Well Control Equip

(1) WELL CONTROL EQUIP.
7/15/2007 M A-Mohsen
Introduction
Well control equipment is the second and last line of defense. Although there are many factors which may
contribute to a blow-out, faulty equipment and equipment control have statistically been predominant causes to
these events.
Selecting the appropriate equipment (capacity, pressure rating etc.) and maintaining its integrity are
prerequisites in preventing such a calamity. Drilling contractor personnel and operator personnel alike should be
fully familiar with well control equipment, with respect to function, limitation, and how to operate it, should
there be a kick situation.
5.1.1 FUNCTION
The function of well control equipment is to close off the well bore and stop a well flow in case of loss of
primary control, and to be able to keep the bottom hole pressure equal to the formation pressure while preparing
for and restoring primary control.
Well control equipment includes: the preventer stack, the last set casing string, the well headand auxiliary
equipment such as the choke and kill manifoldand the control unitas well as some srill string components.
Well control equipment can provide proper protection only if the pressure rating is adequate. For this reason a
working pressure classification has been introduced for all well control equipment.
5.1.2 WORKING PRESSURE CLASSIFICATION
Well control equipment is divided into several working pressure (WP) classifications. The choice of equipment
depends on the maximum expected surface pressure that could be encountered during drilling and workover
operations.
The most common pressure ratings are:
13,800 kPa (2,000 psi) WP. / 20,700 kPa (3,000 psi) WP. / 34,500 kPa (5,000 psi) WP.
69,000 kPa (10,000 psi) WP. / 103,500 kPa (15,000 psi) WP.
Although the minimum requirements for each WP classification are well and area specific, some of the general
considerations follow below:
5.1.3 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The following considerations should be taken into account when selecting well control equipment:
The equipment should be selected to withstand the maximum anticipated surface pressures and meet
governmental regulations.
On offshore wells the specifications will generally fall into the 34,500 kPa (5,000 psi) WP and higher
with a trend to the 69,000 kPa (10,000 psi) WP classification.
The blow-out preventer stack should consist of remote controlled equipment capable of closing in the
well with or without the pipe in the hole.
Welded, flanged or hub connections are mandatory on high pressure systems above 13,800 kPa (2,000
psi).
In some areas well control equipment suitable for sour service may be required; in such cases the
complete high pressure BOP system should be fabricated of materials resistant to sulphide stress
cracking.
The response time of surface BOPs should be as specified in API RP53, i.e. the closing system should
be capable of closing each ram preventer within 30 seconds; the closing time should not exceed 30
seconds for annular preventers smaller than 508 mm (20 in) and 45 seconds for annular preventers of
508 mm (20 in) and larger.
Although pressure rating of the equipment is the first concern, the layout of the stack is also critical.
5.1.4 MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS
Depending on the working pressure the surface blow-out prevention equipment must also comply with
minimum compositional requirements.
The number and type of BOPs to be used, apart from size, depends on expected formation pressure and the
probability of these pressures (i.e. are we drilling in a known area or wild-catting). The higher the expected
pressures, the greater the precaution needs to be (i.e. more BOPs to provide redundancy).
Well killing system
5.2.1 INTRODUCTION
When primary control has been lost and formation fluids enter the well bore, a hydrostatic overbalance is no
longer maintained. Instead we have a pressure balance in the annulus between the formation pressure and the
sum of the hydrostatic heads of the fluids in the annulus plus viscous friction losses due to flow plus the back
pressure applied at the surface. If no, or insufficient, back pressure is applied the rate of flow from formation to
well will increase until the friction losses in the annulus enable equilibrium to be reached. The result is a blow
out.
This pressure balance is maintained in static conditions by closing off the annulus at the surface by means of the
BOPs. Flow will then only continue until the well head pressure has increased to the difference between the
formation pressure and the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid column in the annulus.
Under dynamic conditions (i.e. during well killing operations) the balance is maintained and additional inflow is
prevented by applying a calculated back pressure which is equal to the formation pressure minus the hydrostatic
head in the annulus minus the friction losses plus a safety factor. Given that the hydrostatic head in the annulus
will vary as the initial volume of formation fluid flows up the well, especially if it is gas, and as kill mud is
pumped down the drill pipe and enters the annulus, it is necessary to vary the applied back pressure. This is
done by passing the flow through a restriction whose size can be changed in a quantifiable manner. Such a
restriction is called an adjustable choke.
The well control equipment on a rig normally contains two adjustable chokes, situated in what is, logically,
called a choke manifold .
5.2.2 CHOKE MANIFOLD Figure 3.5.2 : A choke manifold
A choke manifold is an assembly of valves, as
depicted in Figure 3.5.2, through which the return
flow from the well is routed when the blow-out
preventers are closed, with the purpose of
applying a calculated back pressure. Choke
manifolds may be assembled in a variety of
layouts but they will always include at least two
adjustable chokes. In some cases this may be one
manual choke and one remote controlled choke as
shown in Figure 3.5.2. The manifold provides
alternative flow paths for the fluid so that if
necessary chokes can be changed and valves
repaired without stopping the flow.
All the high pressure parts of the manifold should have the same working pressure rating as the BOP stack.
The manifold is connected to the hydraulically operated choke line valve and the B0P stack by a high-pressure
flexible hose, or alternatively a high pressure steel line. The flexible hose is a specially designed steel armoured
hose. Ordinary kelly hoses are not considered suitable.
The manifold has to be adequately secured because it may be subjected to violent forces and vibration during
certain stages of well killing.
Valve settings
Of the two choke line valves on or adjacent to the stack, the inner manual valve is kept open, and the second
(the remotely controlled hydraulically activated gate valve) kept closed during drilling. All other valves and
chokes in the line to the mud/gas separator, are kept open with the exception of the valve immediately upstream
of each of the chokes and the second valve in the bypass line after the cross (the centre flow line, the one
without a choke).
Wherever two valves are fitted it is standard practice that the second valve is the one operated and the first one
used as backup, in case the second one fails.
When two manual chokes are installed either one can be used. When a manual choke and a remote controlled
choke are installed, the remote controlled choke is the one normally used, keeping the manual choke as a
standby choke. Before taking over the shift the driller should make sure that all the valves on the choke
manifold are set as described above.
5.2.3 VALVES
All high pressure valves used on the casing head housing, wellhead spools, drilling spools and in the choke and
kill manifold, should have steel seats and full gauge opening
Gate valves, e.g. Cameron and WKM, are commonly used in rig manifolds. It is however possible that in some
cases plug valves, e.g. Halliburton Lo-Torc valves, have been installed. Such valves are normally prohibited for
this application.
CHOKE AND KILL LINE OUTLET VALVES
Owing to area and contractor specific requirements, it is not feasible to specify a standard layout, but the
following minimum requirements should be adhered to:
The choke line must have a minimum ID of 76.2 mm (3"), the kill line may be as small as 50.8 mm (2"),
albeit that this might restrain operational flexibility should immediate substitution of a choke line be
required. During normal operation, the inner (usually manual) choke and kill line valves should remain
open and the outer (hydraulically operated) valves closed such as to prevent excessive solids build-up in
these lines.
Wellhead outlets should, under normal operating conditions, not be used for a choke and kill line tie-in.
If the kill line is not meant to ultimately replace or augment the choke line, it is highly desirable to
install a check valve upstream of the stack valves.
HYDRAULICALLY OPERATED CHOKE LINE VALVE
This type of valve is an adapted gate valve, e.g. Cameron type LSF,
provided with a double acting hydraulic cylinder mounted on the bonnet
cap.
The stemof the valve is connected to the piston in the cylinder. When
hydraulic pressure is applied to the bottom of the cylinder, the piston and
gate move upwards and the valve opens. When the hydraulic pressure is on
the top of the cylinder the valve will close.
A handwheel and locking screw are provided to close the valve manually if
required.
The lower stuffing box and tail rod on the stemhave a three-fold function:
To act as a pressure balance for the stemwhich connects the gate to
the operating piston.
To keep the grease packed in the gate cavity of the valve body.
To serve as an indicator whether the valve is "open" or "closed".

