Scripture of Mankind

The Scriptures of Mankind: An Introduction by Charles
Samuel Braden
Dr. Braden was Professor of History and Literature of Religions at Northwestern University (195!. Pu"lished "y #he
$a%$illan &o'(any) New *or+) %o(yright 195 "y &harles ,. Braden. #his 'aterial was (re(ared for Religion -nline
"y #ed . /innie Bro%+.
&ha(ter 50 #he ,a%red Literature of Hinduis'
1$other1 2ndia) as she is lovingly %alled "y her sons) has indeed "een a 'other of
religions. 3our of the eleven (rin%i(al living faiths of the world were "orn in 2ndia0
Hinduis') Buddhis') 4ainis') and ,i+his') and all have e5tensive sa%red literatures.
Hinduis' itself) fro' whi%h all the others have s(rung) has a vast and highly
variegated set of s%ri(tures. 2n general there are two ty(es of s%ri(ture that are
regarded as authoritative in Hinduis'0 (1! sruti: that whi%h 'ay "e regarded as
the ipsissima verba, the very) very word of 6od. 2t was given "y ver"al ins(iration to
the rishiis or seers) and gathered into a %losed &anon. 3ro' this nothing 'ay "e ta+en
away and nothing 'ay "e added. #his ty(e of sa%red writing has) in the %ourse of
ti'e) %o'e to "e thought of very 'u%h as the Bi"le is thought of "y &hristian
3unda'entalists0 as infalli"le) in%a(a"le of error) "e%ause of its non7hu'an %hara%ter.
#he se%ond ty(e of s%ri(ture is +nown as smriti. /hile ad'ittedly of hu'an origins)
it has %o'e to "e thought of as authoritative also) in the e5(ression of religious faith)
and of very high value in the tea%hing of religion and 'orals. #hough of less e5alted
origin) and not of e8ual value with sruti, as a "asis of religious dog'a) it is (erha(s
8uite as influential in the lives of the (eo(le in in%ul%ating and nourishing religious
faith and (ra%ti%e. 2f all the "oo+s whi%h are %o'(rised within these two %lasses of
sa%red literature were to "e "rought together in a single %olle%tion) as has nowhere yet
"een done) they would fill 'any thousands of (ages. /hile there is rather general
agree'ent as to what 'ay "e %onsidered as smriti, there is no %losed %anon. ,e%tarian
grou(s differ to a %onsidera"le degree as to what 'ay "e so %onsidered. &ertainly
they differ as to whi%h (arti%ular "oo+s of this %ategory are to "e e'(hasi9ed within
their own grou(s. #he rather generally tolerant attitude of 2ndians toward the
religious "eliefs of others in%lines the' to ad'it as sa%red for others what they 'ight
not a%%e(t for the'selves. :s a 'atter of fa%t so'e se%tarian grou(s 'a+e)
(ra%ti%ally) 'u%h greater use of non-sruti literature) as the "asis for (resent "elief and
(ra%ti%e than they do of the re%ogni9ed sruti writings. 2ndeed for the' so'e "oo+s
generally regarded as smriti have a%tually "e%o'e sruti. #here is nothing in Hinduis'
to (revent this fro' ha((ening.
/ithin Hindu sa%red literature 'ay "e found) as in 'ost s%ri(ture) al'ost every ty(e
of writing. #here is "oth (oetry and (rose. ;5a'(les of nearly every variety of (oeti%
e5(ression 'ay "e found. ,o'e of it is lyri%) so'e elegia%) so'e e(i%) so'e
dra'ati%. Love songs a"ound. #here is (oetry of (raise) (oetry of la'entation) heroi%
verse) and (oetry of des(air) (oetry of than+sgiving) (oetry of devotion) (oetry that is
light) airy) fan%iful) and (oetry that see+s to e5(ress the 'ost (rofound (hiloso(hi%
insight. -f (rose there is every +ind) the short story) the dra'a) the fa"le) legal lore)
(hiloso(hi% essays) history) dra'a. -nly the e(istolary) whi%h is so i'(ortant in the
New #esta'ent) see's to "e la%+ing. #here are (rose (assages of unusual "eauty and
strength< there are innu'era"le (ages of dry diale%ti% 'aterial) without gra%e or
%har') "ut none the less i'(ortant for an understanding of Hinduis'.
