the 2acy #on1erences on #ybernetics.
>n subse=uent years cybernetics in1luenced many academic 1ields G computer science! electrical
engineering! arti1icial intelligence! robotics! management! 1amily therapy! political science! sociology!
biology! psychology! epistemology! music! etc. #ybernetics has been de1ined in many (aysF as control
and communication in animals! machines! and social systems4 as a general theory o1 regulation4 as the
art o1 e11ectie organization4 as the art o1 constructing de1ensible metaphors4 etc. The term 8cybernetics9
has been associated (ith many stimulating con1erences! yet cybernetics has not thried as an organized
scienti1ic 1ield (ithin American uniersities. Although a 1e( cybernetics programs (ere established on
U. S. campuses! these programs usually did not surie the retirement or death o1 their 1ounder.
Relatie to other academic societies the meetings on cybernetics tended to hae more than the usual
controersy! probably due to the (ide ariety o1 disciplines represented by those in attendance. >ndeed
2argaret 2ead (rote an article! 8#ybernetics o1 #ybernetics!9 in the proceedings o1 the 1irst con1erence
o1 the American Society 1or #ybernetics! in (hich she suggested that cyberneticians should apply their
Cno(ledge o1 communication to ho( they communicate (ith each other. ;2ead! ,+)7<
INTERPRETATIONS OF CYBERNETICS
-ot eeryone originally connected (ith cybernetics continued to use the termF
,. The cybernetics o1 Allen Turing and Aohn on -eumann became computer science! A>! and
robotics. Turing 1ormulated the concept o1 a Uniersal Turing 2achine G a mathematical
description o1 a computational deice. Ee also deised the Turing test G a (ay o1 determining
(hether a computer program displays 8arti1icial intelligence.9 The related pro1essional societies
are the Association 1or #omputing 2achinery and the American Association 1or Arti1icial
>ntelligence.
$. -orbert WienerHs cybernetics became part o1 electrical engineering. This branch o1 cybernetics
includes control mechanisms 1rom thermostats to automated assembly lines. The >nstitute o1
:lectrical and :lectronics :ngineers! including the Systems! 2an! and #ybernetics Society! is the
main pro1essional society. The principal concern is systems engineering.
@. Warren 2c#ullochHs cybernetics became 8second order cybernetics.9 2c#ulloch chaired the
2acy 3oundation con1erences. Ee sought to understand the 1unctioning o1 the nerous system
and thereby the operation o1 the brain and the mind. The American Society 1or #ybernetics has
continued this tradition. >t is the only one o1 the three groups that seeCs to promote cybernetics
as a transdisciplinary 1ield.
Other! smaller groups can also be identi1ied. 3or e6ample! a control systems group (ithin psychology
(as generated by the (orC o1 William Po(ers ;,+5@<. ?io1eedbacC or neuro1eedbacC is a subDect o1
inestigation by researchers in medicine and psychology. The Santa 3e >nstitute has deeloped
simulation methods based on the idea o1 cellular automata.
This paper recounts about si6ty years o1 the history o1 the cybernetics moement in the United States!
diided into 1ie year interals. The 1ocus (ill be on the third group! 2c#ullochHs cybernetics.
EARY !"#$%
>n ,+.@ t(o landmarC papers (ere published. Warren 2c#ulloch and Walter Pitts (rote! 8A Logical
#alculus o1 the >deas >mmanent in -erous Actiity.9 ;2c#ulloch and Pitts! ,+.@< This article sought
to understand ho( a net(orC o1 neurons 1unctions so that (e e6perience (hat (e call 8an idea.9 They
presented their e6planation in mathematical 1orm.
Arthuro Rosenblueth! -orbert Wiener and Aulian ?igelo( published! 8?ehaior! Purpose! Teleology.9
;Rosenblueth! et al., ,+.@< They obsered behaior! (hich they interpreted as purpose1ul! and
then sought to e6plain ho( this phenomenon could happen (ithout teleology! using only
AristotleHs e11icient cause. Also in the early ,+.%s Wiener (orCed on a radar/guided anti/aircra1t
gun.