Figure 3.5.5 : Hydraulically operated
gate valve
"HCR" PRESSURE OPERATED GATE VALVE
On several rigs an older type remote control gate valve may be found, the "HCR valve" (see Figure 3.5.6). This
pressure operated gate valve is a flow line valve requiring relatively low operating pressures. The closing ratio
of well pressure to hydraulic operating pressure is approximately 8 to 1. The gate is packed with elements
similar to the "QRC" ram assembly. These valves are made to hold pressure from one side only. It is therefore
of crucial importance that during installation the correct side will face the BOP stack. The flow direction is
usually indicated by an arrow on the body of the valve.
"HCR" pressure operated gate valves are available in 4" or 6" sizes, either 3,000 psi or 5,000 psi WP, and have
standard API flanges. Figure 3.5.6 : HCR pressure operated gate valve
WKM GATE VALVE
The WKM gate valve has parallel expanding gates which
produce an extraordinarily high seating force against both the
upstream and downstream seats simultaneously. This seating
force is entirely mechanical and unaffected by line pressure
fluctuations or vibration (see Figure 3.5.4).

During opening or closing, the gate and segment match at all four surfaces. The face-to-face width of the gate-
segment assembly is less than the distance between the
upstream and downstream seats, thus the gates move freely
between the seats.
In the closed position, the upper matching surfaces of gate and
segment are in solid contact. The gate wedges against the
segment, expanding the gate-segment assembly outward
against the seats. This expansion is controlled by the
downward movement of the gate, so that an extremely high
seating pres-sure is obtained.
In the open position, the two bottom angles are in contact and
the gate-segment assembly expands, sealing off against the
seats. Expansion is controlled by the upward movement of the
gate. Flow is isolated from the valve body when the valve is
fully opened.
CAMERON TYPE F GATE VALVE
This valve has a stationary stem. The non rising stem is
provided with a back seat which separates the stuffing box
from the bonnet flange. To prevent damage to the internal
parts, in case excessive torque is applied, the handwheel,
connected to the spindle, is equipped with a safety pin (shear pin).
These valves use the floating gate design, in which the line pressure forces the gate into sealing contact with a
metal seal ring, creating a metal to metal seal. The seat ring and its seal ring are in turn forced against the body
sealing surface to complete the sealing process.
On early valves the seat rings had 24 teeth cut into the outer circumference which aligned with a dog
mechanism on the gate. Each time the valve was opened the seat ring was rotated 15 degrees. This provided
even wear on the seat rings and extended seat ring life. However, the seat rings tended to seize in the retainer
plates which were used and invariably were cracked by the dog mechanism. For this reason the rotating seats
were phased out.
The current version of the type F gate valve is the FL as shown in Figure 3.5.3, plus its variant the FLS valve.
The FLS variant has an improved seat-to-body seal and is the one most commonly used in Group operations.
Because the gate floats differential pressure will cause excessive friction. It is often therefore a problem to
operate these valves under pressure; sometimes cheaters have to be used to turn the handwheel. If the
differential pressure over the valve is too great this pressure
should be equalised before opening.
5.2.4 CHOKES
The choke is normally an adjustable orifice installed in the
return line. It is used to restrict the flow area so that the
pressure drop of the returns through this line can be regulated
while a kick is circulated out.
Three types of chokes may be encountered in choke
manifolds:
The manual adjustable choke.
The replaceable fixed choke.
The remote controlled choke.
MANUAL ADJUSTABLE CHOKE Figure 3.5.3 : The Cameron type FL gate valve
Figure 3.5.7 shows a typical needle valve type manual adjustable choke. The stem and seat area are of tungsten
carbide to make them more wear resistant; it must be understood that a
choke is not meant to be used as a valve. The tool is designed to create a
flow restriction and not to provide a high-pressure seal. Washed out
sealing areas are also common. Therefore the choke must be used for
initial closing in only and should immediately be backed up by closing the
upstream valve. This type of choke should not be left "closed" for long
periods of time. Temperature expansion of the needle can damage the seat
and the needle may "freeze" in the seat.
FIXED CHOKE
Instead of using an adjustable spindle valve, the seat can be replaced by
different sizes of "beans". Such chokes are used only if the well returns
will have to be produced at a constant rate over a considerable period of
time, such as is common during production tests. Fixed chokes are
sometimes referred to as positive chokes.
The choke body in such a set-up is provided with a cap instead of a needle
assembly. Figure 3.5.7 : Manually operated choke
REMOTE CONTROLLED CHOKE
Remote controlled chokes are operated from a panel, usually on the rig floor (see Figure 3.5.8). This operating
panel should include:
a drill pipe pressure gauge
an annulus pressure gauge
a pump stroke counter
a choke selection switch
a maximum allowable annulus
pressure setting regulator
(optional)
a choke control lever
and throttles for the pumps
(optional)
There are different remote controlled
chokes, some of which have specific
operating characteristics that may
affect the well killing operation. It is
therefore important to check details of
the unit installed. Some examples are
given overleaf.
CAMERON AX CHOKE
The Cameron AX choke(Figure 3.5.9)
is a choke which uses a sleeve that Figure 3.5.8 : Choke control console
moves in and out of a tapered seat. It is available for pressures from 34,500 kPa (5,000 psi) to 140,000 kPa
(20,000 psi). The movement is controlled by a double acting hydraulic cylinder. The choking action starts when
the sleeve approaches and then enters the tapered seat. Here again the wear areas are of tungsten carbide.
The choke in this case does not form a positive seal, and thus an upstream valve must be closed after the choke
is "closed".

Figure 3.5.9 : Cameron drilling choke (5000 - 15000 psi WP)

SWACO SUPER CHOKE
The Swaco Super Choke (Figure 3.5.10) is a hydraulically
operated valve available in working pressures of up to
138,000 kPa (20,000 psi) . The size of the orifice is
determined by the overlapping portions of half moon
openings in two flat, highly polished tungsten carbide discs
which rotate with respect to each other. The downstream
disc is fixed while the upstream disc may be rotated up to
180 degrees by a hydraulically driven rotary actuator. The
power required to rotate the plates is minimal. One main
advantage of this choke is that it provides metal to metal
shut off and, when closed, it will hold
pressure and can therefore be used to
shut the well in. It is capable of
manual as well as hydraulic operation.
To replace the tungsten carbide orifice
plates it is necessary to break the line
on the downstream side of the choke to
gain access.
Figure 3.5.10 : Swaco super choke

5.2.5 HIGH-PRESSURE (HP) LINES AND HOSES
HAMMER UNIONS
The connection between HP equipment is normally a fixed set-up consisting ofsteel pipes. Only in temporary
hook-ups are steel swings used. These swings are provided with hammer unions.
A union mostly consists of four parts:
A male sub with convex sealing face.
A female sub with a concave sealing face, an external square thread and an inner recess for a seal ring.
A hammer nut with square threads and two or three lugs.
A rubber seal ring.
The convex shape of the sub serves for self alignment when making up the union; this improves make up speed
and ensures proper seating of the sealing surfaces.
It is important that rig site personnel should inspect both sealing surfaces as well as the rubber seal when
making up the connections.
It is also important that the individual parts of the union should be checked for the correct pressure rating (type)
before making up. Some of the pressure classes have nuts and female subs which differ only slightly in
dimensions e.g. a WECO union type 1502 nut fits a type 1002 female sub, but the threads engage over a small
area only. When high pressure is applied the union expands and comes apart. When large volumes are involved
this can cause severe accidents. It is a good practice to secure the union connection with a safety chain or
properly clamped steel wire. Figure 3.5.11 : Hammer union
CHIKSAN SWIVEL JOINT
Relatively short sections of jointed pipe called "swings"
are used to hook up a temporary line, for example.
between cementing pump and cementing head.