#his Hindu literature li+e that of 'ost other religions re(resents the wor+ of 'any)
'any hands over a long (eriod of ti'e. 2t re%ords the ho(es) as(irations) ideals)
triu'(hs) failures) strivings after 'eaning of a great (eo(le) a%ross the %enturies) as
they develo(ed fro' "ar"aris' to the highly %ultured so%iety whi%h is 2ndia today at
its "est. -ut of the struggle u(ward the literature was "orn and "y it 2ndia=s life has
"een sha(ed and %ontrolled to a re'ar+a"le degree) for 2ndia=s sa%red literature is no
'ere 'useu' (ie%e. #he daily routine of the orthodo5 Hindu is (ro"a"ly 'u%h 'ore
deter'ined "y so'e (art of his s%ri(tures than that of the (eo(le of the /est "y the
Bi"le) or for that 'atter than that of any other (eo(le "y its s%ri(ture) save only the
$osle's.
2ndia=s sa%red literature divides itself logi%ally and to so'e e5tent %hronologi%ally)
into four 'ain grou(s0 (1! >edi% literature) (! Legal literature) (?! ;(i% literature and
(@! Purani% literature. #he e5a%t %hronology of so'e writings it is diffi%ult to fi5) and
there is often a differen%e in ti'e "etween the "eginnings of a given "ody of literature
and its final %o'(letion. #he "eginnings of the ;(i%s 'ay well have "een within the
late >edi% age) their %o'(letion 'ore than a 'illenniu' later. #he earliest
for'ulation of legal %odes 'ay go well "a%+ into the (ast< the final fi5ing of the
%odes is %o'(aratively late) and of %ourse so'e %odes are 'u%h earlier than others.
,o'e of the Purani% lore is old. #he Puranas) as now found) are the latest of all Hindu
sa%red writings. /e %onsider first >edi% literature.
Vedic Literature
>edi% literature is sruti, the infalli"le) ver"ally ins(ired word of 6od. 2t is the 'ost
sa%red of all. ,o sa%red was it held to "e at the ti'e of the 'a+ing of the &ode of
$anu) greatest of the law "oo+s) that it was therein de%reed that a lowly Sudra, i.e.)
low %aste 'an) who so 'u%h as listened to the sa%red te5t would have 'olten 'etal
(oured into his ears) and his tongue %ut out if he (ronoun%ed the sa%red words of the
holy >edas.
1
A/hether su%h laws were ever a%tually enfor%ed 'ay "e dou"ted.
&ertainly there is no eviden%e that they were) "ut they do serve to a%%entuate the
degree of sa%redness whi%h atta%hed to the >edi% literature.
>edi% literature %o'(rises 'u%h 'ore than the >edas. #hese give their na'e to an
e5tensive literature whi%h grew out of the'. ,(e%ifi%ally regarded as (art of the >eda
are (1! the Brah'anas) (! the :ranya+as) and (?! the U(anishads. 2t has "e%o'e a
dog'a generally a%%e(ted that all that is found in these later writings is si'(ly an
outgrowth of the >edas) the 'a+ing e5(li%it of what was therein i'(li%it. #hey are
therefore regarded as e8ually sa%red. #here is another reason 77 (erha(s the (ri'ary
reason 77 for %onsidering the' as >edi%) na'ely) that these writings) e5%e(t the
>edanta ,utras) were (hysi%ally atta%hed to the >edas in their written for'.
$ost "asi% of all Hindu sa%red writings are the ,a'hitas) generally %alled the >edas
the'selves) of whi%h there are four) and 'ost "asi% of the four is the Rig7>eda. #he
others) the ,a'a7>eda) the *aBur7>eda and the :tharva7>eda) all derive to a
%onsidera"le e5tent fro' the Rig. $ost of our attention will therefore "e given to this
highly i'(ortant sa%red "oo+.
#he na'e of the "oo+) Rig7>eda) 'eans (ro"a"ly 1>erse /isdo'.1 2t is a %olle%tion
of hy'ns) 1C1D in all a%%ording to 6riffith. 2n "ul+ it is longer than the
%o'"ined Iliad and Odyssey of Ho'er. #ranslated into ;nglish) and with so'e notes)
the hy'ns 'a+e two 8uite su"stantial volu'es.

2n the original there are so'e C)CCC
'etri%al verses in the whole %olle%tion.
3or the Rig7>eda is Bust that) a %olle%tion) the wor+ of a great 'any writers) or in
so'e %ases) guilds of writers. 2t %onsists %hiefly of hy'ns to one or another of the
nu'erous >edi% gods) designed for use in the worshi( of these divinities. 2t re(resents
the oldest stratu' of Hinduis' of whi%h very 'u%h is +nown. 2n re%ent ti'es
ar%haeologi%al dis%overies in the 2ndus valley have "rought to light eviden%es of a
highly develo(ed %ulture in 2ndia long "efore the %o'ing of the invading :ryans.
