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Paper I Fundamental of sociology
1. Sociology- The discipline


Introduction: Sociology means the science of society and the study of human social life because
human social life is so expansive. It also defined scientific study of human society and as study of
social life of group interaction and of social behavior. It is the youngest of all the social sciences.
When compared to the older disciplines such as political science, anthropology, economics and
psychology sociology is considered to be new.
It is an academic discipline arose in the first half of nineteenth century. The discipline plays a
leading role in the social science. Sociology along with other sisterly disciplines such as
anthropology, social psychology, economics, human/cultural geography, history and political
sciences has now become an essential component of health and medical sciences universities
and other training institutes in abroad.

The scope of Sociology is extremely wide. It started from the street quarrels to the global
process of Islamic fundamentalism. The scope of sociology: studying all human relationships,
group, institutions and societies. Sociology is the study of forms of social relationships. Social
interaction or the responses of individuals to each other is the basic sociological concept. Such
interaction is the elementary component of all relationship and groups that make up human
society.

Nature of sociology: It is an independent science. It is a pure science and not an applied
science. Sociology is both a rational and an empirical.

i) Modernity and social changes in Europe and Emergence of sociology

To study society, sociology is a scientific attempt. Sociology emerged as a distinct science in
19th century Europe. Then Europe was passing through a period of immense changes which
had set with French and the Industrial Revolutions.
The founding father of sociology -Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkhein , Karl
Marx lived in this era of profound upheavals in European Society. The origin of sociology
dates back to early 19th & late 18th.The background to the origins of sociology was the
series of sweeping changes ushered by the French Revolution of 1789 and emergence of
Industrial Revolution in Europe. The use of science was a key development instead of
religion to understand the world. Today our modern world is radically different from that of
past.

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Some founding fathers of sociology- Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Karl
Marx.

According to Auguste Comte the three stages in which society moves were:-
a) The theological or the religious to
b) The metaphysical or the philosophical to
c) The positive or the scientific stage.

In the 1
st
stage people thought all phenomena were caused by supernatural forces.

In the 2
nd
stage Abstract forces of either a religious or secular type were considered to be the
source of knowledge.
In 3
rd
stage scientific laws were supposed to determine both the natural and the social words


Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

According to Herbert Spencer, the study of sociology covers the field of family, politics, religion
and social control, division of labor and social stratification. He emphasized a total view of
society and the study of whole more than the study of parts.

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917).

Emile was also interested in sociology and wrote book in 1895 entitled: Rules of Sociological
Method. According to him, social solidarity was one of the main principles of human life.
He distinguished between 2 kinds of solidarity:-
Mechanical Solidarity and organic solidarity.
Mechanical Solidarity based on common expectations, beliefs, sentiments like those found in
traditional societies.

Organic solidarity based on the division of labour and inters related interests as found in
industrial societies. There would be social disorganization and confusion in society when
solidarity is broken.

Karl Marx (1818-1883)

Karl Marx has helped his ideas in understanding the nature of society how fight occurs. In 1848
he writes that all history is a history of classes and class struggles. The society gets divided
between the oppressors and the oppressed masters and slaves, lords and serfs. To analyze the
structure of society it was necessary to understand the forces of production and relation of
production.

ii) Scope of the subject and comparison with other social sciences.

A different social science deals with the different aspects of social life of man. It is

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essential for the student of sociology to know in what respect his subjects differs from
other social sciences. The social sciences has a wide scope and comprise academic

disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups animals and
individuals including anthropology, archeology, communication studies, cultural studies,
demography, economics, human geography, history, linguistics, media studies, political
science, psychology, social work and sociology.

It is essential for us to know the interrelations between sociology and history, economic,
anthropology, political science, psychology.
Sociology:

1. The study of modern civilized and complex societies.

2. Sociologists study the institution marriage, family or processes such as change, social
mobility. Sociology makes use of observations, interview, social survey and other method of
techniques in its investigations.
3. Sociology is a specific, pure and independent social science.
4. Sociology has depended upon the history for its materials.
5. Sociology is interested in the study of present with all their complexity.
6. Sociology is an analytical and generalizing science.
7. It studies all kind of societies organized as well as un organized.
8. It has changed outlook with regard to the problems of crime etc.
9. Sociology is of great importance in the solution of international problems.
10. It is useful as a teaching subject.


Comparison of sociology with other social science:

Anthropology concerns with uncivilized or primitive cultures. Anthropologists usually
concentrate on small societies. They directly go and live in the communities they study.
History
History is the study of past and experience of mankind which people have already lived. It is a
record of the human past. It deals with the past events of man and history is an age-old social
science. It has long story of 2000 years or even more. Historian is only concentrate on the past.
History is an individualizing and descriptive science.


Political science deals with political activities of man. It has its own topics such as origin,
evolution and functions of state, the forms of government, types of constitution, administration
law, legislation, elections, political movements. There are some common topics of interest for
both sociologists and political scientists such as war, mass movements, government control,
public opinion, propaganda, leadership, elections, voting. It is a special social science. It
concentrates only on the human relationship which is political in character.