Figure 3.5.12 : Swing in folded position
The flexibility of a swing is achieved by a number of
swivel joints installed in between the straight pipe sections.
A swivel joint (Figure 3.5.13) consists of a sealed ball bearing construction. The balls act as a retainer and
bearing which is packed with grease. In addition the construction is such that it prevents the swivel joint from
coming apart at the applied pressure.
These swivel joints, often called
chicksans, are supplied in long or short
sweep bends.
In confined spaces and for static
pressure, e.g. the hydraulic operating
lines for the BOPs, short sweep
chicksans are used. Long sweeps are
preferred in circulating lines, to reduce
the frictional pressure drop.
HIGH-PRESSURE HOSES Figure 3.5.13 : Chiksan swivel joint
Construction
High pressure hoses are basically built up of three main
parts: An inner hose, a carcass, and an outer hose. The
inner hose is internally flush and its material should be
resistant to the fluids it has to convey.
Generally braided steel wires are vulcanised in the
rubber. Figure 3.5.14 : HP hose (Stena-Coflexip design)
The outer layer of the hose or sheath is intended to protect the reinforcement against corrosion and wear.
Hose connections
The hose connections should at least have the same strength as the hose. The weakest point of a hose is always
just behind the connection, as the hose has the tendency to kink at that point.
Handling
Each hose has a minimum bending radius (MBR) which is specified by its manufacturer. This should always be
respected in order to avoid damage to the hose. If the manufacturers specification is unavailable a rule of thumb
is that the MBR is twelve times the ID.
Bending the hose close to the end fittings should be avoided - as a rule of thumb the bend should not commence
closer than twice the OD from the fitting.
Twisting the hose should also be avoided - the rule of thumb in this case is that the maximum twist is 1 per
three feet or metre.
These handling rules apply not only to hoses but also to flexible steel pipes
The sketches show the right and wrong ways of handling hoses in various situations
BOP stack equipment
Blow-out control equipment must be simple and reliable but still sophisticated enough to suit a broad range of
applications.
A BOP stack should have a large enough internal diameter to pass the drilling tools. For the shallow part of the
hole a large diameter stack or diverter set-up with low working pressure ratings is required, while for the deeper
sections smaller inside diameters, but high working pressure rating are needed.
When all of these qualifications plus the operational characteristics, such as quick operation and reliable
sealing, have been incorporated, a blow-out preventer stack has become a heavy, massive piece of equipment.
Although all these items look indestructible, they should be watched carefully and inspections, tests and
maintenance executed conscientiously. Not seldom was a blow-out the result of damaged or failing BOP
equipment.
This topic will deal with annular and ram-type preventers and diverters.
5.3.1 ANNULAR PREVENTERS
GENERAL
The annular preventer (also called bag type, spherical or universal preventer) is the most versatile piece of
equipment on the BOP stack since it can close around casing, drill pipe, drill collars, wireline and even close an
open hole. The rubber packing elements of the annular preventers, which allow this flexibility, are also subject
to wear and abuse. Treated properly, the packing unit of the annular preventer has a long, reliable life span, but
it can be destroyed in a very short time or very few closing cycles by improper use.
The following factors influence the life span of annular preventers:
The closing pressure as regulated through the control system should be as low as practically possible in
order to maximise the life of the packing unit.
Testing the annular preventer under high test pressures significantly shortens the life of the packing unit.
Closing the annular preventer without pipe in the hole will shorten the life of the packing unit, especially
when high closing pressures are required to achieve this.
Motion reversal is hard on the packing unit, so pipe should be moved as far as possible in one direction
before reversing the direction (i.e. long strokes).
Spare packing units should be stored in a dark, cool room.
Closing time of annular preventers
The main disadvantage of the annular preventer is the time required to close it. The annular preventer takes
three to ten times the volume of fluid to close, compared to a set of rams, and therefore requires a longer closing
time. Even though current regulations specify a 38 mm (11/2") minimum diameter hydraulic control line, many
surface stacks may still have hydraulic lines to the annular preventer that are smaller, or have a restriction in
them which prevents rapid closing. Raising the closing pressure does not help as much as using larger lines and
fittings. In addition it increases the wear on the packing unit. The small lines and/or restrictions make the
packing unit movement inflexible when trying to strip, and cause excessive packing unit wear during stripping
operations, especially when tool joints are passing through it.
The regulator valve , used to regulate the annular preventer closing pressure, should allow fluid passage back
through it if the line pressure increases. That way the packing unit can open against the closing pressure while
stripping a tool joint. It is very important to see to it that this regulator is in good shape, that there are no check
valves ahead of it (often present in the four-way valve), or that it has been replaced by a plain regulator.
The arrangement where a small accumulator bottle (surge bottle) is placed in the closing line of the annular
preventer, to allow for hydraulic fluid movement when stripping, is very desirable from the viewpoint of
reducing packing unit wear. This arrangement is recommended for all surface and subsurface stacks.
There are some differences in the operation of the various annular preventers. Therefore the most commonly
used types will be discussed.
HYDRIL GK ANNULAR PREVENTER
The Hydril GK annular preventer (Figure 3.5.16) is the most common annular preventer in use, particularly in
surface stack installations, and is unique in its response to well pressures. Like most other annular preventers,
the preventer is closed with about 5,520 kPa (800 psi) pressure. The Hydril GK annular preventer with a
working pressure of less than 69,000 kPa (10,000 psi) is however also energised by the well pressure so that
when the well pressure increases, the closing pressure must be reduced to avoid damaging the packing unit.
This wellhead pressure assist is derived from its piston configuration and applies also to the GL and MSP types
of annular preventers (except the 749.3 mm/295", 3,450 kPa/500 psi unit) The manufacturer's instructions on
Hydril annular preventers should be consulted for more detailed information. Charts, determining operating
pressures, are also provided in the manufacturer's literature.
The packing element Figure 3.5.16 : Hydril GK annular preventer
The packing element or unit has steel
segments, vulcanised into the rubber
body, to reinforce it and limit the
amount of extrusion of the rubber
when it is activated Figure 3.5.16a
shows how the packing unit extrudes
due to the vertical movement of the
piston, whose taper squeezes the
packing rubber inward.
The type of elastomer (natural rubber,
synthetic rubber or neoprene) used in
the packing element should be the
most suitable for the particular well conditions. Refer to Table 3.5.1.
Table 3.5.1 : Packing unit selection Figure 3.5.16a : Packing element of Hydril GK annular preventer

Replacing a worn packing unit is fairly simple:
Bleed off operating pressure.
Unlock and remove preventer cover.
Lift out worn packing unit.
Check seals on head and piston.
Drop in new packing unit, and replace and lock cover.
Should the packing unit have to be replaced while pipe is in the hole, the packing unit has
to be cut with a knife between two steel segments, preferably at 90 to the lifting eye bolt
holes.
It is also advisable to use the kelly and a special cover break-out sub with plate for this job
(see Figure 3.5.17). The tools required are lifting bolts with the correct thread for the
packing element and lifting bolts with the correct thread and sufficiently long to lift the
piston out.

Figure 3.5.17 : Cover
break plate

NL SHAFFER SPHERICAL ANNULAR PREVENTER
Figure 3.5.18 NL Shaffer spherical annular preventer
The NL Shaffer spherical annular preventer uses a
closing piston that forces the rubber packing
element up against a concave cover, which in turn
forces the packing element to close. NL Shaffer
suggests a closing pressure of 10,350 kPa (1,500
psi) in its literature, but also notes that the pressure
should be reduced according to the operating
characteristic tables if the pipe is to be moved.
Figure 3.5.19 illustrates the action of the packing
element. Steel segments moulded into the element
partially close over the top of the rubber to prevent
excessive extrusion when sealing high pressures.
These segments always move out of the well bore
when the element is opened, even when the element is old and worn far beyond normal replacement conditions.

Figure 3.5.19 : Action of the packing element of NL Shaffer spherical annular preventers

Figure 3.5.19a: Detail of the packing
element
Only the top portion of the rubber, in the spherical sealing element, contacts
the drill string or kelly. Most of the rubber is held in reserve, to be used for
sealing once abrasion makes it necessary. This large reservoir of rubber makes
it possible to strip into or out of a hole without replacing the element during the
trip.
Long stripping life is especially valuable in offshore use, because an annular
preventer closed around the drill pipe of a floating vessel, is constantly
exposed to stripping movement due to vessel motion.
Stripping is claimed to be smooth with a spherical BOP because the element
opens and closes easily, due to the steel segments moulded into the rubber.
They make metal-to-metal sliding contact with the sphere of the housing,
providing a low coefficient of friction.

CAMERON TYPE D ANNULAR PREVENTER
The Cameron type D annular preventer, shown in Figure 3.5.20, has a different type of packing element and
piston design. During closing the hydraulic pressure is admitted below the inverted T-shaped operating piston,
moving it and its pusher plate upwards. The upward movement of the pusher plate forces a large solid rubber
toroid (or doughnut) to move the packing
element into the closed position around pipe
or over the open hole.
Figure 3.5.20 : Cameron type D annular preventer
During opening the process is reversed.
Hydraulic pressure above the flange section
of the operating piston forces it downwards
allowing the preventer to open.
When the packing element is closing, its
steel reinforcing members rotate inward to
maintain a continuous steel support ring
around the drill pipe. This prevents packing
element extrusion far more effectively than
the conventional widely spaced radial
fingers .
STRIPPING THROUGH CLOSED PREVENTER
Stripping using the annular preventer is considered the simplest and preferred technique. In order to ensure a
long operating life of the annular packing element it is important to reduce the closing pressure to accommodate
the annular pressures encountered. Thus low annular pressures allow the closing pressures to be as low as 3,450
kPa (500 psi), whereas higher pressures (10,350 kPa/1,500 psi) and above could severely reduce the condition
of the element, in particular when tool joints pass through .
To further ensure that the annular is not subjected to excessive pressures as the tool joint is stripped through the
element, a surge dampener must be placed in the closing line (see figure 3.5.22). Any check valve installed in
the closing line - to ensure that the BOP stays closed if
hydraulic supply is lost - should be removed, such that the
annular regulator can be used effectively.
To facilitate the accurate recording of bled-off volumes in the
trip tank, it is advised to install a stripping tank adjacent to the
trip tank (see Figure 3.5.23). The strip tank should be
calibrated to account for the closed-end displacement of the
pipe in use.