/hereas) earlier) it had "een "elieved that the :ryans found only (eo(les of relatively
undevelo(ed %ulture) now it is +nown that at least so'e of these early 2ndians had
develo(ed the arts to a high degree) that they even had a +ind of hierogly(hi% writing)
not yet de%i(hered) and (ro"a"ly an e8ually well develo(ed religion whi%h)
su((ressed for a ti'e) gradually reasserted itself and greatly 'odified >edi% religion)
gradually transfor'ing it into the Hinduis' as (ra%ti%ed in 2ndia today. (3or an
interesting a%%ount of this %ivili9ation see ,ir 4ohn $arshall) Mohenjo-daro, ?
volu'es.!
Referen%e has "een 'ade to the :ryan invasion of 2ndia. /ho were the :ryansE
#here is 'u%h that is not +nown %on%erning the') "ut it is +nown that long) long
"efore they arrived in 2ndia they were (art of a great 'igratory 'ove'ent of (eo(le)
so'eti'es identified in%orre%tly as a ra%e) (ro"a"ly "etter as a (eo(le of a %o''on
%ulture. #o this (eo(le) eventually) the na'e 2ndo7;uro(ean %a'e to "e atta%hed)
sin%e sure signs of their (resen%e are to "e found all the way fro' the British 2sles on
the /est) to the Bay of Bengal on the ;ast) and fro' the ,%andinavian %ountries on
the North to the $editerranean on the ,outh. #hough (ossessing 'any %o''on
%ultural traits found also in ;uro(e and the /est) the 'u%h %loser si'ilarities "etween
the %ultures of 2ran or Persia and 2ndia have led s%holars to distinguish an 2ndo7
2ranian "ran%h of the larger whole as having early se(arated itself fro' the %entral or
original :ryan 'igration) (erha(s 'oving eastward fro' the) as yet) not %ertainly
lo%ated origin of the :ryan grou(. Later this seg'ent again se(arated into two
"ran%hes. -ne of these entered the 2ranian (lateau) a'alga'ated with the native
(o(ulations and eventually gave rise to a new faith) Foroastrianis') whi%h develo(ed
its own sa%red literature. #he other %rossed the Ghy"er (ass and entered the land of
2ndia) gradually fanning out to %over the greater (art of that vast su"%ontinent) "ut
losing) in the %ourse of its southern 'ove'ent) 'u%h of its original %hara%ter.
2t was of this :ryan 'igration that the >edi% hy'ns were "orn. 2n a real sense they) at
least the older of the') are not really 2ndian in origin at all) "ut were (rodu%ed either
"efore the :ryans had set foot on 2ndian soil) or were %o'(osed "y :ryans) i.e.) the
foreign invaders) "efore 2ndia had had ti'e to (ut her own i'(ress u(on the'. /hen
this invasion too+ (la%e it is i'(ossi"le to state with any %ertainty. 2t is rather
generally su((osed to have o%%urred so'e ti'e within the (eriod 5CC715CC
B.&.) though so'e 2ndian s%holars (ut it at a 'u%h earlier date) even as early as 5CCC
B.&.
2n 'odern ti'es the ter' :ryan has "e%o'e a ra%ial ter') as in 6er'any under the
Na9is) when a shar( distin%tion was 'ade "etween the :ryan and the ,e'iti%
ele'ents in the (o(ulation. But "eyond the (ro"a"le fa%t that the :ryan invaders
were light rather than dar+ of s+in) little %an "e alleged as to their ra%ial %hara%ter.
#his is eviden%ed "y the lighter %o'(le5ions of the (resent7day 2ndian in the northern
(arts of 2ndia where the :ryans 'ingled in largest (ro(ortion with the indigenous
(o(ulation) in %ontrast to the 'u%h dar+er %o'(le5ion of southern 2ndians where the
:ryan influen%e is least. :lso it is an easily re%ogni9ed fa%t that 'odern7day 2ndians)
(arti%ularly of the northern half) or 'ore) a((ear to have ;uro(ean features des(ite
their dar+er %olor. $odern anthro(ologists and ethnologists give no su((ort to the
e5isten%e) now or at any ti'e) of a (ure :ryan ra%e. #hey do attest to an :ryan
%ulture widely s(read over 'ost of ;uro(e) Persia and 2ndia) on the "asis of
eviden%es drawn fro' language) the ar%haeologi%al dis%overy of artifa%ts and o"Be%ts
of art) and %ertain si'ilarities of religious ideas to "e found in the areas overrun "y
these far7ranging 'igrants.
/hatever the nature of the :ryans) it is a (roudly held word in %onte'(orary 2ndia.