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Psychology: It studies behavior of individual in society and concerned with behavior of
individuals.
Economics deals with the economic activities of man and studies the structure and functions of
economic organization like banks, factories, market, business, firms, corporations, transport. It
has attained an advanced degree of maturity.

iii) Sociology and common sense

Many people mistakenly believe that sociology is the study of the obvious and it is nothing but
the application of common sense. Sociology as a discipline is more than common sense.
Common sense views tend to reflect social traditions and conventions. It is knowledge and
awareness that is held shared by majority of people. Sociology and other social sciences focus
on the study of certain aspects of human behavior. Human behavior is something with which
we all have experience.

Difference between sociology and common sense

Common sense views are based on people's immediate and frequently limited experiences.
Common sense knowledge is statement of the obvious which is simply based of assumption.
Sociological views are based on rigorous research. This can either be based on large scale
quantitative research or in depth qualitative research. Common sense views tend to reflect
social traditions and conventions. Therefore tend to reinforce the status quo and resist social
change.

2. Sociology as science systematic methods of empirical research, analysis of data and
the assessment of theories
There are reasons for regarding sociology as a science:- Indirectly, Sociology conducts many
experiments .It employs scientific method such as scales of socio meter , schedules ,
questionnaire interviews and case history etc. In this method quantitative measures are used
to measure social phenomenon and sociologists use statistical methods.
Sociologists use comparisons between groups, communities and societies and it is readily
available with the sociologists. In scientific investigation, comparative method is one of the
important methods.
Sociology as science deals with the social conditions and effects of science. It also deals with the
social structures and processes of scientific activity.
According to Lundeberg, Science is a procedure for discovering conditions under which events
occur.
Sociology is a science which attempts at relating understanding of social action in order to
arrive at a casual explanation of its cause and effects. Sociology tries to classify types and

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forms of social relationship of institutions and associations. It tries to conclude general laws
from a systematic study. Principles of sociology are applied to the solution of social problems.

i) Science, scientific method and critique. Science is the use of systematic methods of
empirical investigation. Science also the analysis of data and assessment of theories
in the light of evidence.
Scientific method: It is the pursuit of truth and this scientific method as determined by logical
considerations. The ideal of science is to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts.
The Scientific method is based on certain basic postulates:-

It relieves on empirical evidence and utilizes relevant concepts.
It is committed to only objective considerations.
It results into probabilistic predictions.

Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny.



ii) Major Theoretical Strands of Research Methodology. There are three theoretical
patterns:-
i) Scientific sociology/ Positivism
ii) Critical Sociology
iii) Interpretive Sociology

Scientific sociology or Positivism is a philosophy of science. It considers social phenomena as
existing in a material like physical things. Social phenomena can be described by fixed rules and
laws. Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim are the innovators are the
innovators of this paradigm. All these three scientists believe that there can be exactness in
sociology just like natural sciences.
Auguste Comte was a founder of the discipline of sociology. According to him, positivism states
that all authentic knowledge allows verification.

Max Weber and Karl Marx are the eminent sociologists who do not believe in the ideal of
objectivity of scientific sociology.
It is highly criticized on following grounds:

There is no fixed social reality and rules as predict by scientific sociology.

Study of society necessarily involves study of human beings. Human beings are self-conscious
and make a society. The researcher himself is a part of researches subject matter. The different
researcher has different conclusions regarding the same phenomenon.
Critical sociology: To change the society critical sociology focuses on doing research as a tool. It
gets rid of the ideal of objectivity. It encourages the researcher to be a part of research itself.

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Generally, Marxist sociologists are seen to be doing critical sociology.

Imperative sociology: This sociology focuses on the study of rational motivations. Max Weber is
seen as the innovator of the sociology field. Interpretive sociologists believe that society has
binary nature. Positivist believes that it does have some objective reality. A Sociologist not only
studies the objective phenomenon of social actions of individuals. Max Weber makes sociology
different from natural sciences. It is not possible for a researcher to keep his values apart from
his research work. His values and ideologies shall affect the findings of the research.

iii) Positivism: Positivism is a philosophy of science. It is based on the view that
information derived from logical and mathematical treatments , reports of
sensory experience is the exclusive source of all authoritative knowledge.
Positivism had an huge influence on both the theoretical ambitions and empirical
research scheme of sociology. The whole of the history of sociology could be
described as a struggle with positivism. Its advocate attempting to secure the
foundations of a scientific study of positivism. Its critics search to identify what it is
about the social that frees it from positivist canons.




iv) Fact value and objectivity

A Fact is an objective reality and is an observation based upon experience. A fact is happening
of an incident a correct statement, the conclusion of some observation. Thus the facts are true
and are the real elements of incidents.
Objectivity is the study in which the subject matter is centre of attention and disadvantage is
given no place is known as objective study. I the Objective study subject matter am observed.

Value: The term Value in sociology doesnt have an economic implication. In terms of
methodology, a basic definition involves the idea that the concept of objectivity becomes a
philosophy (or ideology).

Anti positivism includes a high involvement on the part of the researcher. In the nineteenth
century anti-positivism came out when scientists Wilhelm Dilthey and Heinrich Rickert began to
questions sociological positivism and naturalism. Human societies have distinctive aspects like
meanings, symbols, rules and values. Scientists like Wilhelm and Heinrich argued that the world
of nature is not the same as the world of society. According to Max Weber view the sociological
research must concentrate on humans and their cultural values.