Figure 3.5.22 : Surge dampener connected to the closing line of an annular preventer

5.3.2 RAM TYPE PREVENTERS
GENERAL
The ram type blow-out preventer (of which a typical examples are
seen in Figures 3.5.25, 3.5.29a and 3.5.34) is the result of some
seventy years of development. It is an extremely rugged and reliable
piece of equipment. The normal preventer consists of a ram head
with extrudable packer material for sealing and a pipe centring
wedge. The ram head sits on a piston rod, which connects it to the
hydraulic chambers and seals.
Rams can be furnished to fit any size of pipe. Stainless steel rams,
offset rams for multiple completions, as well as shear rams for
cutting off pipe in case of emergency, are available. Figure 3.5.23 : Rig layout for combined stripping and
static volumetric method
Generally the closing pressure is less than 10,350 kPa/1,500 psi. There are however high pressure ram
preventers, notably from Hydril, which require pressures in excess of 13,100 kPa/1,900 psi. The manufacturers'
data should be consulted for more details.
Pipe rams.
BOP pipe rams must form a seal around the pipe and against each other, to seal off well pressure. Ram packing
elements are self feeding and contain a reserve of material in order to assure seal life under wear conditions.
They should however be inspected regularly for wear.
Pipe rams are made to close around a certain size pipe. They should not be closed on open hole with full closing
pressure (10,350 kPa or 1,500 psi), as the packer will be damaged by extrusion. If pipe rams are to be function
tested on an open hole, it would be better to close them with reduced operating pressure (2,950 kPa or 500 psi)
to avoid damage to the ram packing and also possible damage to the ram face.
When stripping or moving pipe through the rams, there is less wear to the packer element if the closing pressure
is reduced to the minimum value sufficient to effect a seal. This practice is accepted only if sufficient backup
rams are available. Stripping through rams is not in the scope of this course.
Shearing blind rams
Shearing blind rams (SBRs) are rams with blades integral to the body. Under normal operating conditions they
are used as blind rams. If emergency conditions make it necessary to shear the drill pipe, the closing shear rams
will cut the pipe and seal the well bore, regardless of whether the lower section of the cut pipe is suspended on
the lower pipe rams or dropped. If the fish is not dropped, the lower shear ram will bend the cut pipe over a
shoulder and away from the front face of the lower shear ram which then seals against the packer in the upper
shear ram.
The recommended shearing procedure is:
Raise the bit off the bottom and position drill pipe in the preventer so that the tool joint is definitely not
located in the shear ram cavity.
To ensure proper alignment for shearing, a set of pipe rams may be closed before the shear rams are
activated. Also, if the string is not to fall down the hole after being sheared a string may first be landed
on a closed and locked pair of pipe rams some 750 mm (30") below the shear rams. The tool joint and
upset portion of the drill pipe must be below the lower edge of the shear ram cavity to ensure that the
pipe is sheared successfully.
Close the shear blind rams with 20,700 kPa (3,000 psi) operating pressure.
The maximum pipe sizes that can be cut with shear blind rams are limited by preventer size, blade width and
operating system capacity. Typical performances are:
A 1795 mm (71/16") bore BOP can shear up to 1016 mm(4") OD pipe.
A 2794 mm (11") bore BOP can shear up to 127 mm (5") OD pipe .
A 346 mm(135/8") bore BOP can shear up to 1397 mm (51/2") OD pipe.
BOPs with a larger bore are not as limited in blade width or operating system capacity and it is possible to shear
larger OD pipes with them, even though the SBRs were designed to shear standard drill pipes only.
Variable rams
The variable bore ram extends the versatility of the BOP. It allows a single set of rams to seal on several
different sizes of pipe or even on the hexagonal kelly. For example, the variable rams for a 163/4" bore BOP can
seal on diameters from 889 to 1778 mm(31/2" to 7").
Variable bore rams eliminate the need to change rams when different diameter drill strings are used. This can
save a round trip with a subsea BOP stack. One set of variable rams in a stack can provide backup for two
different sizes of standard pipe rams. The string cannot however be hung off on variable rams.
Secondary sealing
Ram preventers (with a rated WP of 34,500 kPa/5,000 psi or higher) are provided with a supply of secondary
rod sealant or packing, and a mechanism to force this sealant into place when the primary rod seal is no longer
effective. This secondary sealant should not be used routinely (and in some cases it should be removed when
testing the primary seal).
As an example the Cameron secondary seal
is shown in Figure 3.5.24.
Similar arrangements can be seen in the NL
Shaffer and Hydril BOPs in Figures 3.5.29a
and 3.5.34.
Locking
When a well has to be closed in for a long
period, or when the drill string is to be
landed on the rams, then these rams have to
be locked by a locking mechanism.
Figure 3.5.24 : Secondary rod seal
On surface BOPs this is usually by means of bolts that are manually operated via extension rods to which
handwheels can be attached. The handwheels must be well accessible and easy to operate. Should there be a
total power failure or a long period without activity the manual lock bolts can be used to close the rams. In such
a case a check should be made that the opening pressure has been bled off !
On subsea BOPs a hydraulic system has to be used to lock the rams. Such hydraulic locks are also becoming
more common on surface BOPs in place of the slower manually operated locking bolts.
Opening and closing ratios
Ram type preventers have specially designed opening and closing ratios (as shown in Table 3.5.2). These are
the ratios between the well pressures and the operating pressures needed to open or close the rams. Closing
ratios are generally of the order of seven to one. That means that a BOP having a closing ratio of seven to one
would require a closing pressure of 3,450 kPa/500 psi to close the rams when the well bore pressure is 24,150
kPa/3,500 psi. Opening ratios are much lower because the well bore pressure acts behind the ram to oppose
opening. Opening ratios of two to one are common.
Examples of Cameron, NL Shaffer and Hydril ram type BOPs are shown in the following pages.
Note that opening rams under pressure is not recommended and might damage equipment. It is also not good safety
practice.
THE HYDRIL RAM TYPE BOP
A Hydril ram type BOP is shown in Figure 3.5.34. This is again a "single" BOP with a manual locking
mechanism designed for land operations. Like the Shaffer system the rams are contained in hinged outer
sections of the housing so that when the latter is hinged open the rams can be removed from them (by applying
the "closing" procedure) and lifted straight up. One particular feature of the Hydril BOP is that two separate
hinges are used at each joint in order to separate the two functions of the hinge, which are to carry the load and
to make a connection for the hydraulic fluid.
Hydril rams are basically similar to those of Cameron and Shaffer. Both the front packer and the upper seal are
bonded to anti-extrusion plates and are easily replaceable in the ram itself. See Figure 3.5.37.
The mechanical locking mechanism used by Hydril is virtually identical to the one used by Shaffer.
Hydril's hydraulic locking mechanism is called Multiple Position Locking (MPL) and also locks the rams
automatically each time that they are closed. This is shown in Figures 3.5.35 & 3.5.36. It consists of a nut with a
very coarse pitch thread - three turns per foot, six start - working in combination with a clutch that has
asymmetric teeth on the engaging faces such that when they are in contact rotation is possible in one direction
but not in the other (i.e. a sort of rotating ratchet). The nut is free to turn but is constrained from moving along
the shaft by thrust bearings in the housing. One clutch plate is fixed to the nut and the other rides on splines in
the housing so that it can move to disengage from the other plate (plus nut) but cannot rotate. It is normally kept
in contact with the other plate by means of springs.