-ne vigorous 'odern refor' 'ove'ent in Hinduis' whi%h see+s to re%a(ture the
"est of 2ndia=s religious heritage %alls itself the :rya7,a'aB) the ,o%iety of :ryans<
another (u"lishes a religious Bournal whi%h it %alls The Aryan Path. #o "ehave as a
true :ryan %o'es to have so'ething of the 'eaning of the &onfu%ian ter') 1the
,u(erior $an)1 or the old ;nglish (hrase of 1the true gentle'an.1
#he hy'ns of the Rig7>eda are 'u%h older) of %ourse) than the %olle%tion itself. $ost
of the' were %o'(osed for use in the %ult) although there are hy'ns whi%h see' to
"e the 'ore or less s(ontaneous e5(ression of the individual hu'an s(irit. :t first this
%ult) or worshi( was %ondu%ted "y the father of the household) "ut in ti'e there arose
a s(e%iali9ed (riesthood for the (erfor'an%e of the a((ro(riate sa%rifi%es and rituals)
and the hy'ns were (ro"a"ly largely (rodu%ed "y the' and for their use in the %ult.
Not 'any hy'ns %an "e assigned to s(e%ifi% authors) though the Rig7>eda %ontains
seven grou(s of hy'ns attri"uted to seven fa'ilies) the 6ritsa'ada) >isva'itra)
>a'adeva) :tri) BharadvaBa) >asistha) and Ganva. #hese 'ay re(resent se(arate
s%hools of (oetry 77 the hy'ns in any one grou( are %ertainly not all "y the sa'e
individual. #he %olle%tion was not 'ade all at one ti'e) as see's evident also in the
He"rew "oo+ of Psal's.
#here are ten "oo+s in all. -f these) Boo+s 22 through >22 %ontain the greater nu'"er
of the oldest hy'ns and were the first to "e "rought together) (ossi"ly at the
%o''and of so'e fa'ous %hief. Here a unifor' arrange'ent a((ears. Hy'ns are
grou(ed "y fa'ilies and within ea%h fa'ily grou( they are arranged a%%ording to the
gods to who' the hy'ns are addressed< and within these grou(s a%%ording to the
nu'"er of stan9as) in des%ending order. &onBe%turally) there were then %olle%ted and
added what is now the se%ond half of Boo+ 2) then the first half of Boo+ 2 and Boo+
>222) then Boo+ 2H whi%h is dedi%ated entirely to the god ,o'a) the into5i%ant deity)
and) finally) the latest of all the "oo+s) the tenth and last. Boo+ 2H) while %olle%ted
later than 'ost of the others) %ontains hy'ns whi%h 'ay well "e as old as any.
3ro' these hy'ns %an "e dis%overed 'u%h %on%erning the life and thought of the
an%ient >edi% 2ndians. 2t is a rare sour%e "oo+ for the study of their %ulture. Here are
dis%losed not only their religious ideas) their dee(est longings) their sins and failures)
their ideas of good and evil) their ho(es and fears< "ut also how they wor+ed) how
they (layed) how they fought) what they ate) how they dressed) the (attern of their
do'esti% and (u"li% life. 2ndeed) all we %an +now a"out this (eo(le is here (reserved)
for they left no 'onu'ents) or "uildings) or ins%ri(tions fro' whi%h the ar%haeologist
'ight re%a(ture their an%ient %ivili9ation. 2t is not only the sacred literature of the
(eriod) it is the only literature that has "een (reserved) and it was (reserved only
"e%ause it "e%a'e sa%red.
3ro' the older hy'ns it is %lear that they were still an invading) %on8uering (eo(le)
de(endent u(on 'ilitary s+ill and (ower to 'a+e their way ever 'ore dee(ly into
2ndia. Proof of this is the (ro'inent (la%e given to 2ndra who was their god of war.
$u%h %an "e inferred as to the %hara%ter and a%tivity of (eo(le fro' the gods who
hold (ositions of (rin%i(al i'(ortan%e. 2n war ti'es there has always "een) and still
is) a need for a god of "attles to s(ur 'en on to fight. 2n 'odern ti'es when 'en
"elieve in "ut one god) his 'ilitant %hara%ter always %o'es to the front in war ti'e)
and his 'ore (a%ifi% %hara%ter is (layed down. Nearly one7fourth of all the hy'ns of
the Rig7>eda are to 2ndra. -f %ourse he is 'ore than a war god< he is also god of
stor') "enefi%ent) life7"ringing stor') whi%h 'a+es grass to grow. #he ruder) 'ore
destru%tive as(e%ts of stor' are assigned to Rudra) father of the $aruts) who are
often asso%iated with 2ndra in his hy'ns.