3. Research Methods in SOCIOLOGY: Research is done to identify facts and research

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information is used to develop theories. Social research refers to research conducted by

social scientists. It is a major aspect of work for social scientists. There are 4 main
methods of research :-
Surveys

Interviews

Experiments
Observation

Research issues and factors

A Researchers method of research is affected by a number of variables such as the age,
gender, ethnicity and social class of those who are researched. If groups of girls were being
interviewed about a sensitive subject such as sexual health it would be good if they were
interviewed by female member. If boys were being interview on this sensitive subject it would
be much better that a male interviewer was chosen for the job.
Ethics: Ethnical consideration are grouped into four areas:-

The participants must have agreed to take part. The details of the participants actions must
remain confidential.
In the research process, the participants shouldnt be harmed psychologically or physically.
The researchers should be honest about the study implication (suggestion).

Types of Research:

Social scientists have a number of different types of research. They can use this research to
acquire data.
The various forms of research include
Longitudinal studies
Interviews based on open questions
Structured interviews
Unstructured Interviews
Structured questionnaires
Participant Observation.
Researchers research or study something which they consider important.


i) Qualitative and quantitative methods.


Qualitative Method:-These methods are those which include focus groups, in depth interviews
and review of documents. It understands and interprets social interactions. This method
provides information which is easy to analyze statistically. This method is also associated with
the scientific and experimental approach. Smaller and not randomly selected. Qualitative data

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such as open ended responses, interviews, participants observation and filed notes

Objective: To gain an understanding of reasons and motivations. To uncover prevailing trends in
thought and opinion.
Forms of data collection: Structured techniques such as online questionnaires ot telephone
interviews.
Data Analysis: Non statistical


Quantitative Research Methods: To test hypotheses and look at cause & effect and make
predictions. Quantitative data based on precise measurements using structured and validated
data collection instruments. These are more generalizing and have fixed response.
Forms of data collected. Larger and randomly selected. Unstructured or semi structured
techniques.

Objective: To quantify data and generalize results from a sample to the population of Interests.
To measure the incidence of various views.
Statistical data is usually in the form of tabulations (tabs).



Variables, sampling, hypothesis, reliability and validity.
Variable is a concept whose value changes from case to case.
Hypothesis is an unverified statement of relationship between variables.
Reliability is a quality of constant measure.

4. Sociological thinkers: Karl Heinrich Marx (1818-1883)

i) Karl Marx was a German philosopher, sociologist, economist and revolutionary socialist. He
works in economics. His theories about society, economics and politics collectively known as
Marxism. He is considered to be one of the most dominant thinkers. He was born in 1818 and
was influenced by philosophers such as Hegel, Feuerbach and St. Simon.
Key idea: - He identifies production as essential for human existence and production is a social
activity.

The important concept of Karl Marx is:-
Dialectical Materialism
Materialistic Interpretation of History i.e. Historical Materialism.
Class and class conflict
Alienation


Historical Materialism: In 1845 Karl Marx put forward his concept of historical materialism for

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the 1
st
time in German ideology. Historical Materialism is a methodological approach to the

study of society, history and economics. Karl Marx view of history which came to be called the
materialist conception of history. This theory based on Hegels claim that history occurs
through a dielectric or clash of opposing force. Hegel a philosophical idealist who believed that
we live in word of appearance. He also stated that true reality is an ideal. Historical materialism
looks for the cause of development and changes in human society. By this human collectively
produce the necessities of life. The classic brief statement of the theory was made by the Karl
Marx in the Preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859).



Historical Materialism includes:-
Human Experience
Production of materials
Needs
Karl Marx use Materialistic approach of Young Hegelians and dialectics of Hegel to explain the
history of human. This gives shape to the Karl Marx Historical Materialism or the materialist
conception of history. Therefore according to Hegel ideas are primary and according to Karl
Marx materials are primary. Marx consider Materialism or Economics as the base on which
whole super structure is built. According to Marx, History is nothing but the activity of men in
pursuit of their ends.

Mode of production: It is a central concept in Marxism and a society is organized to produce
goods and services .It is a specific combination of productive forces which include human
labour and means of production (example:- Tools, equipment , buildings and technologies and
Knowledge , materials and improved land.)

Social and technical relation of production: These include

The property, power and control relations governing societys productive assets.
Cooperative work relations and forms of associations.
Relation between people and the objects of their work.
Relations between social classes.
The Mode of production is the union or unity of the productive forces and the relations of
production. The system of class division depends on mode of production.

In the Karl Marx modes of production four factors are involved:-
Labor
Land

Capital


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Division of labor


These factors explain social structure and social change while forming bases of mode of
production.

Modes of production of Karl Marx are as follows:-
1. Primitive Communism
2. Ancient society
3. Feudalism
4. Capitalism

5. Socialism / Lower stage Communism

6. Communism / Upper stage Communism


Primitive Communism: This is the stage of classless society (where society was without a class).
In this, the forces and means of production are communally owned. This society has very low
divisions of labor. For common good all the people work together.

Ancient society: The resources of areas are not enough to satisfy the needs of the people of
tribes because population of tribes is increases. So thats why they migrate to new areas. Due
to this migration, different tribes come in contact with each other and the war between the
tribals begin. One tribe appears as winner and the other is looser.
Feudalism: In the Nineteenth Century, Karl Marx made the feudal mode of production.


