Taken from various sources

1
Steps of separation of natural
products
General
isolation
strategy of
natural
products
2
Crude aqueous
extracts of certain
plants (and animals)
provided pigments,
such as indigo and
alizarin.
3
Other examples of natural
products:
ephedrine
from Ephedra sinica
(for respiratory
ailments) tetrahydrocann
abinol (marijuana)
geraniol (rose oil)
cinnamaldehyde
(cinnamon) diallyl
disulfide (garlic)
4
morphine
(narcotic analgesic)
1817
5
strychnine
(poison) 1818
6
cocaine
(narcotic stimulant)
1859
nicotine
(toxic) 1828
7
Liquid-liquid extraction is a useful method to separate components
(compounds) of a mixture
8
Let's see an example.
Suppose that you have a mixture of sugar in vegetable oil (it tastes
sweet!) and you want to separate the sugar from the oil. You
observe that the sugar particles are too tiny to filter and you
suspect that the sugar is partially dissolved in the vegetable oil.
What will you do?
9
How about shaking the mixture
with water
Will it separate the sugar from the
oil? Sugar is much more soluble in
water than in vegetable oil, and,
as you know, water is immiscible
(=not soluble) with oil.
Did you see the result?The water
phase is the bottom layer andthe oil
phase is the top layer, because
water is denser than oil.
*You have not shaken the mixture
yet, so sugar is still in the oil phase.
10
By shaking the layers (phases) well, you
increase the contact area between the
two phases.The sugar will move to the
phase in which it is most soluble: the
water layer
Now the water phase tastes
sweet, because the sugar is moved to
the water phase upon shaking.**You
extracted sugar from the oil with
water.**In this example,water was
the extraction solvent ;the original
oil-sugar mixture was the solution to
be extracted; and sugar was the
compound extracted from one phase
to another. Separating the two layers
accomplishes the separation of the
sugar from the vegetable oil
11
Did you get it? .....the concept of liquid-liquid extraction?
Liquid-liquid extraction is based on the transfer of a solute
substance from one liquid phase into another liquid phase according
to the solubility.Extraction becomes a very useful tool if you choose
a suitable extraction solvent. You can use extraction to separate a
substance selectively from a mixture, or to remove unwanted
impurities from a solution.In the practical use, usually one phase is a
water or water-based (aqueous) solution and the other an organic
solvent which is immiscible with water.
The success of this method depends upon the difference in solubility
of a compound in various solvents. For a given compound, solubility
differences between solvents is quantified as the "distribution
coefficient"
12
Partition Coefficient Kp (Distribution Coefficient Kd)
When a compound is shaken in a separatory funnel with two immiscible
solvents, the compound will distribute itself between the two solvents.
Normally one solvent is water
and the other solvent is a
water-immiscible organic
solvent.
Most organic compounds are
more soluble in organic solvents,
while some organic compounds
are more soluble in water.
13
Here is the universal rule:
At a certain temperature, the ratio of concentrations of a solute
in each solvent is always constant.And this ratio is called the
distribution coefficient, K.
(when solvent
1
and solvent
2
are immiscible liquids
For example,Suppose the
compound has a distribution
coefficient K = 2 between
solvent
1
and solvent
2
By convention the organic
solvent is (1) and waater is
(2)
14
(1) If there are 30 particles
of compound , these are
distributed between equal
volumes of solvent
1
and solvent
2
..
(2) If there are 300
particles of compound , the
same distribution ratio is
observed in solvents 1 and 2
(3) When you double the
volume of solvent
2
(i.e., 200
mL of solvent
2
and 100 mL of
solvent
1
), the 300 particles of
compound distribute as shown
If you use a larger amount of extraction solvent, more solute is
extracted
15
What happens if you extract twice with 100 mL of solvent
2
?
In this case, the amount of extraction solvent is the same volume as was
used in Figure 3, but the total volume is divided into two portions and
you extract with each.