#he >edi% (eo(le are still (astoral to a large degree. &ultivation of the soil has not yet
"e%o'e a (ri'ary sour%e of their living. 2t is a %attle %ulture) as only a very %ursory
glan%e at the hy'ns will 8ui%+ly dis%lose. #heir (rayers 77 to 2ndra) and to others as
well 77 are largely for ri%h (asturage) great herds of %attle) long life) "ig fa'ilies) and
of %ourse su%%ess in "attle. Rain is a ne%essity if (astures are to "e green. 2ndra is the
slayer of the de'on >ritra who herds the %loud %ows into a %ave and (revents the
rains fro' %o'ing. Prayers rise to 2ndra. He (re(ares hi'self "y %onsu'ing (onds of
,o'a) the into5i%ant) then sallies forth to slay the 'onster >ritra. #his is all re%alled
in one of the hy'ns.
1. Let 'e tell out the 'anly deeds of 2ndra)
/hi%h he a%%o'(lished first of all) "olt7wea(oned0
He slew the ser(ent) o(ened u( the waters)
:nd %left in twain the "elly of the 'ountains.
?. /ith "ull7li+e eagerness he sought the so'a<
-ut of three vats he dran+ the (ressed out li8uor<
$aghavan too+ in hand his "olt) the 'issile)
:nd s'ote therewith the first7"orn of the ser(ents.
I. 3or) li+e a drun+en wea+ling) >ritra %hallenged #he 'ighty hero) the i'(etuous
warrior< He did not 'eet the %lash of 2ndra=s wea(ons) Bro+en and %rushed he lay)
whose foe was 2ndra.
1?. Lightning and thunder (rofited hi' nothing)
Nor 'ist nor hailstor' whi%h he s(read around hi'<
/hen 2ndra and the ser(ent fought their "attle)
$aghavan won the vi%tory forever.
15. 2ndra is +ing of that whi%h 'oves and 'oves not)
-f ta'e and horned %reatures) too) "olt wea(oned<
-ver the tri"es of 'en he rules as 'onar%h<
:s felly s(o+es) so holds he the' together.
?
2ndra=s %lose relationshi( to the (reservation of %attle 77 and therefore to wealth and
(ros(erity of the (eo(le 77 is seen in this hy'n whi%h refle%ts the naive %hara%ter of a
si'(le (astoral (eo(le0
#he Gine have %o'e and "rought good fortune0 let the' rest
in the %ow7(en and "e ha((y near us.
Here let the' stay (rolifi%) 'any %olored) and yield through
'any 'o's their 'il+ for 2ndra.
2ndra aids hi' who offers sa%rifi%e and gifts< he ta+es not
what is his) and gives hi' 'ore thereto.
2n%reasing ever 'ore and ever 'ore his wealth) he 'a+es the
(ious dwell within un"ro+en "ounds.
#hese are ne=er lost) no ro""er ever inBures the'0 evil7
'inded foe atte'(ts to harass the'.
#he 'aster of the Gine lives 'any a year with these) the &ows
where"y he (ours his gifts and serves the 6ods.
@
But 2ndra also %o'es to "e thought of at ti'es as 'ore than Bust a fertility and war
god. 2n one of the hy'ns he assu'es al'ost the %hara%ter of a 'onotheisti% %reator
god. 2f no other hy'n of the whole %olle%tion had "een (reserved it would "e easy to
assu'e that 2ndra had indeed "e%o'e the one god of the world. #his is "ut an
e5a'(le of the ha"it of >edi% (eo(le to elevate 'o'entarily first one divinity) then
another to su(re'a%y. #o des%ri"e this attitude) $a5 $uller (ro(osed a new syntheti%
word) henotheis'. Here is a (art of a hy'n too long to 8uote entire0
1. He who as soon as "orn +een7thoughted) fore'ost)
,ur(assed the gods) hi'self) a god) in (ower<
Before whose vehe'en%e the worlds tre'"led
#hrough his great valour< he) - 'en) is 2ndra.
. He who the 8uivering earth hath fir' esta"lished)
:nd set at rest the agitated 'ountains<
/ho 'easured out the 'id7air far7e5tending)
:nd s+y su((orted0 he) - 'en) is 2ndra.
?. /ho slew the sna+e and freed the seven rivers)
Drove out the %attle "y un%losing >ala<
/ho fire "etween two ro%+s hath generated)
2n "attles vi%tor0 he) - 'en) is 2ndra.
1?. ;ven the heavens and earth "ow down "efore hi')
:nd at his vehe'en%e the 'ountains tre'"le<
/ho) "olt in ar') is +nown as ,o'a7drin+er)
/ith hands "olt7wielding< he) - 'en) is 2ndra.
5
3ire (lays an i'(ortant role in the life of any (eo(le) and is %oi''only worshi(ed
throughout the world. 2n >edi% 2ndia this ele'ent whether as in the hearthfire) in the
lightning stro+e) or in the "la9ing sun was an o"Be%t of %onstant worshi( as :gni.