Marx theory of alienation:

The theory of alienation nominates the types of human relations which are not controlled by
their participants.
Alienation is the process where the worker is made to feel foreign to the products of his/her
own labor. Marxs theory of alienation refers to the separation of things that naturally belong
together or to putting antagonism between things. It also refers to social alienation of people
from aspects of their human nature. Karl Marx believed that alienation is a systematic result of
capitalism.

Class Struggle also called class conflict or class warfare. It is a conflict between different classes
in community resulting from different social or economic positions. Class struggle can take
many different shapes. The direct violence such as wars fought for resources and cheap labor;
indirect violence such as deaths from poverty, starvation or unsafe working conditions
There are some elements in Karl Marx in view of class conflict:-

Classes are authority relationship based on property ownership and are naturally antagonistic
by virtue of their interests. Consequence of the class struggle is a struggle change.

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According to him, class struggle occurs because of the economic organization of most societies.


Emile Durkheim- Division of labour

Emile Durkheim, a French sociologist who written a book The Division of Labor in Society in
French. In this book, he introduced the concept of anomie or the breakdown of the influence of
social norms on individuals within a society. He is credited as one of the founder of modern
sociology.
According to Emile Durkheim, there are 2 kinds of social solidarity i.e.
Mechanical solidarity and
Organic Solidarity

He discusses law extensively in the book The Division of Labor in Society. According to him,
law is the most visible symbol of social solidarity. Law plays a part in society that is analogous to
the nervous system in organism. The nervous system regulates various body functions.
Likewise, the legal system regulates all the parts of society. So that they work together in
agreement. He also stated that the division of labor is in direct proportion to the moral density
of the society. In three ways this increases can happen:
Through an increase of the concentration of people, through growths of towns a; through
increase in number of means of communication. Labor started to divide when 1 or more of
these things happen because the struggle for existence becomes more difficult.

Social fact

The Term sociology is created by Emile Durkheim to indicate social patterns. Social facts are the
value, cultural standard and social structures. According to Durkheim sociology was the science
of social facts. He also stated that the 1
st
thing is to consider social facts as things. Things such as
customs and social values exist outside individuals; Psychological drives and motivation exist
inside individuals.
Suicide

In the field of sociology, suicide was a ground breaking book. In 1897, suicide was written by
French Sociologists Emile Durkheim. In this book, he explored the different suicide rates among
Protestors and Catholics. He was the first to argue that the causes of suicide found in social
factors and the stronger social control among Catholics results in lower suicide rates. In the late
19
th
century, Durkheim wanted to show how his approach was superior to others. He also said
that suicide can occur for personal reasons.

Emile Durkheim distinguishes between 3 types of suicide:-
Anomic Suicide
Altruistic Suicide
Egoistic Suicide.


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When the disintegrating forces in society make individuals lost or alone then the Anomic suicide
happens. As this suicide committed by those only who have been sexually abused or whose
parents are alcoholics.
Eg:-Teenage suicide


Altruistic Suicide: The type of suicide occurs when there is excessive regulation by social forces.
Example:- suicide commits by someone for the sake of religious or political cause such as the
hijackers of the high airplane that crashed into the world trade center.

Egoistic Suicide:-This type of suicide occurs when people feel totally separate from society.
Elderly people who lose these ties are the most who committed egoistic suicide.

Max Weber: Social action

Max Weber (1864-1920) :A German sociologists, philosopher whose ideas affected social
theory and the whole discipline of sociology. His major publications are:-
The Protestant Ethic and the spirit of capitalism (1904), The city (1912), The sociology of
Religion (1922), The theory of social and Economic organization (1925).He was best known for a
founding figure of the field of sociology, Thesis of the Protestant Ethic and the ideas on
bureaucracy. He founded the social action theory. Social action is a meaningful behavior place
towards other individuals.


According to Marx Weber, Social action is the foundation of sociology and no action shall be
called a social action expecting that it has relationship with the present, past or future behavior
of others. A social action was an action carried out by an individual. He also believed that it was
a social action that should be focus of study sociology. A person does not think about cant be a
social action. There are 2 main types of sociological theories:
Structural or macro theory

Social action or micro perspectives.

According to social action theory he believes that in society bureaucratic organizations are
the main institutions and views the whole development of modern societies. The theory
of social action gives researcher a better understanding of actions behind behavior of
human.


Types of social action: Evaluative, Emotional and traditional actions.
Ideal types of social action:-
Marx Weber a German sociologist created concept of the ideal type as simplified models of real
actions of societies.
The ideal type is an abstract model and used as standard of comparison in a clearer way
enables us to see aspects of the real world. It a common mental construct in the social sciences

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There are 4 ideal types of social action:-
a) Goal Rational Action
b) Value Rational Action
c) Affectional Action
d) Traditional Action (irrational )


Goal Rational Action: On the basis of rational action, practical goals are identified and
goals are achieved in most systematic way. In simple way, goals and means are chosen
rationally.

Example:- Business man behavior, An engineer who builds a bridge by the most
efficient technique of relating means to end.

Value rational Action: Goals are chosen on the basis of values like self respect,
patriotism, duty, glory etc. Goals are chosen rationally to achieve this goal. So that goals
are achieved in most rational manner.
Example: Attainment of Salvation


Affectional action: They are determined by emotional state of the actor and are not
rational.
Example: - The participants in the religious services of a fundamentalist sect
Traditional action: These goals are not driven by goal and determined by traditions,
customs of the actor. The behavior of members of an Orthodox Jewish Congregation.