Figure 3.5.35 : Hydril's MPL automatic ram locking mechanism

Figure 3.5.36 : Detail ofHydril's MPL automatic ram locking mechanism
The clutch is arranged so that when closing pressure is applied the ram moves inwards and the coarse thread can
rotate the nut. If pressure is released the piston and ram tries to move outwards but the clutch prevents the nut
from rotating and the whole mechanism is locked. The design of the piston and cylinder is such that when
opening pressure is applied the cylinder move along its axis, just enough to press against the outside clutch plate
and compress the springs far enough to disengage the two plates and allow the nut to rotate.
SHAFFER RAM TYPE BOP
Figure 3.5.29a shows an Shaffer triple
ram type blow-out preventer. It shows
that blow-out preventers are not
necessarily manufactured as single
units. This specific design is very
compact, and therefore attractive for
situations where there is little head
room below the substructure. It does,
however, have the disadvantage that if
one preventer body is damaged the
whole stack must be sent for repair.
Figure 3.5.29b : Hydraulic connections
The special design features of the Shaffer BOP are that each ram and its operator are completely self-contained
in the end section, with hydraulic connections built into the hinge. This eliminates drainage problems and the
need to break or remake connections when changing or servicing rams. Rams are easily changed by unbolting
and swinging open the doors. The bottom doors swing out from under the upper cylinders so a hoisting line can
be attached directly to the rams for easy handling.
In Shaffer rams sealing is effected on the top side and the faces of the rams by one single rubber, which is held
in place by a block bolted to the holder. A selection is shown in Figure 3.5.30.
The shear rams cut pipe and seal the well bore in one operation. These rams also function as CSO (complete
shut-off) rams for normal operations. When shearing, the lower blade passes below the sharp lower edge of the
upper ram block and shears the pipe as shown in Figure 3.5.31. The lower section of cut pipe is accommodated
in the space between the lower blade and the upper holder. The upper section of cut pipe is accommodated in
the recess in the top of the lower ram block.
Figure 3.5.31 : The operation of NL Shaffer shear rams
The closing motion of the rams continues until the ram
block ends meet. Continued closing of the holder
squeezes the semicircular seals upward into sealing
contact with the seat in the BOP body. These seals have
moulded in steel half-rings which limit the squeeze
imparted to them by the holders. The horizontal seal is
energised at the same time as the semicircular seal. The
closing motion of the upper holder pushes the horizontal
seal forward and downward on top of the lower blade
resulting in a tight sealing contact. The horizontal seal
has a moulded-in support plate which holds it in place
when the rams are open.
For the size of pipes which can be cut in the several types
of preventers reference must be made to the
manufacturer's manual..
Casing shear rams
Conventional shear rams are designed to crush the pipe and then shear the flattened mass. That presents a
problem when large diameter pipe has to be cut. If an attempt was made to cut 133/8" casing, for example,in an
183/4" bore preventer using conventional shear rams, the pipe would not be cut but be crushed and jammed in
the bore of the preventer. In addition there may be severe damage to the shear ram blade and the preventer
cavity. This is due to the lack of available space between the casing OD and the preventer bore ID. The type V
rams of Shaffer have cutting blades that overcome this problem and prevent excessive flattening of the casing
during shear by spreading the cutting stress uniformly over the casing circumference. For instance 133/8" casing
would not swell more than up to 15", giving the additional benefit that the lower portion of the sheared casing
can be retrieved more easily by conventional fishing tools. Note that in order to accomplish the above these
preventers should be fitted with large sized cylinders plus boosters).
CAMERON TYPE U RAM TYPE BOP
Cameron type U BOPs are available as single or as double units. A cut-away drawing of a single type U BOP
(i.e. with only one pair of rams), is shown in Figure 3.5.25.
Diagrams showing the type in three operating positions are presented in Figure 3.5.26.
Figure 3.5.26 : Type U BOP operation

Open position (Figure 3.5.26a). Hydraulic
pressure is supplied via port J to the ram
side of the ram pistons E. The closing
fluid returns via port K.
Closed position (Figure 3.5.26b).
Hydraulic pressure is supplied via port K
to the locking bolt side of the ram pistons
E. The opening fluid returns then via port
J .
Replacement of rams (Figure 3.5.26c).
The ram closing pressure on port K also
serves to open the bonnets to give access
to the rams. When the bonnet bolts are
unscrewed and closing pressure is applied,
hydraulic fluid pushes the rams inward
and at the same time moves the bonnets
away from the preventer body. Even
though the rams move inward the bonnet
stroke is sufficient to bring the rams out of
the preventer bore.
Applying opening pressure on port J will now
close the bonnets. The hydraulic fluid then draws
the bonnets back against the preventer body. After
the rams have been pulled back the bonnet bolts serve to hold the bonnets closed.
In Cameron rams the material of the packing element is bonded to steel plates, which confine it to the sealing
area. A selection of rams for the type U BOP is shown in Figure 3.5.27.
The variable bore ram packer contains steel reinforcing inserts similar to those in the type "D" annular BOP
packer. The inserts rotate inward when the rams are closed so that the steel provides solid support for the rubber
which seals against the pipe. The inserts serve the same purpose as the retainer plates in the standard type "U"
pipe ram packer.
In standard fatigue tests variable bore ram packers have shown excellent performance, comparable to that of
standard pipe ram packers.
The mechanical locking mechanism used by Cameron is a simple bolt engaging the thread in a "locking screw
housing" that is flanged onto the bonnet. Like most mechanical systems it can be used to close the rams in the
absence of hydraulic power, but cannot re-open them as there is no solid connection with the operating piston -
it can "push" but not "pull". The sub-sea system is called a "wedge lock", using hydraulic power to force a
wedge across the end of an extension rod attached to the operating piston as shown in Figure 3.5.28.
Figure 3.5.28 : Hydraulic ram lock mechanism
Locking mechanism
The mechanical locking mechanism used by Shaffer is a bolt
which screws not into a housing but into the ram shaft itself. Once
the rams are closed the locking shaft is backed out of the ram shaft
until a collar shoulders against the cylinder head. This can be seen
in Figure 3.5.32. It too can be used to close the rams in the absence
of hydraulic power, but cannot re-open them. An advantage of this
system is that threads on the manual locking shaft are enclosed in
the hydraulic fluid and are not exposed to corrosion from mud and
salt water or to freezing.

Figure 3.5.32 : Manual locking system for NL Shaffer rams
Shaffer call their sub-sea system "Poslock". This is shown in Figure 3.5.33. Poslock operators automatically
lock the rams each time they are closed. This eliminates the additional complication and cost of a second
hydraulic function for locking the rams. It also simplifies the emergency operation, because the rams are both
closed and locked just by activating the close function.

Figure 3.5.33 : Hydraulic locking system for NL Shaffer rams ("Poslock" system)
When closing hydraulic pressure is applied, the complete piston assembly moves inward and pushes the rams
into the well bore. As the piston reaches the fully closed position, the locking segments slide toward the piston
O.D. over the locking shoulder because the locking cone is forced inward by the closing hydraulic pressure.
The locking cone holds the locking segments in position and is prevented by a spring from vibrating outward if
the hydraulic closing pressure is removed.
Actually, the locking cone is a second piston inside the main piston. It is forced inward by closing hydraulic
pressure and outward by opening hydraulic pressure. Figure 3.5.38 : Diverter system for surface stack
5.3.3 DIVERTERS
If a kick is taken when the conductor is set in incompetent
formation, the well will not be shut-in, but diverted instead.
A surface diverter system (see Figure 3.5.38), consisting of
an annular preventer and vent lines, allows the flow to be
directed to a safe area, preferably down wind, away from
the rig and personnel.
Vent lines should be as large (3048 mm/12" minimum)
and as straight as practical, so as to minimise back
pressure, erosion and the risk of plugging by formation
debris. The lines should be adequately braced to absorb
severe shock loading; sections likely to suffer erosion, such
as bends, should be reinforced. There should be no restriction to the bore and any valves in the lines should be
full opening ball valves.
To prevent the well being inadvertently shut in, any valves in the vent line should be designed to automatically
open when the diverter element is closed. The minimum working pressure of a large bore diverter line system
should be 3,450 kPa (500 psi); the hydraulic operating line should have a 381 mm (11/2") diameter, this allows
hydraullc control systems to close diverters smaller than 508 mm (20") within 30 seconds and diverters larger
than 508 mm(20") to close within 45 seconds, both of which are API RP requirements.
Hydraulic BOP operating units
A large volume of hydraulic operating fluid, stored under high pressure in the accumulator, delivers the
hydraulic energy required to close and open the BOPs and the remotely operated valves.
5.4.1 REQUIREMENTS
The hydraulic BOP operating unit, also called the hydraulic BOP control system should :
be provided with a control manifold, rated for 20,700 kPa (3,000 psi) WP, which clearly shows "open"
and "closed" positions for preventer(s) and remote operated choke line valve. It is essential that all air
and hydraulic BOP operating units be equipped with 0 - 20,700 kPa (0 - 3,000 psi) regulator valves
similar to the Koomey type TR-5, which will not fail open causing complete loss of operating pressure.
be provided with electrically and air-driven high pressure pumps which automatically charge the
accumulator bottles to the pre-set pressure. The electric pump should be fitted with an electric pressure
switch, which automatically stops the electric pump when the accumulator pressure reaches 20,700 kPa
(3,000 psi) and starts the pump again when the pressure drops to 18,970 kPa (2,750 psi) or below . The
air-driven pump should be fitted with an air pressure switch, which automatically stops the air-driven
pump when the manifold pressure reaches 20,700 kPa (3,000 psi) and starts the pump again when the
pressure drops to 18,620 kPa (2,700 psi) or below.
be provided with two graphic remote control panels, both clearly showing "open" and "closed" positions
for each preventer and the choke line valves. Each of these panels should include a master shutoff valve
and controls for regulator valves and for a bypass valve. One panel must be located near the driller's
position, the other panel near the exit of the location or near the toolpusher's office.
preferably use high-pressure control hoses with a working pressure of 20,700 kPa (3,000 psi), although
steel pipe and joints are acceptable.
allow all master and remote operating panel handles to be free to move into either position at all times,
i.e. the shear ram operating handles should not be locked (but should be protected from inadvertent
operation).
have all spare operating lines and connections, which are not used in the system, properly blocked off.
5.4.2 HYDRAULIC BOP CONTROL UNIT
A general view of a Koomey hydraulic BOP control unit is given in Figure 3.5.41. A simplified diagram is
shown in Figure 3.5.40 where the arrangement of the four-way valves can be seen.
5.4.3 ACCUMULATOR CAPACITY
The hydraulic energy required to operate the BOPs is stored in a number of accumulator bottles which contain
either a bladder type diaphragm or a piston (see Figure 3.5.39) to separate the nitrogen from the hydraulic fluid.