I
2t
is not easy in 'any of the hy'ns to say whether the o"Be%t of %ult is the fire itself or a
god "ehind it< (erha(s they the'selves were not always sure either. 3ire is a servant)
fire is a friend) it is a (urifier) a %leanser) and (erha(s 'ost i'(ortant of all) it is that
whi%h trans'utes the sa%rifi%e into a holy food for the gods. ;asily :gni "e%o'es a
'ediator or (riest god. -ne of the 'any hy'ns reads thus0
Hy'n 1J
:gni) "e +ind to us when we a((roa%h thee) good as a friend
to friend) as sire and 'other.
#he ra%es of 'an+ind are great o((ressors0 "urn u( 'alignity
that strives against us.
:gni) "urn u( the unfriendly who are near us) "urn thou the
foe'an=s %urse who (ays no worshi(.
Burn) >asu) thou who 'ar+est well) the foolish0 Let thine
eternal ni'"le "ea's surround thee.
/ith fuel) :gni) and with oil) desirous) 'ine offering 2
(re7sent for strength and %on8uest)
/ith (rayer) so far as 2 have (ower) adoring 77 #his hy'n
divine to gain a hundred treasures.
6ive with thy glow) thou ,on of ,trength when lauded) great
vital (ower to those who toil to serve thee.
6ive ri%hly) :gni) to the >isva'itras in rest and stir.
-ft have we de%+ed thy "ody.
6ive us) - li"eral Lord) great store of ri%hes) for) :gni)
su%h art thou when duly +indled.
#hou in the ha((y singer=s ho'e "estowest) a'(ly with ar's
e5tended) things of "eauty.
D
#he entire ninth "oo+ %onsists of hy'ns to ,o'a. ,o'a is so'eti'es the (lant) fro'
whi%h Bui%e is e5tra%ted to "e%o'e) when (ro(erly strained and 'i5ed) ,o'a) the
into5i%ant) the food of the gods) the eli5ir of i''ortality) and finally ,o'a is one of
the %hief >edi% divinities. Nowhere in literature has the into5i%ant "een 'ore lyri%ally
des%ri"ed and e5alted than in this ninth "oo+. #he writers never tire of des%ri"ing the
(ro%ess of (re(aration of the divine drin+. ;very literary art is laid under tri"ute to
glorify it. #he (ress) the filter) or straining %loth) the utensils whi%h %ontain it are
des%ri"ed in loving detail. ,o'a is the drin+ of the gods. :ll see' to "e entitled to a
li"ation at intervals) and their standing within the (antheon %an "e (retty well
deter'ined "y the a'ount and fre8uen%y of the offering of ,o'a to the different
divinities. 2ndra 'ore than all of the' loves it. #hree ti'es ea%h day he 'ust have his
'eed of ,o'a) and for his 'aBor e5(loits in 'an=s "ehalf he 8uaffs un"elieva"le
8uantities of it) not 'easured "y %u(s "ut "y vats or (onds or la+es. #o none of the
into5i%ant gods in the religions of the world have greater virtues or (owers "een
attri"uted. ,(a%e li'its (er'it only a few illustrations0
1. ,ent forth "y 'en) this 'ighty steed)
Lord of the 'ind) who +noweth all)
Runs to the woolen straining7%loth.
. /ithin the filter hath he flowed.
#his ,o'a for the gods effused)
;ntering all their various worlds.
?. Res(lendent is this deity)
2''ortal in his dwelling (la%e)
3oe7slayer) feaster "est of gods.
@. Dire%ted "y the sisters ten)
Bellowing on his way this "ull
Runs onward to the wooden vats.
5. #his Pava'ana 'ade the sun
#o shine and all his various worlds)
-'nis%ient) (resent everywhere.
I. #his ,o'a filtering hi'self)
3lows 'ighty and infalli"le)
,layer of sinners) feasting gods.
J
Here is a (rayer for i''ortality) addressed a((ro(riately enough to the god who
re(resents) in (hysi%al for') the drin+ of i''ortality (although the god of the dead
and of whatever other7worldly dwelling (la%e awaited the' was not ,o'a "ut
*a'a! .
D. /here radian%e ine5hausti"le
Dwells) and the light of heaven is set)
Pla%e 'e) %lear7flowing one) in that
2'(erisha"le and deathless world.
(- 2ndu) flow for 2ndra=s sa+e.!
J. $a+e 'e i''ortal in the (la%e
/here dwells the +ing >aivasvata)
/here stands the in'ost shrine of heaven)
:nd where the living waters are.
9. $a+e 'e i''ortal in that real')
/herein is 'ove'ent glad and free)
2n the third s+y) third heaven of heavens)
/here are the lu%id worlds of light.
1C. $a+e 'e i''ortal in the (la%e
/here loves and longings are fulfilled)
#he region of the ruddy (s(here! )
/here food and satisfa%tion reign.