In his sociological and philosophical work Marx Weber identified 3 types of legitimate
rule or domination or authority.
He divided legitimate or authority into 3 types:-
Rational Legal authority
Traditional authority
Charismatic authority

Rational Legal Authority: Marx Weber discussed the 1
ST
type authority i.e. Rational
Legal Authority: This authority is also known as legal authority and based on rules. It is a
form of leadership in which authority is largely tied to legal rationality and legitimacy,
bureaucracy. This authority derives its powers from the system of bureaucracy and
legality. It is the 2
nd
of Webers tripartite classification of authority. The majority of the

modern states of the 20
th
century are depending on rational legal authorities. In the

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constitution the power of the rational legal authority is mentioned
Example: Government officials.


Traditional Authority: The 2
nd
type of authority is Traditional Authority. This authority is
based on habits, social structures and customs. It is a form of leadership in which rules
and regulations are tied with custom and tradition. Traditional authority concept comes
from Max Webers tripartite classification of authority. When the power transfer from
one person to another it is known as traditional authority.
Example:

The Tudor dynasty in England, the ruling families of Mewar in Rajasthan (India) and the
right hereditary monarchs to rule furnishes

Charismatic authority: The 3
rd
type of authority is Charismatic authority. This authority based
on inspiration from the higher power. Here the leader play an important role and this authority
derived from the the gift of grace or inspiration. These are superior to both the validity of
traditional and legal authority and followers accept to follow this higher or inspired authority.
Example: in this regard can be NT Rama Rao, a matinee idol who went on to become one of the
most powerful chief Ministers of Andhra Pradesh.

Bureaucracy: It is a way of organizing a number of people who want to work together.
Organization in the public and private sector including universities and governments depend on
bureaucracy to function. Bureaucrats fight fires, teach, and monitor how federal candidates
raise money, among other activities.

The function of bureaucracy is:-
Promote the public good
Agencies of Bureaucratic: National Institutes of Health, Environmental protection
Agency, Federal Bureau of Investigation.
Protect the nation


Agencies: Armed forces, Coast Guard, CIA (Central Intelligence Agency)

Weberian Model: Max Weber a German sociologist created a Weberian Model According to
the Weberian Model a Bureaucracy always displays the characteristics:
Hierarchy

Specialization

Division Of Labor

Standard operating procedures (SOP)



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Marx Weber recognized in bureaucracies a rational legal authority in which legitimacy is seen as
coming from a legal order. He listed several essential conditions for the publishing of
bureaucracy. Rationalization describes a transition in society. Traditional motivators of behavior
are replaced with rational calculations. He described many ideal types of public
administration and governance. The study of bureaucracy was begun by Marx Weber and his
work led to popularization of this term.

Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism.

In 1904-05 Marx Weber a German sociologist and economist written a book the protestant
ethic and the spirit of capitalism. In this book, Weber wrote that capitalism in Northern Europe
and ethics affect large numbers of people to gain in work in the secular world. They developed
their own enterprises and gain in trade and the accumulation of wealth for investment.
The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism: It is a study of the relation between ethics and
the emergence of the spirit of modern capitalism. Marx Weber argues that the religious ideas
of groups such as Calvinist played a role in making capitalistic spirit.
The protestant Ethic is a discussion of Marx Weber in various religious and economics. He
declares that puritans ethics and ideas affect the development of capitalism.

Talcolt Parsons: (1902-1979) was an American Sociologist and developed a general theory for
the study of society called action theory. He explored why societies are stable and functioning.
Parsons model is AGEL (Adaptation Goal attainment Integration Latency). This model
represents the 4 basic functions that if they are persist all social system must perform. It was
the 1
st
open system theories of organizations.
The bases of structural in social systems: Stable patterns between actors or roles and social
relationship.


Talcolt Parsons Pattern variables

Concept of pattern variables was given in book Towards a General Theory of social action.
According to him 2 modes of orientation drive our action:-
Instrumental Non emotional, logical, rational and Expressive Emotional, collective etc.
Parsons develop concept which could bring out variables properties of actions systems and this
concept known as pattern variables.

In all there are 5 patterns variables:-

Affectivity versus affective neutrality

Self orientation Vs collectivity orientation
Universalism Vs particularism

Ascription Vs achievement

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Specificity Vs diffuseness
These pattern variables bridges space between social action and social system and structure
any system of interaction.
Robert King Merton (1910-2003) was an American sociologists .He was influenced by Parsonian
Structuralism. Robert Merton most famous works were theories and Merton/ Latent and
Manifest functions are the social scientific concepts.. Latent and manifest are the 2 concepts
that Merton put forward in regards to social action.

According to him, Merton Latent and Manifest functions are those that are conscious and
recognized. These are the functions which people conclude and expect the institutions to fulfill.
Example: Schools are expected to educate the children in the knowledge and skills that they
need.
Manifest functions are obvious admitted and generally cheer or applauded.Latent functions are
unrecognized and not planned functions. It is an institution support the manifest functions. It is
an individual or group undertakes without having knowledge of the result. Example: Found in
organized religion, a ritual used for its spiritual significance.
In a social system social action is the behavior taken by an individual as the result of others.
Mani fest Function: It is an individual or group undertakes without that has intended meaning
or result.
Eg: The manifest function of a religious ritual may be to connect a spiritual level.