ATE !"#$%
>n the late ,+.%s the early 2acy #on1erences (ere held in -e( BorC #ity. They (ere attended by
scientists including -orbert Wiener! Aulian ?igelo(! Aohn on -eumann! 2argaret 2ead! Gregory
?ateson.! Ross Ashby! Grey Walter! and Eeinz on 3oerster. ?y ,+.+ three Cey booCs (ere publishedF
WienerHs Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine! *on -eumannHs
and 2orgensternHs Theory of Games and conomic !eha"ior, and ShannonHs and WeaerHs, The
Mathematical Theory of Communication. These three booCs de1ined a ne( science o1 in1ormation and
regulation.
EARY !"&$%
>n the early ,+&%s more 2acy con1erences (ere held. This time proceedings (ere published (ith Eeinz
on 3oerster as editor. 2ean(hile the 1irst commercial computers (ere manu1actured.
ATE !"&$%
>n the ,+&%s the #>A (as concerned about the possibility o1 brain/(ashing and mind control. Under the
code name 20Ultra e6periments (ith LS" and other drugs (ere conducted at Earard Uniersity and
else(here. ;2arCs! ,+57< Some o1 the money 1or this research (as channeled through the 2acy
3oundation. >n one incident! a #>A employee (as gien LS" (ithout his Cno(ledge. Apparently he
thought he (as going mad and doe out a (indo( o1 a hotel in -e( BorC #ity. Ted 0aczynsCi! the
Unabomber! (hen he (as a student at Earard! (as an e6perimental subDect o1 these mind control
e6periments. ;#hase! $%%@<
:arly checCers/playing programs (ere (ritten and raised the possibility o1 arti1icial intelligence. >n ,+&)
at a con1erence at "artmouth Uniersity people interested in studying the brain and people
interested in creating computer programs parted (ays. Therea1ter the people interested in
cybernetics and the people interested in arti1icial intelligence had little interaction.
3ollo(ing a sabbatical year (orCing (ith Arthuro Rosenblueth and Warren 2c#ulloch! Eeinz on
3oerster 1ounded the ?iological #omputer Laboratory at the Uniersity o1 >llinois.
EARY !"'$%
>n the early ,+)%s seeral con1erences on sel1/organizing systems (ere held! one o1 them at the
Uniersity o1 >llinoisHs Allerton ParC. ;on 3oerster and Iop1! ,+)$< As a result o1 an initation made at
this con1erence! Ross Ashby moed 1rom :ngland to >llinois. The (orC on sel1/organizing systems (as
a 1orerunner to the 1ield o1 study no( called 8comple6ity.9
Although the 2acy 3oundation #on1erences ended in ,+&@! the American Society 1or #ybernetics
;AS#< (as not 1ounded until ,+).. This seems rather late. Actually the 1ounding o1 the AS# (as in
part the result o1 the #old War. "uring the Presidential campaign in ,+)%! (hen Aohn 3. 0ennedy (as
elected! there (as talC about a 8missile gap9 bet(een the United States and the Soiet Union. -ot long
therea1ter there began to be talC o1 a 8cybernetics gap.9 Some people in the Soiet Union thought
cybernetics (ould proide the theory they needed to operate their centrally planned economy.
#onse=uently the Soiet goernment generously 1unded cybernetics research. Some people in the U.S.
goernment then 1eared that the U.S. might 1all behind in a critical area o1 research! i1 this country did
not also 1und cybernetics research.
>n Washington! "#! a cybernetics luncheon club (as meeting. The participants included Paul Eensha(!
Atomic :nergy #ommission4 #arl Eammer! Uniac4 AacC 3ord! #>A4 "ouglas 0night! >?24
Walter 2unster4 ?ill 2oore! la(yer. This group 1ounded the American Society 1or #ybernetics
;AS#<. The 1ounding ceremony (as held at the #osmos #lub in Washington! "#. A grant 1rom
the -ational Science 3oundation helped the Society to establish the Journal of Cybernetics. A
con1erence on the social impact o1 cybernetics (as held at Georgeto(n Uniersity in ,+)..