As seen previously, with 200 mL
of solvent
2
you extracted 240
particles of compound . One
extraction with 200 mL gave a
TOTAL of 240 particles
You still have 100 mL of solvent
1
,
containing 100 particles. Now you
add a second 100 mL volume of
fresh solvent
2
. According to the
distribution coefficient K=2, you
can extract 67 more particles
from the remaining solution
16
An additional 67 particles are
extracted with the second portion
of extraction solvent
(solvent
2
).The total number of
particles extracted from the first
(200 particles) and second (67
particles) volumes of extraction
solvent is 267.This is a greater
number of particles than the
single extraction (240 particles)
using one 200 mL portion of
solvent
2
!
It is more efficient to carry out
two extractions with 1/2 volume
of extraction solvent than one
large volume!
17
If you extract twice with 1/2 the volume, the extraction is more
efficient than if you extract once with a full volume. Likewise,
extraction three times with 1/3 the volume is even more efficient.
four times with 1/4 the volume is more efficient.five times with 1/5
the volume is more efficientad infinitum
The greater the number of small extractions, the greater the
quantity of solute removed. However for maximum efficiency the
rule of thumb is to extract three times with 1/3 volume
18
Chemically active (acid-base) extraction
Can you change the solubility property of a compound? How?
Most organic compounds are more
soluble in organic solvents than in
water,usually by the distribution
coefficient K > 4
However, specific classes of
organic compounds can be
reversibly altered chemically to
become more water-soluble.
This is a powerful technique and allows you to separate organic
compounds from a mixture -- if they belong to different solubility
classes
19
What type of organic compounds can be made water-soluble?
Compounds belonging to the following solubility classes can be
converted to their water-soluble salt form
(1) Organic acids include carboxylic acids (strong organic acids)
and phenols (weak organic acids).
(2) Organic bases includes amines
20
How can organic acids or bases be converted to a water-solubleform?
1. Organic Acids can be converted to their salt form when treated with an
aqueous solution of inorganic base (e.g., NaOH (sodium hydroxide) and
NaHCO
3
(sodium bicarbonate)).Salts are ionic, and in general, ions are
soluble in water but not soluble in water-immiscible organic
solvents.Remember: water is a very polar solvent thus salts (i.e., ionic
species) are well dissolved in it.
A. Carboxylic Acids are
converted to the salt form
with 5% NaOH aqueous
solution. NaOH is a strong
inorganic base.
Carboxylic acids are strong
organic acids (pKa = 3 to 4),
so they can also be ionized
with weak inorganic bases
(e.g., NaHCO
3
(sodium
bicarbonate)) aqueous
solution.
21
Let's try a sample problem.
Here is a mixture of naphthalene and benzoic acid, dissolved in
dichloromethane.
You want to separate
these two compounds.
What will you do?
You may use an aqueous solution of
either 5% NaOH or sat. NaHCO
3
, to
extract benzoic acid as a salt form
22
B. Phenols are considered to be weak organic acids. Phenol, the parent
compound, is partially water-soluble (1 g will dissolve in 15 mL of water),
whereas substituted phenols are not.Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO
3
) aqueous
solution, a weak inorganic base, will not deprotonate phenols to make it
ionic, because it is not strong enough.However, treatment with NaOH, a
strong inorganic base, can change phenol to its ionic (salt) form.
23
Let's try a another sample problem.
Here is a mixture of benzoic acid and p-methoxyphenol, dissolved in
dichloromethane.
You want to separate
these two compounds.
What will you do?
You cannot use 5% NaOH to separate these two
compounds. NaOH will react with both benzoic acid and p-
methoxyphenol, thus both compounds will be extracted into the
aqueous layer.
24
Let's try this problem again.
Here is another mixture of benzoic acid and p-methoxyphenol, dissolved in
dichloromethane.
Strong organic acids such as benzoic acid would be
deprotonated and ionized, while weak organic acids such
as phenols would NOT be deprotonated
NaOH was too strong a base,
thus it does not differentiate
the strong and weak organic
acids. Use of weak inorganic
base such as NaHCO
3
will
differentiate between the
compounds
25
2. Organic Bases (amines) can be converted to their salt form when treated
with an aqueous solution of an inorganic acid such as HCl (hydrochloric acid).