Figure 3.5.39 : Accumulators
The precharge pressure of the nitrogen should be approximately 1,380 kPa/200 psi below the minimum
operating pressure. Usually this will result in a value of 6,900 kPa/1,000 psi in a 20,700 kPa/3,000 psi closing
unit system. The precharge of the nitrogen should be checked monthly; if operationally possible this should be
done with a depressurised hydraulic system using only nitrogen to recharge (see Topic 3.2.5 - Pulsation
dampeners in Part 3.3).
Bottles are available with a capacity of 3785 l (10 gallons), 757 l (20 gallons) or 11355 l (30 gallons) each.
It is good practice for a driller, before he goes on shift, to check the accumulator, the pressure settings, and the hydraulic fluid
level.
Official Shell Group policy is that, without recharging, the accumulator capacity shall be adequate for closing and opening all
preventers and closing again the annular preventer and one ram type preventer, and holding them closed against the rated
working pressures of the preventers (or the highest anticipated surface pressure, whichever value prevails). If the operating unit's
policy is in accordance with the Shell Group's policy, then the required accumulator capacity can be calculated from the total
usable fluid volume used to carry out the above-mentioned opening/closing functions, thereby not dropping the operating
pressure below the recommended minimum value. The total usable fluid volume is based on Boyle's law.
5.4.4 BOP STACK OPERATION
FOUR-WAY VALVES
Four-way valves are used for closing and opening the blow-out preventers and they are actuated either by
remote control, which activates a hydraulic cylinder, or by hand. If remotely operated, a pilot signal may first
activate a three-way pilot valve. The pilot signal can be either electric (solenoid valves), acoustic, hydraulic or
pneumatic.
All four-way valves should be either in the fully open or fully closed positions, as required; they should not normally be left in
the neutral or block position.
The four-way valve has to turn a full 90 to close or open a BOP.
Figure 3.5.42 : Operation of 4-way valves

PRESSURE REGULATING VALVES
Pressure regulators keep a pre-set reduced pressure on a hydraulic system (see Nos. 24 and 30 in Figure 3.5.41).
Regulators work on the principle of a pressure differential between the force exerted by a spring (which will
keep the regulator open) and the oil pressure to the regulator (which will close the regulator and let off excess
pressure, if necessary).
Equilibrium is reached therefore when the set spring pressure is equal to the force exerted by the oil pressure -
the regulator is then closed.
If the pressure to the regulator is higher than the spring force, for example when a tool joint has to pass the
annular preventer, the regulator spool will rise, overcoming the spring force, and allow oil to escape. As soon as
the pressure behind the regulator has dropped below the set value, e.g. because a tool joint has passed the
annular preventer during stripping, the spring force will move the spool downwards and supply oil until the
required pressure has been achieved.
Regulator pressure can be adjusted either by hand or by a pneumatic cylinder.
The hydraulic closing unit may be fitted with an annular unit/remote selector valve. This valve selects the mode
of annular regulation from the unit or from the air remote control panel.
The regulator illustrated in Figure 3.5.43 maintains regulated pressure even if its pilot signal is lost, because the
position of the regulator is fixed by the spindle.
Figure 3.5.45 : Self closing couplings Figure 3.5.43 : Fail-safe regulator
REMOTE CONTROL PANELS
Control panels are provided with the graphic outline design of the blow-out preventer stack, to reduce mistakes
made by operating the wrong lever during emergency situations.
Figure 3.5.44 : Remote control panel
Control panels are connected to the
hydraulic BOP operating unit in such a way
that, should they be destroyed, all preventers
can be controlled from the master hydraulic
control manifold by operating the four-way
valves manually.
Two hands are required to operate the panel.
The master control valve must be actuated
and held in place with one hand while the
correct function is chosen and operated with
the other hand. This procedure prevents
accidental operation due to bumping into the
panel control valves.
HYDRAULIC LINES
The connections between the hydraulic unit
and the preventers should consist of HP fire
resistant hoses or steel pipe and joints.
To prevent oil losses and to keep the hoses or pipes full of oil during rig move, self-closing couplings are used.
SELF CLOSING COUPLING
Each coupling half is provided with a spring loaded check valve. As long as the connection is disengaged the
valves remain closed and the oil is trapped. (Figure 3.5.45a).
Once the connection has been engaged the pins on the check valves open the check valves to allow free flow of
the liquid (Figure 3.5.45b).
Self closing couplings also can be made as quick-lock couplings (Figure 3.5.45).
Additional well control equipment
5.5.1 INTRODUCTION
As long as the kelly or top drive is connected to the drill string the drill pipe can be shut off by one or more
kelly cocks, also called drill pipe safety valves.
Should there be a kick during tripping, additional inside pipe shutoff tools are required to prevent a blow-out
through the string. The following equipment is required as additional well control tools:
Two lower kelly cocks, for each size of drill pipe in use, should be available. One of these is intended
for use below the kelly or top drive during drilling operations and the other should be on the drilling
floor in the "open" position. The latter should be complete with removable handles for easy stabbing and
connecting.
Subs, for connecting the kelly cock to the drill collars in use, should be available on the drilling floor.
Two drop-in type back-pressure valves, to match the seating subs fitted in the drill string, must be
available. The drop-in valves must be able to pass the smallest bore in the drill string above the seating
sub, including the kelly cock. Instead of a drop-in type back-pressure valve (dart valve) a float valve can
be installed in the drill string just above the bit (see Part 2.1).
A "Gray-type" inside BOP, with the appropriate connections for the drill string in use, should be on the
drilling floor ready for immediate use at all times.
A 69,000 kPa (10,000 psi) WP, 50.8 mm (2") or 76.2 mm (3")
rotating type circulating head with correct bottom subs for the drill
string sizes in use should be available on the drilling floor.
A left hand threaded upper kelly cock should be installed and in
good operating condition at all times. A test sub for testing the
kelly and kelly cocks should be available on site.
This topic will deal with kelly cocks, inside BOPs and circulating heads.
5.5.2 KELLY COCKS Figure 3.5.46 : Upper kelly cock (Omsco)
UPPER KELLY COCK
The top valve above a kelly is often an Omsco
kelly cock (see Figure 3.5.46) and the bottom
valve is often a Hydril or T.I.W. kelly cock (see
Figure 3.5.47b). Both remain open during
normal operation. They are manually operated
valves and are opened or closed by a key
wrench or with a spanner. Regulations specify
that this key or spanner must always be within
the driller's reach.
The Omsco kelly cock at the top of the kelly
only maintains pressure from below after it is
closed. This kelly cock is used when the kelly is
for example almost down, the string stuck and
the swivel or hose starts to leak during a well
kill.
LOWER KELLY COCK Figure 3.5.47 : Lower kelly cocks
Figure 3.5.47 shows two examples of lower kelly cocks: (a) is a "standard kelly cock" and (b) is a "Hydril kelly
guard".
The valve body of the Hydril kelly guard is made of one single piece which means that it is not necessary to
break any tightened connections when a seat or ball has to be renewed. It is only half the weight of a standard
kelly cock and is therefore much easier to handle. The simplicity and reduced weight of this type of valve have
led to it being used more and more as a stab-in valve. It can be ordered with either left-hand or right-hand
thread, and could in principle also replace the Omsco upper kelly cock.
5.5.3 INSIDE BOPS
Three types of inside BOPs can be used:
Gray valve
Drop-in check valve
Float sub (bit sub)
All these valves are check valves closing with flow from below but free to
pump through from above. They are shown in the accompanying figures
The Gray valve is stored on the rig floor and is kept in the open position by a
valve rod and a valve release screw.
If the well starts flowing while tripping the drill pipe must be closed in first.
When there is a light flow the Gray valve can be installed directly on the drill
pipe. However, with strong back flow the force of the flowing mud can be so
strong that it is not possible to install the Gray valve due to its obstructed
bore. In such a situation a kelly cock, which has full bore passage, has to be
installed first. After the kelly cock is made up and closed, the annular
preventer is closed. If it is decided to strip the string into the hole the Gray
valve will be installed. The valve release screw is undone and the spring will
close the valve. The locking sub is then removed and the kelly cock opened.
Presently there are alternative valves on the market which have an
unrestricted bore with the (flapper) valve retained by a sleeve.
For information about drop-in check valves and float subs refer to Part 2.1
(subs).
Figure 3.5.48 : Gray valve/inside BOP
Figure 3.5.49 : Float sub Figure 3.5.50 : Dart sub