11. $a+e 'e i''ortal in the (la%e
/herein feli%ity and Boy)
Pleasure and "liss together dwell)
:nd all desire is satisfied.
9
-ne 'ore 8uotation 'ust suffi%e. : graduate student) reading it) was i'(ressed and)
"eing e'(loyed as a youth dire%tor in one of the lo%al %hur%hes and in %harge of a
wee+ly worshi( servi%e) undertoo+ to 'odify it at %ertain (oints and use it as a litany
in the ,unday 'orning servi%e. 2t so ha((ened that the (astor of the %hur%h visited the
grou( that 'orning) and) i'(ressed "y the "eautiful litany) in8uired where she had
found it. He was not a little sur(rised to learn that it was out of an an%ient "oo+ of
hy'ns of a (agan (eo(le dedi%ated to an into5i%ant divinity. 2t reads in (art0
- ,o'a flowing on thy way) win thou and %on8uer high renown<
:nd 'a+e us "etter than we are.
/in thou the light) win heavenly light) and) ,o'a) all feli%ities<
/in s+ilful strength and 'ental (ower) - ,o'a) drive away our foes<
*e (urifiers) (urify ,o'a for 2ndra) for his drin+<
$a+e thou us "etter than we are.
6ive us our (ortion in the ,un through thine own 'ental (ower and aids<
#hrough thine own 'ental (ower and aid long 'ay we loo+ u(on the ,un0
/ell7wea(oned ,o'a) (our to us a strea' of ri%hes dou"ly great<
:s one vi%torious) unsu"dued in "attle (our forth wealth to us<
By worshi( Pava'anaK 'en have strengthened thee to (ro( the Law0
- 2ndu) "ring us wealth in steeds) 'anifold) 8ui%+ening all life<
1C
2t is in the hy'ns to the great god >aruna that the >edas rea%h their highest (oint)
Budged fro' the stand(oint of a &hristian %ulture. Here they %o'e %losest in 'oral
and s(iritual insight to the He"rew Psal's and the New #esta'ent. $ost of the >edi%
religious as(iration 'oves at the level of the satisfa%tion of (hysi%al needs 77 long
life) food) shelter) (rote%tion) large fa'ilies 77 "ut in these hy'ns one finds a
%ons%iousness of sin and guilt and the need for forgiveness) as well also as guidan%e
and dire%tion in living.
1. /ise are the generations through the greatness
-f hi' who (ro((ed the two wide worlds asunder<
Pushed forth the great and lofty vault of heaven)
#he day7star) too< and s(read the earth out "roadly.
. /ith 'ine own self 2 'editate this 8uestion0
1/hen shall 2 have with >aruna %o''unionE
/hat gift of 'ine will he enBoy unangeredE
/hen shall 2 ha((y7hearted see his 'er%yE1
?. /ishing to +now 'y sin 2 'a+e in8uiry)
2 go a"out to all the wise and as+ the'<
-ne and the self7sa'e thing even sages tell 'e<
1>aruna hath with thee hot indignation.1
@. - >aruna) what was 'y %hief transgression)
#hat thou wouldst slay a friend who sings thy (raisesE
#ell 'e) god unde%eived and sovereign) guiltless)
/ould 2 a((ease thee then with adoration.
5. ,et us free fro' the 'isdeeds of our fathers)
3ro' those that we ourselves have (er(etrated<
Li+e %attle7thief) - +ing) li+e %alf ro(e7fastened)
,o set thou free >asistha fro' the fetter.
I. A#was not 'ine own will) >aruna) Atwas delusion)
Drin+) anger) di%e) or la%+ of thought) that %aused it<
:n older 'an has led astray a younger)
Not even slee( (rote%ts a 'an fro' evil.
D. - let 'e li+e a slave) when on%e 'ade sinless)
,erve hi' the 'er%iful) erewhile the angry.
#he no"le god has 'ade the thoughtless thoughtful<
He s(eeds the wise to ri%hes) he a wiser.
J. $ay this 'y (raise7song) >aruna) sovereign ruler)
Rea%h unto thee and 'a+e thy heart %o'(laisant<
$ay it "e well with us in rest and la"our)
Do yet (rote%t us ever'ore with "lessings.
11
-r) again in another hy'n0
:gainst a friend) %o'(anion) or a "rother)
: fellow7tri"es'an) or against a stranger)
/hatever tres(ass we have (er(etrated)
Do thou) - >aruna) fro' that release us.
2f we) li+e those that (lay at di%e) have %heated)
Have really sinned) or done a'iss unwitting)
&ast all these sins away) as fro' us loosened<
,o 'ay we) >aruna) "e thine own "eloved.
1
-ne is re'inded of Psal' 1?9 "y the following hy'n whi%h reveals >aruna as all
seeing) even to the inward thought of a 'an.