Conformity and Deviance: Deviance means violates social norm and Conformity follows social
norm.
There are 5 kinds of norms:-Prescriptive, Proscriptive, Folkways, mores and laws.
Prescriptive tell us what we should do, Proscriptive tell us what we shouldnt do, Folkways:
Informal norms reflect cultural traditions and guide everyday interactions.
Mores Informal & salient norms reflect value judgment. Laws Formal norms abide by laws
and follow norms. Deviant behavior is obtaining strong negative reactions from others. It can
occur in the behavior of groups as well as individuals. Robert Merton argued that society is set
up in a way that encourages more deviance.

Typology of Deviance and Example:

The main concern of Robert K Merton was that societies such as US didnt provide the means
i.e. access to education, employment etc. to achieve cultural goals.
Conformity is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs and behaviors to group norms.
Example of conformity: The corporate culture demands certain conformity of appearance.

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A reference group is any person or group that serves as point of comparison for an individual in
forming either general or specific values, attitudes. We use reference group to evaluate the
relative worth of our appearance, feelings, thoughts and behavior.

Types of Reference groups classified by
Membership- symbolic
Extent of Interaction Direct Vs Indirect

Nature of Attraction- Aspirational Vs Dissociative
Degree of formality- Formal Vs Informal
Influence Informational Influence; Normative Influence; Identification Influence
Reference group are
Friendship Group
Shopping group
Work Group
Virtual Groups

Brand communities

Consumer-action Groups
Celebrities.

Mead Self Identity

G.H Mead was an American philosopher, sociologist and was a symbolic interactionist. He
wrote a book Mind, Self and Identity. He was best known for founder of Pragmatism,
pioneered the development of symbolic interaction perspective and founders of social
psychology. He is well known for his theory of the social self .This theory is based on central
argument that the self is a social emergent. The individual selves are the products of social
interaction. According to him, there are 3 activities through which the self is developed. The
three activities are Language, play and game.
Language allows individuals to take on the role of other. It allows people to respond to his or
her own signal in terms of the symbolized attitudes of others.
Play allows individuals to take on the roles of other people. It pretend to be those other people
to express the expectations of remarkable others.
This process of role playing is key: to the generation of self consciousness and to the general
development of the self.
Game allows the individual is required to internalize the roles of all others who are involved
with him or her in the game.




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5. Concept of Stratification and Mobility:

The concept of social stratification is one of the concepts of social differentiation of modern
society. According to this concept, in a society the layers defined on the different bases. Social
stratification is more mobile than other social structures. There are 2 types of social mobility:
Horizontal
Vertical

The channel of vertical mobility both on ascending and descending line, the army, church,
school, political institutes etc. Social stratification means the inequalities that exist between
individuals and groups within human societies.

BASIC CHARACTERISTICS:

The ranking apply to the social characteristics of people who share common characteristics.
Peoples life experience and opportunities depend on social category ranked.
Over the time the ranks of different social characteristics tends to change slowly.


Social equality:. It includes

Equal rights under the law such as security, voting, rights, freedom of speech and
assembly.
Property rights

Equal access to social goods and services.

Concept of economic equity i.e. access to education. Health care and other social securities.
Social inequality: It is characterized by the existence of unequal opportunities and rewards for
different social positions within a society. It contains recurrent patterns of unequal distribution
of goods, wealth, opportunities, rewards and punishments. It is the condition in which
members of society have different amounts of power and wealth

To measure social inequality there are two ways:
Inequality of condition
Inequality of opportunities.

Inequality of condition mention to unequal distribution of Income, wealth and material goods.
Inequality of opportunities refers to the unequal distribution of "life chances" across
individuals.

Poverty and deprivation

Poverty: In 2006, 36.5 million people in united state 12.3 % of the population were living in
poverty. Families, Individual and groups in the population are in the poverty. Deprivation is the
consequence of a lack of income and other resources.
Theories of social stratification-This theory try to explain the existing inequality of wealth in

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between different cultures.
Webers view of Stratification

He formed a 3 component theory of stratification. In 3 component theory social difference is
determined by class, status and power. According to him class is a persons economic position.
It based on birth and individual achievement.
According to Weber a member of the US congress is an example of someone who is high in
social hierarchy due to power and status.
Social Mobility: It is the movement of individuals or groups in social position. It can be change
between groups. It is a person movement from one class to another.

Open system: In this system people are ranked by achieved status. It is an economic system
that has upward and downward mobility. It is achievement based and allows social relations
between the classes. These allow interaction between its internal elements and environment.

Closed system: In this system people are ranked by ascribed status. It has been confined to
their ancestral occupations. Their social status has mostly been prescribed by birth.
Sources and causes of mobility

There are many factors that can affect social mobility:-
Race / Ethnicity caste
Gender

Religious Persuasion
Occupation
The area you live in


Causes of social mobility: Vertical social mobility is affected by many different things.
Social Mobility important factors and causes:-
Gender

Education

Social change

Urbanization and industrialization
Transportation and communication
Dissatisfaction from previous condition


Formal and informal organization of work.