5.5.4 CIRCULATING HEADS
Figure 3.5.51 : Circulating head with hydraulic pack-off
Circulating heads are found in different
configurations. In operations such as
setting packers, where the pipe must be
rotated to activate the setting
mechanism, the circulating head may
need considerable bearing capacity. The
bearings in such heads have sufficient
capacity to even withstand prolonged
rotation.
A circulating head may also have to be
used when carrying out wireline bore
hole surveying (see Figure 3.5.51)
through the drill string. One common
characteristic though is that they must be
designed to withstand the rated pressure
of all other surface equipment and
possess the same standards of safety.
Figure 3.5.52 : Mud-gas separator
5.5.5 MUD/GAS SEPARATOR
In critical situations, when circulating out a gas kick, a
mixture of gas and drilling fluid may be ejected from the
well at high rates - as a foam, as gas and as slugs of more-
or-less gas free liquid in rapid (and chaotic) succession. In
the absence of efficient separation of the gas and liquid
phases a substantial quantity of drilling fluid may be lost at
surface, forcing a suspension of well killing activities while
fresh supplies of fluid are made up. This is a hazard to be
avoided if at all possible.
The required separation is provided by the "mud/gas
separator" (occasionally known as the atmospheric gas
separator), which is designed to provide rapid venting of
gas and recovery of the bulk of the drilling fluid.It is
standard equipment on drilling units and has the advantages
of being robust and simple in operation.
The main design features are:
Adequate height and diameter.
Internal baffling to aid gas break-out.
Fluid seal by U-tube into the trip tank or dip tube.
Gas vent outlet of adequate diameter and length.
Liquid outlet to be large diameter
The mud/gas separator is designed to cope with a range of conditions, since drilling fluid properties may vary
widely, as will the characteristics and behaviour of the kick fluids. The type of drilling fluid and the particular
conditions existing within the well bore will also considerably affect the environment within which the
separator has to operate.
SIZE OF VESSEL
The size of the separator is critical in determining the volume of fluid and gas which can be safely handled.
Reasonable minimum size criteria are a diameter of 48" and a vessel height of at least 16 feet to provide
sufficient capacity to handle the majority of gas kick situations. Note that the separator inlet should have at least
the same ID as the largest choke manifold line after the chokes. This is typically 4" ID, though larger sizes are
often used.
The efficiency of the separator may be improved by arranging for a tangential inlet. This will help create a
centrifugal action which encourages faster gas break-out. To protect the tank wall at the inlet area a target plate
should be provided to minimise erosion where the gas-liquid mixture initially contacts the separator wall. It will
be necessary to arrange for an inspection hatch access nearby to allow a means of checking plate wear and
carrying out replacement when needed.
The inlet should be located approximately at the tank mid-point. This permits the top half to act as a gas
chamber while the lower portion allows gas to separate out in the retained fluid. As the mixture of drilling fluid
and gas enters, the operating pressure will be atmospheric plus vent line friction back pressure. The vertical
distance from the inlet to the static fluid level is intended to allow time for gas break-out on the baffles. It also
provides an allowance for fluid levels to rise during the separator operation to overcome liquid outlet line
friction losses.
BAFFLES
The interior of the separator may be provided with a series of baffles. These are thin sheets, often cut as half
diameter circles and arranged in a spiral pattern of cascades to encourage liquid gas separation. The plates
should be well braced to the vessel body.
FLUID SEAL
If gas pressure in the separator overcomes the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid in the U-tube trap at the separator
bottom, gas will blow through into the shaker room. The U-tube or liquid outlet system should be arranged to
provide a minimum U-tube height of at least 10 feet. This, with fluid of say 052 psi/ft, will support a back
pressure of 5 psi. The liquid outlet line is recommended to be at least 8" ID, although 12" is advised to improve
the handling of high viscosity contaminated drilling fluid flows. Some combinations of drilling fluid types and
well fluids can produce very high viscosity and significant gellation.
VENT LINE
The derrick gas vent line should be of large diameter, with as few bends as possible, to minimise back
pressures. 8" ID lines are strongly recommended. It has been common practice in the past to use thick walled
line pipe for these derrick vents. This seems unnecessary, given the pressures involved, and reduces the internal
dimensions, limiting the capacity of the degasser vent line.

5.5.6 VACUUM DEGASSER Figure 3.5..53 : Swaco degasser
Virtually all the gas which is entrained in the
drilling fluid can be removed by circulating it
through a degasser which is held at a partial
vacuum. In this equipment (see Figure 3.5.53) gas-
cut drilling fluid is picked up from the shakers tank
and pulled through the degasser vessel by a jet
pump. The small vacuum pump mounted on top of
the vessel removes the freed gas and freely vents
these gases to the atmosphere.
The most commonly used degasser, that of Swaco,
has a large contact area with the drilling fluid
flowing over a corrugated baffle plate. The vent line
from the degasser should preferably not be
connected the vent line of the mud/gas separator,
but if connected, a check valve must be inserted between these two vent lines.
Testing well control and related equipment
5.6.1 INTRODUCTION
Well head and well control equipment must be tested to ensure proper operation and pressure integrity against
the highest anticipated pressures.
A functional test on
all preventers which close around pipe,
all pressure and manually operated kill- and choke line valves, and
all kelly cocks,
should be carried out each time they have been installed and each time a new bit has been run to the casing
shoe. The blind/shear rams should be operated at least once a week.
If any of the above tests indicate faulty equipment, then that equipment must be repaired and re-tested before
resuming operations.
A pressure test should be made on all blow-out preventers, wellhead components and their connections, the
BOP closing unit, the choke manifold, kill- and choke lines, the kelly or top drive valves and other drill string
shut-off valves in line with governmental regulations and/or
After installation of wellhead and BOP assembly and prior to drilling
Every week or every fortnight, depending on type of operation, operator's or governmental
procedures/regulations
Prior to drilling into expected high pressure zones
Prior to a production test
At any time requested by the Company drilling representative:
This Topic covers the procedures for testing casing, wellheads and well control equipment and the evaluation of
the tests.
5.6.2 CASING TESTS
INITIAL PRESSURE TESTS
The purpose of any casing pressure test is to verify that the casing string integrity is sufficient to contain the
maximum anticipated burst loads i.e. the design load case. Integrity for collapse loads is generally only tested,
indirectly, when inflow testing liner laps. Exerting a suitable differential test pressure at any point in the casing
string is complicated by the fact that the fluids inside and outside the casing during the test are unlikely to be
those expected to be present for the design load case. This means that the application of a given pressure at
surface for a single test may result in insufficient or excessive differential pressures deeper in the well.
Ideally, casing pressure tests should thus be designed so that the differential pressure exerted at any point is
equal to or exceeds the maximum expected load but remains less than 91% of the rated internal yield pressure.
For new casing the latter value can be ascertained from data handbooks. Where wear has occurred the following
equation may be used :