;"echert! ,+))< The 1irst con1erence arranged by the AS# (as held at the -ational ?ureau o1
Standards in Gaithersburg! 2". ;on 3oerster! et al.! ,+)7<
ATE !"'$%
Social moements in the United States G against the *iet -am (ar and 1or ciil rights! (omenHs rights!
and enironmental protection G produced a time o1 student actiism on campuses. >n terms o1
research it (as a productie period 1or the ?iological #omputer Laboratory ;?#L< at the
Uniersity o1 >llinois.
EARY !"($%
At a meeting o1 the American Society 1or #ybernetics in ,+5. in Philadelphia! Eeinz on 3oerster
introduced the term 8second order cybernetics.9 ;*on 3oerster! ,+5+< The 2ans1ield Amendment!
(hich (as an attempt to reduce campus unrest caused by the *iet -am War! cut o11 goernment
1unds 1or research that (as not related to a military mission! including research at ?#L. ;Umpleby!
$%%@b< The ?iological #omputer laboratory closed! and Eeinz on 3oerster retired and moed to
#ali1ornia.
There (as an argument bet(een the o11icers o1 AS# and the publisher o1 the Journal of Cybernetics.
The dispute (as submitted to arbitration and the publisher (on. Therea1ter the Dournal continued to be
published! but (ithout AS# inolement. The Dournal published articles primarily in engineering.
Eo(eer! the 1ield o1 cybernetics (as increasingly emphasizing biology and the social sciences.
ATE !"($%
>n the late ,+5%s no meetings o1 the American Society 1or #ybernetics (ere held. The people connected
(ith ?#L attended meetings o1 the Society 1or General Systems Research! (hich a 1e( years later
changed its name to the >nternational Society 1or the Systems Sciences.
Stuart Umpleby! (ho graduated in ,+5& and moed 1rom the Uniersity o1 >llinois to The George
Washington Uniersity in Washington! "#! receied a -ational Science 3oundation ;-S3< grant 1or an
:lectronic >n1ormation :6change 1or Small Research #ommunities ;:>:S<. The ?#L group moed into
cyberspace. ;Umpleby! ,+5+4 Umpleby and Thomas! ,+7@< This group! discussing General Systems
Theory! (as one o1 nine academic groups using :>:S! supported by -S3. 3or three years in the late
,+5%s cyberneticians and systems scientists across the United States and a 1e( in :urope communicated
(ith each other using email and computer con1erencing ia dumb terminals and! initially! @%% baud
modems. The long distance telephone charges (ere paid by UmplebyHs :>:S grant. When the grant ran
out! there (as disappointment that uniersities (ould not pay the communications charges. >ndeed! it
tooC almost 1i1teen years be1ore costs declined su11iciently to permit regular email communication
among academics.
3or a 1e( years! due to a con1lict (ith the AS# o11icers in Washington! "#! there (as a rial
organization! the American #ybernetics Association ;A#A<! in Philadelphia. The t(o organizations
came bacC together a 1e( years later through the e11orts o1 ?arry #lemson! "oreen Steg! 0laus
0rippendor11 and others. The reorganized society used the AS# name and the A#A by/la(s. ?ut the
society remained small! usually haing 1e(er than .%% members.
EARY !")$%
As a result o1 being the moderator o1 the on/line discussion group! Umpleby (as elected president o1
AS#. A planning con1erence in ,+7% charted a ne( direction 1or the Society. ;Umpleby! ,+7,<
AS# began holding con1erences again and reestablished connections (ith its 1ormer Dournal! no(
called Cybernetics and Systems.
A series o1 meetings (ith Soiet scientists (as started as a (ay to bring leading American scientists
together to reie( 1undamentals! in particular to discuss second order cybernetics. ;Umpleby!