Formal Organization is created when 2 or more persons come together and have a common
goal. This organization ready to work together and has its own rules and regulation. The rules
which are made by the formal organization must be followed by employees and managers. In

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this organization the objectives are specific and has clear subordinate relationship . It has
system of authority. The members of the formal organization are given duties and
responsibilities. This organization formed by top level management

Example:
A company
School
College
Bank etc.
Objective: Productivity, growth and expansion


Informal organization: It is a network of personal and social organization. The people who are
working in formal organization work, travel and eat together and meet regularly. They become
good friends. In formal organization there are many groups of friends. These group of friends
are called informal organization.
Informal organization doesnt have its rules and regulation. It neither have superior subordinate
relationship nor any system of authority and coordination. This organization is formed by social
forces within the formal organization.
Objective: friendship, security, common interest, individual and group satisfaction etc.



Sociological Theories:

I. Symbolic Interaction Theory
II. Conflict theory
III. Functionalist Theory
IV. Feminist Theory
V. Critical Theory
VI. Labeling theory
VII. Social Learning Theory
VIII. Structural Strain Theory
IX. Rational Choice Theory
X. Game theory

Theories of power :






Pluralist
Elitist
Marxist

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Pluralism is how power is distributed, Elitism is how power is concentrated and Marxism is class
conflict and economic power.
In 1956, Sociologist C . Wright Mills written a book The Power Elite. According to him, the
governing elite in the US (United States) draws its members from 3 areas:-
i) The highest political leaders including the president and cabinet members and close
advisor.
ii) Major corporate owners and directors
iii) High ranking military officers.
Power elite: American sociologists C. Wright Mills describe used the term Power elite. In 1956
The power elite is a book written by sociologists C. Wright Mills and it can be defined as a small
group of people who control a disproportionate amount of power , wealth and privilege.
According to C. Wright Mills the power elite are the key people in the 3 major institutions of
modern society:
I. Economy

II. Government
III. Military
Pressure groups, and political parties:

A Pressure group is an organization which seeks to affect the formulation and
government(public) policy. Pressure groups also called Interest group. It tries to safeguard and
promotes the interests of its members. When they campaign they have more general political
and ideological objectives in mind.

Pressure groups are different from political parties
Political parties focus on the national interest.
Pressure groups concerned with sectional or single issues.

Pressure groups work at local, sub national (Regional), National and International level
(including European Union).


Sociological theories of religion

Religion is a feature of group that are based on beliefs considered sacred.
Sociological theories of religion try to answer 2 interrelated questions:
What is the origin of religion and what is its function. These theories explain universal
characteristics of religious beliefs and practice.

Theories of Religion
Functionalism
Conflict theory


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Symbolic Interaction


Conflict theory define group boundaries

Symbolic interactions provide definitions of groups and individual identity.


Types of religious practices: animism,

Animism is used in the anthropology of religion . Animism is said to describe the most common
foundational thread of indigenous people. It is the beliefs that nonhuman entities are spiritual
beings.
Monism: The term monism 1
st
used by the 18
th
century German philosopher Christian Wolf. It is
any philosophical views. Monism holds that there is unity in a given field of inquiry. Some
philosophers hold that the universe is one as against to dualism or pluralism. Hinduism is the
primary supporter of monism. In Hindu Religion, the nature of Brahman is described
transpersonal, personal and impersonal nu different philosophical schools.
Sect: A type of religious organization that stands apart from the larger society. The member of
sect has rigid religious belief and refuse the belief of others.

Cult: A cult is a religious groups with irregular and novel beliefs and practices. In 1932 Howard
P Becker , a American sociologists introduced the concept of cult into sociological classification.

System of Kinship system:

It refers to a group of persons recognized as relatives either by blood relationship or marriage
relationship.
Family, household, marriage.

Good communication is an important tool to maintain good relationship among members of
the family. Sociologists define family as a group of people. They are united by ties of marriage ,
ancestry or adoption.
Function of family :
Nurturance of children
Economic Cooperation
Provide child with models from whom that can learn gender appropriate roles.
Forms of family:
Consanguinal family : All blood relation in sociology is known are called as consanguinity.
Example: The relationship between mother and son/daughter , sister and brother/sister , father
and son/daughter are called consanguinal.

Conjugal family : All relationship through marriage are called affinity. Eg:- Relationship
between father/mother in-law and daughter -/ son-in-law are affinal

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The sociology of the family examines the family as a unit of socialization.

Households: The basic residential units that implement are:-
Economic production
Consumption
Inheritance
Child marriage
Shelter.

Female headed Households

In 1970s 45 percent were nuclear families and 4.7% households were single parent.

In 1998s 26 percent household were nuclear families and 18.2% households were single
parent families.

Types and form of the family:

The family has been classified into 3 types on the basis of marriage:


i) Polygamous or polygynous family.
ii) Polyandrous family
iii) Monogamous family


Family can be classified into 3 main forms on basis of nature of residence:-
i) Family of Matrilocal residence
ii) Family of patrilocal residence
iii) Family of changing residence.
Family can be classified into 2 main types on the basis of ancestry:-
Matrilineal family
Patrilineal family

Family can be classified into 2 main types on the basis size or structure:-
Nuclear or the single unit family
Joint family


Lineage and descent

Descent group is a social group in which membership depends on common descent from a real
ancestor. The member of descent group talk about common ancestry.
Lineage is an unilineal descent group in which membership rest either on patrilineage or an
matrilineage.