Recall that salts are ionic and generally soluble in water but not soluble in
water-immiscible organic solvents.
26
Let's try a third sample problem.
Here is a mixture of benzoic acid and p-chloroaniline, dissolved in
dichloromethane.
You want to separate
these two compounds.
What will you do?
You may use an aqueous solution of
either 5% HCl, to extract the amine as
a salt form and benzoic acid has
remained in the organic layer
27
You can separate four different classes of compounds from a mixture based on
differing solubility properties. The four classes are:1.Amines (organic
base)2.Carboxylic acids (strong acid)3.Phenols (weak acid)4.Neutral
compounds.
28
After the separation of the mixture of four components, we will have four
solutions: each solution contains one component.
The first three compounds are chemically altered, existing in their salt form
dissolved in aqueous solution. The fourth compound is not chemically altered,
but it is dissolved in an organic solvent.We now want to recover each compound
in its original state (i.e., in the non-ionic form) to complete the experiment. We
call this step isolation or recovery.
Let's see, one by one, how to recover each compound obtained from the
separation process
29
Isolation (Recovery) of amines
An amine is a basic compound. It is protonated in the presence of excess HCl
forming a salt that is soluble in aqueous solution. This is how you separated the
amine from the original mixture containing it.
An amine is soluble in acidic aqueous
solution because it forms a salt, an
ionic form.
However, if you change the pH
of the solution to basic the
amine can no longer stay
dissolved because it is no longer
ionic! This process is called
basification.
Basification is done by carefully
adding concentrated NaOH
solution to the solution containing
the amine salt until it becomes
basic.
30
In the basification step, you use
concentrated NaOH solution to
minimize the volume of the final
solution. Recall that a dilute
solution of HCl was used to
extract the amine as its water-
soluble salt (see the picture on
the right side).
Basification must be done
carefully, portion by portion, with
swirling each time because the
acid-base neutralization reaction
is exothermic.
Check the pH of the solution to
ensure that it is basic. (~pH 10)
31
Isolation (Recovery) of Acids
There are two different groups of organic acids: carboxylic acids (strong acids) and
phenols (weak acids).In the separation procedure, acids were extracted using (weak or
strong) basic aqueous solutions
Both acids can be returned to the original form in the same
manner! Organic acids are currently dissolved in a basic aqueous
solution, because the acid forms a salt, an ionic form. When you
make the aqueous solution acidic, the organic acids no longer
remain dissolved because they are no longer ionic and usually
precipitate out of solution. This process is called acidification.
Acidification is done by carefully adding
concentrated HCl solution until the mixture
becomes acidic,
When the weak base, NaHCO
3
, was the
extracting solution, CO
2
gas will evolve
during acidification.
32
The recovery of organic acids
requires acidification with
concentrated HCl solution. Recall
that in the extraction step for
the separation of an organic acid
either dilute NaHCO
3
or NaOH
was used. Concentrated HCl will
now help minimize the volume of
the final aqueous solution
Acidification must be done
carefully, portion by portion, with
swirling each time because the
acid-base neutralization reaction
is exothermic.