,+75b4 Umpleby and SadosCy! ,++,< The meetings (ere 1unded by the American #ouncil o1
Learned Societies and the Soiet Academy o1 Sciences. These meetings (ere =uite productie 1or
e6changing ie(s4 ho(eer! a controersy (ith the Soiet side arose oer the participation o1
*ladimir Le1ebre! a Soiet JmigrJ. Prior to glasnost and #erestroi$a Le1ebreHs theory ;,+7$< o1
t(o systems o1 ethical cognition (as disapproed o1 by the Soiet goernment. Eo(eer! during
the unraeling o1 the USSR Le1ebreHs (orC (as used by people in the goernments o1 both the
United States and the Soiet Union to preent miscommunication. ;Umpleby! ,++,< Le1ebreHs
(orC is no( being 1urther deeloped through annual con1erences organized by the >nstitute o1
Psychology o1 the Russian Academy o1 Sciences in 2osco(. Le1ebreHs theory o1 re1le6ie
control is being used by psychologists and educators to help (ith the psychological and cultural
issues inoled in the social! political! and economic transition in Russia.
ATE !")$%
2embers o1 the American Society 1or #ybernetics began o11ering tutorials on 1irst and second order
cybernetics prior to systems con1erences ;see Table ,<. They (ere seeCing to maCe a scienti1ic
reolution ;Umpleby! ,+5.<. The second Soiet/American con1erence (as held in :stonia. "ue to
glasnost and #erestroi$a the original topics ;epistemology! methodology! and management< (ere
e6panded to include large/scale social e6periments. At a con1erence in St. Gallen! S(itzerland! in
,+75 the members o1 the American Society 1or
#ybernetics decided to 1ocus their attention
almost e6clusiely on adancing second order
cybernetics. ;Umpleby! ,+75a<
EARY !""$%
Aut*+r F,r%t Or-er
Cyber.et,/%
Se/+.- Or-er
Cyber.et,/%
*on
3oerster
PasC
*arela
Umpleby
Umpleby
The cybernetics o1
obsered systems
The purpose o1 a
model
#ontrolled systems
>nteraction among the
ariables in a system
Theories o1 social
systems
The cybernetics o1
obsering systems
The purpose o1 a
modeler
Autonomous
systems
>nteraction bet(een
obserer and
obsered
Theories o1 the
interaction bet(een
ideas and society
TABLE 1. Definitions of First and Second
Order Cybernetics
>n ,++% t(o symposia on 8Theories to Guide the Re1orm o1 Socialist Societies9 (ere held in
Washington! "#! and *ienna! Austria ;Umpleby! ,++,<. These meetings (ere the beginning o1 a multi/
year e11ort both to understand the changes occurring in the 1ormer Soiet Union 1rom the perspectie o1
social theory and to use Cno(ledge o1 social systems to guide the transitions.
The (orC on second order cybernetics (as also changing. The members o1 the AS# had (orCed almost
t(enty years on deeloping and promoting the point o1 ie( Cno(n as second order cybernetics or
constructiism. Some people (anted to moe 1rom a period o1 reolutionary science to a ne(
period o1 normal science. ;Umpleby! ,++%< One (ay to understand the change is to say that the
period o1 engineering cybernetics lasted 1rom the mid ,+.%s to the mid ,+5%s. The period o1
biological cybernetics or second order cybernetics lasted 1rom the mid ,+5%s to the mid ,++%s.
And the period o1 social cybernetics began in the mid ,++%s ;see Table $<.
ATE !""$%
Symposia on the transitions in the 1ormer Soiet Union continued to be held as part o1 the :uropean
2eetings on #ybernetics and Systems Research. These meetings are held eery t(o years in
*ienna! Austria. The symposia bring together scientists 1rom :ast and West.
>n Washington! "#! a series o1 meetings on the Bear $%%% #omputer Problem (ere held (ith the support
o1 The Washington %ost. These meetings (ere based on the idea that 8y$C9 could be regarded as
an e6periment (hich (ould reeal the amount o1 interconnectedness in our increasingly
cybernetic society. ;Umpleby! $%%%<

-iClas LuhmannHs (ritings in sociology introduced ideas such as constructiism and autopoiesis to
social scientists in :urope. ;Luhmann! ,++&< A Socio/#ybernetics WorCing Group (ithin the
>nternational Sociological Association (as established by 3eli6 Geyer and others.