Patriarchy and sexual division of labour

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Patriarchy: It is a social system in which males are the primary authority figures. It also means
rule of the father in a male dominated family. It is central to social organization occupying roles
of political leadership, moral authority and control property. It implicit the institution the
institutions of male rule and privilege. It is sociological construct which considers men as
superior to women.
Sexual division of labour (SDL) is a basic structural element in human social organization.
Human have highly developed sexual division of labour in food production. They are the
primates that share food on regular basis.


10. Social change in modern society: Social change in modern society refers
to change in the social order of a society . It include change in nature, social institutions ,
social behaviors or social relations.
Modernization: The process of moving from an agrarian to industrial society.
Characteristic of modern societies:-
Larger role of government in society and bureaucracy to run governments. Forming of
social institutions to regulate behavior . laws and sanctions to regulate behavior.
Control over and management of environment resources: oil, water, land, animals etc.
The ability to adapt expect and desire continuous change.
Example: Change of governments, replacing goods and services such as cars, phone
services, marriage.
3 aspects of social change:-

Social change is necessarily a process of change with no reference to the quality of
change.
Change in society is linked to changes in culture. Social change is defined as change
in the social structure including the changes in the size of society. Culture changes
refers to variation in cultural phenomena such as knowledge and ideas, art, religion
moral doctrines , values , beliefs , symbol system and so on.


i) Sociological theories of social change: Sociological theories is a group of
ideas. It provide an explanation for human society.


There are 3 basic theories of social change:-
Evolutionary theory or evolutionary
perspective Functionalist theory
Conflict theory


According to evolutionary theory societies moves in specific functions. The
concept of social evolution was taken from theories of biological evolution.
Herbert Spencer put forward an analog between social and organic growth

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and between society and an organization. The theories of social are made of

one or more of the following principles : change , order, direction , progress and
perfectibility. Some evolutionists add to the principles of change the concept that
change must have an order and some evolutionists combine the principles of
change.
Due to this early evolutionists they saw society as progressing to higher levels.
They concluded their own culture attitudes. Behaviors were more advanced than
those of earlier societies. Sometimes it is difficult in evolutionary theory to
differentiate simple direction from progress.
Auguste Comet father of sociology subscribed to social evolution. He saw human
societies as progressing into using scientific methods.
Emile Durkheim is one of the founders of functionalism. He saw societies as moving
from simple to complex social structures.


Functionalist theory:

Functionalist sociologists attention on what maintains society. Functionalist believe that
society like the human body is a balanced system. Each institution serves a function in
maintaining society.
According to them, changes come from three sources:-

1) Adjustments of the system to exogeneous change (e.g. war, conquest).

2) Growth through structural and functional differentiation (e.g. changes in the size
of population through births and deaths)
3) Innovations by members of groups within society (example: inventions and
discovery in a society)
According to equilibrium theory changes in one aspect of society require adjustment in
other aspects. Equilibrium disappears when these adjustment do not occur and it
threatening social order. Talcolt Parsons equilibrium theory include the evolutionary
concept of continuing process. Critics argue that functionalist minimize the effects of
change. They also argue that functionalist ignore the use of force by societys powerful
to maintain a mirage of stability.



Conflict theory:

Conflict theory is Weber Marxist based theory. It argues that individuals and groups
within society have different amounts of material and non material resources. It
emphasize the social, political or material inequality of a social group. Father of the
social conflict theory is Karl Marx.
Many social scientists have compared the socialist economy and social organization
with western capitalist economy and organization.

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Agents of social change. Agents of social change do not have particular name and
social change is the movement of people toward change in the economic, environment
and social justice.


Dependency theory: This theory states that colonialism and neocolonialism have
created unequal economic relations between poor and wealthy countries. It is used to
explain the failure of non industrialized countries to develop economically without
being affected of investments from industrial countries.


Education and social change

Education can be used as a tool to authorize the individual. Students are able to see
their own role in transformation through child centered learning and societal change
comes from the common transformation of the individuals. Education has brought
about phenomenal changes in every features of mens life. It has been chiefly
instrumental in preparing the way for the development of science and technology.
Francis J. Brown stated that education is a process which brings changes in the
behavior of society. It enables every individual to completely participated in the
activities of society. It is process to make positive contribution to the progress of
society. Education is one of the major agency of socialization and teachers and
educational institutions as socializing agents.


Three things are important in describing education as an instrument:-
The agents of change
The content of change

Social background of those who are sought to be changed i.e. students

The educational system of any society is related to its total social system and the main
functions of the educational system is to transmit the cultural heritage to the new
generation



Science, technology and social change.

Technological advances such as automobiles , airplanes , radio , television , cellular
phones , computers , modems and fax machines have brought major advances and
changes to the world. Certainly, twentieth century technology has completely changed
the way people meet , interact, learn, work, play , travel , worship and do business.
It referred to as science and technology studies.

It is the study of how social ,political and cultural values affect scientific research and
technological innovation.

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Science, technology and social change scholars are interested in a variety of problems.
It included the relationship between scientific and technological innovation. STS is a
new and expanding subject.
The following have affected the attitudes, attitudes, values and behavior of
people across societies:-
The modern society

Means of transportation
Medicine
Surgery

Mass media of communication

Space and computers technology etc.


Example: Automobiles and other means of modern transportation have spread culture
by increasing interaction among people who live far away from each other.