Check the pH of the solution to
ensure that it is acidic. (~pH 3)
33
Aqueous Phase #1
RCO
2
Na dissolved
in aqueous base
Organic Phase #1
ArOH / RNH
2
/ RH
dissolved in Et
2
O
Organic Phase #2
RNH
2
/ RH
dissolved in Et
2
O
Aqueous Phase #2
ArONa dissolved
in aqueous base
extract with
5% NaHCO
3
acidify
with HCl
dry, filter &
concentrate
extract with
5% NaOH
acidify
with HCl
make basic
with NaOH
RCO
2
H / ArOH / RNH
2
/ RH
dissolved in diethyl ether
RCO
2
H
ArOH
extract with
5% HCl
RH RNH
2
Organic Phase #3
RH dissolved in Et
2
O
Aqueous Phase #3
dissolved RNH
3
Cl
General Acid/Base Extraction
Flow Diagram
separation of organic acids, bases, and neutrals
RCO
2
H = carboxylic acids
ArOH = phenols
RNH
2
= amines
RH = others (neutrals)
34
Acetamidophen Aspirin Caffeine
O CH
3
O
OH O
N O
CH
3
N
C H
3
O
N
N
CH
3
ACE (phenol)
[weak organic acid]
ASP (carboxylic acid)
[strong organic acid]
CAF (amine)
[organic base]
O H
N CH
3
O
H
phenoxide salt
polar, water soluble
carboxylate salt
polar, water soluble
ammonium chloride salt
polar, water soluble
extract
with
aqueous
NaOH
extract
with
aqueous
NaHCO
3
extract
with
aqueous
HCl
N O
CH
3
N
C H
3
O
N
N
CH
3
H
+
Cl
-
N CH
3
O
H
Na
+
-
O
O CH
3
O
O O
-
Na
+
35
example
extraction
flow diagram
ACE / ASP / CAF
methylene chloride
solid #2
caffeine
solid #3
aspirin
solid #1
acetaminophen
lower layer in the
separatory funnel
}
density of CH
2
Cl
2
= 1.325 g/mL
( )
gravity
filter
solution #1 {separatory funnel}
solution #2
(organic phase)
CAF dissolved
in CH
2
Cl
2
solution #3
(aqueous phase)
ASP salt dissolved
in aqueous base
extract with
10 mL NaHCO
3
acidify with
2 mL 6N HCl
dry with
anh. MgSO
4
separates insoluble
solid from solution
filter with glass
fritted funnel
concentrate by
removing solvent
ASP / CAF in CH
2
Cl
2
separates acids
from neutrals
filter ppt.
for separation of three components:
acetaminophen, aspirin & caffeine
36
Separatory Funnel Extraction Procedure
Separatory funnels are designed to facilitate the mixing of immiscible liquids
37
Separatory Funnel Extraction Procedure
1. Support the
separatory funnel in a
ring on a ringstand.
Make sure stopcock is
closed
2. Pour in liquid to
be extracted
3. Add extraction
solvent
4. Add ground glass
Stopper (well greased)
38
Separatory Funnel Extraction Procedure
Pick up the separatory
funnel with the stopper in
palce and the stopcock
closed, and rock it once
gently.
Then, point the stem up and slowly open the
stopcock to release excess pressure. Close the
stopcock. Repeat this procedure until only a small
amount of pressure is released when it is vented
Shake the separatory funnel.
39
Separatory Funnel Extraction Procedure
Shake the separatory funnel vigorously.
Now, shake the funnel vigorously for a few seconds. Release
the pressure, then again shake vigorously. About 30 sec
total vigorous shaking is usually sufficient to allow solutes to
come to equilibrium between the two solvents.
Vent frequently to prevent pressure buildup,
which can cause the stopcock and perhaps
hazardous chemicals from blowing out. Take
special care when washing acidic solutions with
bicarbonate or carbonate since this produces a
large volume of CO
2
gas
40
Separatory Funnel Extraction Procedure
Separate the layers.
Let the funnel rest
undisturbed until the layers
are clearly separated
While waiting, remove the
stopper and place a beaker
or flask under the sep
funnel.
Carefully open the stopcock and
allow the lower layer to drain
into the flask. Drain just to the
point that the upper liquid
barely reaches the stopcock
41
Solvent Extraction
Equilibrium constant for this partitioning is
K (partition coefficient)
K=
[S]
2
[S]
1
42
Solvent Extraction
Determination of solute concentration in
each phase
Define some variables:
V
1
& V
2
are volumes of solvents 1&2
m = total # of moles of solute (S) present
q = fraction of solute remaining in phase 1 at
equilibrium
43
Solvent Extraction
[S]
1
= qm/V
1
[S]
2
= (1-q)m/V
2
44
K=
[S]
2
[S]
1
qm/V
1
(1-q)m/V
2
= =
q/V
1
(1-q) /V
2
q =
KV
2
+ V
1
V
1
(1-q) =
KV
2
+ V
1
KV
2
fraction of S in: phase 1 phase 2
Rearrange:
Solvent Extraction
45
Solvent Extraction
If remove V
2
and extract V
1
with fresh
layer of V
2
, what fraction remains in V
1
?