EARY 0$$$%
>n the early years o1 the $,
st
century large con1erences on in1ormatics and cybernetics (ere organized by
-agib #allaos and his colleagues in Orlando! 3L. One result has been organizing e11orts in Latin
America stimulated by the con1erences in Orlando. Annual con1erences on re1le6ie control
began to be held in 2osco( and may lead to the 1ounding o1 a Russian Association in the 1ield o1
cybernetics and systems.
>n the >nternational Society 1or the Systems Sciences there is gro(ing interest in group 1acilitation and
participation methods ;?ausch! $%%.<. An increasing number o1 booCs about cybernetics appear!
1re=uently by German authors. A Eeinz on 3oerster Society has been established in *ienna to
1urther deelop the ideas e6plored at the ?iological #omputer Laboratory. A ne( biography o1
-orbert Wiener has been published. ;#on(ay and Siegelman! $%%&<.
The 8global uniersity system9 created by the >nternet and the ?ologna process is not only greatly
1acilitating communication among scientists around the (orld but is also leading to a ne( metaphor 1or
the social implications o1 cybernetics! an alternatie metaphor to the 8global brain.9 ;Umpleby! $%%@a<
1UESTIONS ABOUT THE HISTORY OF CYBERNETICS
Gien the promising and e6citing beginnings o1 cybernetics! the outstanding scientists inoled! and the
subse=uent impact o1 cybernetics on many disciplines! it is curious that the term 8cybernetics9 is not
(idely Cno(n or used today! een though most pro1essional people spend seeral hours a day in
8cyberspace.9 2argaret 2ead commented on the deelopment o1 cybernetics at the 1irst AS#
con1erence in ,+)7F
We (ere impressed by the potential use1ulness o1 a language su11iciently sophisticated to be used
to sole comple6 human problems! and su11iciently abstract to maCe it possible to cross
disciplinary boundaries. We thought (e (ould go on to real interdisciplinary research! using this
language as a medium. >nstead! the (hole thing 1ragmented. -orbert Wiener (rote his booC
Cybernetics. >t 1ascinated intellectuals and it looCed 1or a (hile as i1 the ideas that he e6pressed
(ould become a (ay o1 thought. ?ut they didnHt. ;2ead! ,+)7<
Why did the cybernetics moement breaC up 1ollo(ing the 2acy #on1erencesK Actually it neer came
together. People stayed in their home disciplines. 2any ery thought/prooCing meetings (ere held
under the label o1 cybernetics! but the educational programs that (ere established did not surie in
discipline/oriented uniersities. When their 1ounders retired! the programs (ere closed. One
conse=uence o1 the lacC o1 educational programs at uniersities is that Cey ideas tend to be reinented.
One e6ample is the (orC on comple6 adaptie systems centered at the Santa 3e >nstitute. These (riters
rarely re1er to the early (orC in cybernetics and systems theory.
What preented unityK There (as neer agreement on 1undamentals. :ric "ent in his doctoral
dissertation at The George Washington Uniersity proides an e6planation o1 the continuing
heterogeneity o1 the 1ield o1 cybernetics and systems science. ;"ent! ,++)< "ent claims that a1ter World
War >> the systems sciences dramatically e6panded the scienti1ic enterprise. Speci1ically! they e6panded
science along eight dimensions // causality! determinism! relationships! holism! enironment! sel1/
organization! re1le6iity! and obseration. ;"ent! $%%,< Eo(eer! not all o1 the arious systems 1ields
chose to emphasize the same dimensions. >ndeed! each 1ield chose a uni=ue combination. This meant
that the arious systems 1ields did not agree on (hat the Cey issues (ere. As a result each sub1ield
deeloped its o(n language! theories! methods! traditions! and results.