Where:
P =the internal yield pressure, without safety factors
Y =the specified minimum yield strength for the given casing grade
t =the actual wall thickness
D =the actual OD
all in consistent units
Even when more than one weight and/or grade of casing is not present, it will often require the use of a
retrievable packer to test a casing string adequately.
The preferred time to test the casing is immediately following cementation prior to the cement setting, a so
called "green cement test". This avoids the possibility of creating a micro-annulus, but such a test may not be
sufficient as it is further limited to ensure that:
the differential pressure at the casing shoe does not exceed the pressure rating of the float equipment.
This is commonly 21 MPa but equipment can be supplied with ratings of 34.5 MPa and above.
the resultant tensile load does not exceed 77% of the rated pipe body yield strength at the critical point
of the string. (This is consistent with the recommended design factor of 1.3 - see Topic 6.3.6.4 of
Section 2 Part 6 - Casing Design )
During a pressure test the tensile load has three components :-
o the load due to the pressure
o the load due to the buoyant weight, and
o the bending load in doglegs.
For the calculation of the tensile load associated with a dogleg refer to Topic 6.3.2.2 of Section 2 Part 6 -
Casing Design). In a nominally vertical well the dogleg angle is taken as 2/100 ft (0.65/10m), unless a
greater valaue has been measured.
Notes :
EP 89-1500 also recommends that a green cement pressure test is restricted to 75% of the casing internal
yield pressure.
When testing with a retrievable packer, it should preferably be set above
the top of cement. In any case EP 89-1500 states that it shall not be placed within 80 m of the shoe or
within 80m of a hydrocarbon bearing zone.
Casing pressure tests should be carried out for 10 minutes (EP89-1500).
Problems may be experienced when trying to set packers in high grade casings due to the problem of
getting the slips to bite.
SUBSEQUENT PRESSURE TESTS
The surface and intermediate casings may be pressure tested after a maximum period of about 30 days drilling
through it and thereafter when it is judged necessary. These casings are also tested after a liner has been
installed.
The bottom 80 m (250 ft) of the casing is not pressure tested during these subsequent tests. This is to avoid
damage to the primary cementation by causing a microannulus to form. The same consideration applies if
hydrocarbons are present behind the casing, and pressure testing is not carried out within 80 m (250 ft) of the
relevant section.
5.6.3 TESTS OF X-BUSHING AND SLIP AND SEAL ASSEMBLY OR BRX HANGER
Before a casing head spool is installed on the well head the side outlet valves are installed. These valves are first
pressure tested to their rated pressure using a test flange.
Once the spool is installed on the well head the X-bushing seal is energised by injecting plastic (see Section 4,
Part 2 - Well heads). As soon as the seal is energised it is pressure tested before the complete BOP stack is
bolted onto it.
If a BRX hanger has been used the pressure test can be carried out immediately after the spool is installed.
5.6.4 SURFACE WELLHEAD AND BOP TESTS
After flanging up the BOPs a function test is done to ensure all hydraulic operating
lines are hooked up correctly. The complete well head, stack and manifold connections
can then be pressure tested using the cup type tester and the closed annular preventer.
The test pressure is the lower value of casing burst pressure and
rated pressure of well head and BOP.
The preventers are tested to their working pressure using a plug
type tester which seats in the landing area of the casing head spool.
A bowl type tester or a combination tool for testing and running
the wear bushing can also be used (see figures 3.5.54 to 3.5.56).
Figure 3.5.54 : Plug type tester

Figure 3.5.55 : Cup type
tester
Figure 3.5.56 : Combination running and testing tool
When applying test pressure the side outlets of the
casing head spool, which are or could be exposed
below the test plug, should be open to avoid
pressurising the casing below.
To test preventers closing around pipe, either a
test joint or short test sub with a hole drilled into
the side, or the kill line can be used. The first
method has the advantage that the test pressure
can be bled off at a choke, installed for this
purpose in the standpipe manifold.
To test the blind rams, the kill line must be used,
because well pressure (or test pressure) assists in closing most preventers. They should also be tested at a low
operating pressure (3450 kPa or 500 psi).
The cup type tester is run with open ended pipe to prevent pressurisation of the casing. The pipe must be strong
enough to withstand the tensile load caused by the hydraulic pressure on the cup area.
F =p x A,
where:
F = pipe load .. p = pressure A = cup area
The test string is in such a case suspended from the block to monitor the tensile load. When the blind rams are
tested, the plug type tester must be converted into a blind plug (see Figure 3.5.56).
CHOKE MANIFOLD, VALVES, KILL AND CHOKE LINES AND VALVES ON THE SIDE
OUTLETS
The choke manifold, valves, kill and choke lines and valves on the side outlets are pressure tested with water to
the rated working pressure of the ram type preventers. Each part should be tested separately. All lines must be
flushed first to ensure they are not blocked. These tests may not be performed against closed chokes.
Notes:
All sizes of plug type and cup type testers for pressure testing the well head and BOP equipment on the
programmed casing strings must be available.
Kelly and kelly stop cocks must also be pressure tested regularly to their rated working pressure with a
test sub.
Should any of the above tests indicate faulty equipment, this must be repaired and retested before
drilling is resumed, or before any other operation is allowed to be continued.
The tightness of flange bolts and clamps must be inspected frequently, particularly after pressure testing.
Kill and choke lines must be pumped through at regular intervals bearing in mind that weighted drilling
fluid must be displaced from the choke manifold and kill lines to prevent the barytes settling in the lines.
In freezing conditions the drilling fluid in the lines must be replaced by fluid which can stand low
temperatures.
5.6.5 ACCUMULATOR TESTS
The accumulator precharge pressure must be checked prior to drilling out cement and thereafter at regular
intervals.
The accumulator unit performance test is made by operating all BOPs on the stored energy in the accumulator,
i.e. the pressure and the volume available without recharging. The complete test procedure is as follows:
Check accumulator fluid pressure.
Check accumulator reservoir level.
Switch off accumulator pumps.
Close and open all preventers and check accumulator fluid pressure; record closing times. Adequate
pressure and volume should still be present to close one annular and one ram type preventer.
Switch on accumulator pumps.
Record accumulator recharging time.
Check BOP closing times and accumulator recharge time with manufacturer's data for the system in use.
5.6.6 EVALUATION OF PRESSURE TESTS
Because the objective of pressure tests is to detect leaks, all pressure tests on well control equipment are
performed with water. This is because drilling fluid has sealing properties that could temporarily seal off small
leaks.
To ensure that small leaks are also detected the applied test pressure should be observed for at least 10 minutes
and a record kept of pressure versus time. This record allows an evaluation of the pressure test.

Figure 3.5.57 : Pressure drop versus time
A constant pressure during the full 10
minutes of test is the ideal result, but a
certain drop in pressure is also often
acceptable, depending on the way in
which this drop occurs (see Figure 3.5.57).

Installation requirements for wellhead & BOP
equipment
The following practices and procedures enable safe well control operations to be carried out:
Adequate well head equipment should be installed to withstand anticipated pressures and allow for
future remedial operations.
Ram type preventers should be installed the correct way up.
All connections, valves, fittings, piping, etc., subject to well pressure, must be flanged, clamped or
welded and have a minimum working pressure equal to the rated working pressure of the preventers.
Valves must be of the flush through bore type when in the open position. Screwed valves and fittings are
only acceptable on installations up to 13,800 kPa (2,000 psi) WP.
When installed, all ring gaskets should be new, checked for cleanliness and coated with light oil. Dry
and/or previously used ring gaskets should never be installed.
All bolts and fittings should be in place and tight, and all connections pressure tested, before drilling is
resumed.
The ID of the bell nipple to be installed should be large enough for hanger and seal assemblies to pass
through. Slip and seal assemblies should preferably be landed through the BOPs before lifting the BOP
stack.
When boll-weevil hangers (BRX) are used to land the casing string before cementing, well head side
outlets should have a bore large enough to avoid excessive annular pressure whilst cementing.
All manually operated valves should be equipped with handwheels, and be ready for immediate use.
Ram type preventers on surface BOP stacks should be installed with extensions and handwheels
connected, and be ready for use.
The Company drilling representative should inspect and approve every BOP installation after flanging
up and testing.
Well head side outlets should not be used for killing purposes, except in case of serious emergencies.
All pipe lines should be securely anchored.
Choke lines should be as straight as possible: no more than one choke line should be connected to the
choke manifold.
Kill lines should not be used for routine fill-up operations.

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