Initial moles = m
after first extraction - qm
after second extraction - q(qm)=q
2
m
q(2) =
KV
2
+ V
1
V
1
2
46
Solvent Extraction
q(n) =
KV
2
+ V
1
V
1
n
Fraction in V
1
after n extractions:
47
Solvent Extraction
Example: Solute A has a partition
coefficient of 4.000 between hexane and
water. (K = [S]
hexane
/[S]
water
= 4) If 150.0
ml of 0.03000 M aqueous A is extracted
with hexane, what fraction of A remains if:
48
Solvent Extraction
a) one 600.0 ml aliquot of hexane is used?
q =
4(600ml) + 150ml
150ml
= 0.05882 = 5.882%
# moles remaining
0.05882 (0.03M0.150L) = 2.647x10
-4
moles
49
q =
4(100ml) + 150ml
150ml
= 0.0004115
6
# moles remaining
4.115 x 10
-4
(0.03M0.150L) = 1.852x10
-6
moles
Solvent Extraction
b) 6 successive 100.0 ml aliquots of
hexane are used?
50
Solvent Extraction
Although same volume of hexane is used,
it is more efficient to do several small
extractions than one big one!
1 600 ml extraction extracts 94.12%
6 100 ml extractions extract 99.96%
51
B + H
2
O BH
+
+ OH
-
K
b
HA H
+
+ A
-
K
a
Generally, neutral species are more soluble
in an organic solvent and charged species
are more soluble in aqueous solution
Solvent Extraction (pH effects)
with organic acids/bases:
52
organic
HA H
+
+ A
-
K
a
aqueous
HA H
+
+ A
-
very little here, ions
have poor solubility
Solvent Extraction (pH effects)
Partitioning of organic acids between two
phases:
53
Solvent Extraction (pH effects)
When the solute (acid/base) can exist in
different forms, D (distribution coefficient) is
used instead of K (partition coefficient)
54
Solvent Extraction (pH effects)
D =
total conc. in phase 2
total conc. in phase 1
D =
[HA]
org
[HA]
aq
+ [A
-
]
aq
HA
HA H
+
+ A
-
K
a
K
55
K
a
=
[H
+
][A
-
]
[HA]
[A
-
] =
K
a
[HA]
[H
+
]
Solvent Extraction (pH effects)
Substitute for [A-] in D eq. and rearrange
D=
[HA]
[HA]
2
1


K HA
H
a
[ ]
[ ]
1
56
Solvent Extraction (pH effects)
D=
[HA]
[HA]
[HA]
[HA]
2
1
2
1

K HA
H
K
H
a
a
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
1
1
D =
[HA]
[HA]
2
1
1

K
H
a
[ ]
= K
57
Solvent Extraction (pH effects)
D = K 1

K
H
a
[ ]
D=
K
1

K
H
K H
H K
a a
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
58
D
pH
[H
+
]=K
a
pH=pK
a
K
[H
+
]>>K
a
mainly
HA
[H
+
]<<K
a
mainly
A
-
Solvent Extraction (pH effects)
pH effect on D for organic acids
59
K
1
4 8
K
2
D
pH
Solvent Extraction (pH effects)
Example problem: Want to separate two organic
acids using a scheme based on pH. Acid 1 (pKa =
4), Acid 2 (pKa = 8)
Acid 2 stays in
organic phase,
acid 1 is extracted
into aqueous phase
60
[H
+
] + K
a
D =
K K
a
D
pH
K
[H
+
]=K
a
pH=pK
a
[H
+
]>>K
a
mainly
BH
+
[H
+
]<<K
a
mainly
B
Solvent Extraction (pH effects)
Analogous treatment for organic bases
(proton acceptors, not KOH)
61
D
pH
K
acid
base
Solvent Extraction (pH effects)
In general:
62