These eight dimensions hae both united and diided the systems sciences. The dimensions unite the
systems sciences because each o1 the sub1ields o1 systems science uses at least one o1 the ne(
assumptions! (hereas classical science uses none. The dimensions diide the systems sciences because
each sub1ield emphasizes a di11erent dimension or set o1 dimensions. Eence! issues that are ery
important in one sub1ield are less important or do not arise in other sub1ields. Gien di11erent =uestions!
the ans(ers in theories and methods hae been di11erent. ;Umpleby and "ent! ,+++< Perhaps in the $,
st
century the progress made in deeloping the 1ield o1 cybernetics in many disciplines (ill be success1ully
integrated.
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Umpleby! S. and *. SadosCy. ;eds.<. ;,++,<! A Science of Goal &ormulation: American and So"iet
)iscussions of Cybernetics and Systems Theory! -e( BorCF Eemisphere Publishing #o.
Umpleby! S. ;,++,<! LA Preliminary >nentory o1 Theories Aailable to Guide the Re1orm o1 Socialist
Societies.L >n S. Umpleby and R. Trappl. ;eds.<! Cybernetics and Systems! *ol. $$! -o. ..
Umpleby! S. and :. "ent. ;,+++<! LThe Origins and Purposes o1 Seeral Traditions in Systems Theory
and #ybernetics.L Cybernetics and Systems! *ol. @%.
Umpleby! S. ;$%%%<! 8#oping (ith an :rror in a 0no(ledge SocietyF The #ase o1 the Bear $%%%
#omputer #risis!9 in G. LasCer! et al. ;ed.<! Ad"ances in Sociocybernetics and 'uman )e"elo#ment.
*olume *>>>. Windsor! #anadaF >nternational >nstitute 1or Adanced Studies in Systems Research and
#ybernetics.
Umpleby! S. ;$%%@a<! 8Strengthening the Global Uniersity System!9 in R. 2eyer ;ed.<! %ers#ecti"es in
'igher ducation 7eform, *olume ,$. Alliance o1 Uniersities 1or "emocracy! American Uniersity in
?ulgaria! ?lagoegrad! ?ulgaria.
Umpleby! S. ;$%%@b<! 8Eeinz on 3oerster and the 2ans1ield Amendment!9 Cybernetics and 'uman
/no,ing! *ol. ,%! -o. @/..
*on 3oerster! E. and G. Iop1. ;eds.<. ;,+)$<! %rinci#les of Self4Organi-ation. -e( BorCF Pergamon
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*on 3oerster! E. et al. ;,+)7<! %ur#osi"e Systems. -e( BorCF Spartan ?ooCs.
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Control in Society. -e( BorCF Gordon and ?reach.
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Princeton Uniersity Press.
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#ambridge! 2AF 2>T Press.
E.2,.eer,.2
Cyber.et,/%
B,+l+2,/al Cyber.et,/% S+/,al Cyber.et,/%
The ie( o1
epistemology
A realist ie( o1
epistemologyF
Cno(ledge is a
8picture9 o1 reality
A biological ie( o1
epistemologyF ho( the
brain 1unctions
A pragmatic ie( o1
epistemologyF
Cno(ledge is
constructed to
achiee human
purposes
A Cey
distinction
Reality s.
Scienti1ic Theories
Realism s.
#onstructiism
The biology o1
cognition s. the
obserer as a social
participant
The puzzle to be
soled
#onstruct theories
(hich e6plain
obsered
phenomena
>nclude the obserer
(ithin the domain o1
science
:6plain the
relationship bet(een
the natural and the
social sciences
What must be
e6plained
Eo( the (orld
(orCs
Eo( an indiidual
constructs a 8reality9
Eo( people create!
maintain! and change
social systems
through language
and ideas
A Cey
assumption
-atural processes
can be e6plained by
scienti1ic theories
>deas about Cno(ledge
should be rooted in
neurophysiology
>deas are accepted i1
they sere the
obsererHs purposes
as a social participant
An important
conse=uence
Scienti1ic
Cno(ledge can be
used to modi1y
natural processes to
bene1it people
>1 people accept
constructiism! they
(ill be more tolerant
?y trans1orming
conceptual systems
;through persuasion!
not coercion<! (e can
change society
TABLE 2. Three Versions of Cybernetics