D. He +nows the (ath of "irds that through
#he at'os(here do wing their flight)
:nd o%ean7dwelling +nows the shi(s.
J. He +nows) as one whose law is fir')
#he twelve 'onths with their (rogeny)
Gnows too the 'onth of later "irth.
9. He +nows the (athway of the wind)
#he wide) the high) the 'ighty wind)
:nd those that sit enthroned a"ove.
1C. ;nthroned within his (ala%e sits
6od >aruna whose law is fir')
:ll7wise for universal sway.
11. 3ro' there the o"servant god "eholds
:ll strange and se%ret ha((enings)
#hings that are done or to "e done.
1. Let hi' the all7wise :ditya
$a+e all our days fair7(athed for us<
$ay he (rolong our earthly lives.
1?. /earing a golden 'antle) %lothed
2n shining gar") is >aruna<
His s(ies are seated round a"out.
1@. He who' de%eivers do not dare
#ry to de%eive) nor inBurers
#o har') nor th= hostile to defy.
1?
#he tenth "oo+ is the latest of all) and in it are found at least the "eginnings of
s(e%ulation %on%erning the nature and origin of the world) whi%h o%%u(ies so
i'(ortant a (la%e in the later sa%red literature of 2ndia. #a+e) for instan%e) the hy'n to
the Un+nown 6od. 2f at the end the answer is given that it is PraBa(ati who has
%reated everything) this is thought "y 'any to have "een a later addition.
1. #he 6olden 6er' arose in the "eginning)
Born the sole lord of everything e5isting<
He fi5ed and holdeth u( this earth and heaven)77
/ho is the god to worshi( with o"lationE
. He who gives "reath and strength) he whose %o''and'ent
:ll "eings follow) yea the gods a%+nowledge<
/hose shadow i''ortality and death is) 77
?. He who through greatness hath "e%o'e sole 'onar%h
-f all the 'oving world that "reathes and slu'"ers<
/ho ruleth over 8uadru(eds and "i(eds) 77
5. He through who' s+y is fir' and earth is steady)
#hrough who' sun=s light and heaven=s vault are su((orted<
/ho in 'id7air is 'easurer of the s(a%es) 77
J. He who in 'ight surveyed the floods %ontaining
&reative for%e) the sa%rifi%e (rodu%ing<
/ho A'id all gods has "een and is alone god)77
1C. PraBa(ati) a(art fro' thee no other
Hath all these things e'"ra%ed and %o'(rehended<
$ay that "e ours whi%h we desire when off=ring
/orshi( to thee< 'ay we "e lords of ri%hes.
1@
#he great hy'n of %reation whi%h in so'e sense foreshadows the (antheis' of later
Hinduis' is evidently 8uite late) for it des%ri"es the origins of %aste) of whi%h nothing
is +nown in any of the other >edi% hy'ns. -nly a few verses of it %an "e given here.
1. : thousand heads has Purusa)
: thousand eyes) a thousand feet<
He holding earth en%losed a"out)
;5tends "eyond) ten fingers length.
. /hatever is) is Purusa)
Both what has "een and what shall "e<
He ruleth the i''ortal world)
/hi%h he trans%ends through sa%red food.
?. :s great as this is Purusa)
*et greater still his greatness is<
:ll %reatures are one7fourth of hi')
#hree7fourths th= i''ortal in the heaven.
@. #hree7fourths as%ended u( on high)
-ne7fourth %a'e into "eing here<
#hen%e he develo(ed into what
2s ani'ate and inani'ate.
I. /hen gods (erfor'ed a sa%rifi%e
/ith Purusa as their offering)
,(ring was its oil and ,u''er7heat
2ts fuel) its o"lation 3all.
J. 3ro' that %o'(letely7offered rite
/as gathered u( the %lotted oil<
2t for'ed the %reatures of the air)
:nd ani'als "oth wild and ta'e.
1C. 3ro' that were horses "orn and all
#he "easts that have two rows of teeth<
&attle were also "orn fro' that)
:nd fro' that s(ring the goats and shee(.
11. #hen they dis'e'"ered Purusa<
How 'any (ortions did they 'a+eE
/hat was his 'outh %alled) what his ar's)
/hat his two thighs) and what his feetE
1. His 'outh "e%a'e the rahmana,
:nd his two ar's the !satriya"
His thighs "e%a'e the #aisya-%lass,
:nd fro' his feet the Sudra s(rang.
1?. #he $oon was gendered fro' his 'ind)
:nd fro' his eye the ,un was "orn<
2ndra and :gni fro' his 'outh)
:nd >ayu fro' his "reath was "orn.
1@. 3orth fro' his navel %a'e the air)
:nd fro' his head evolved the s+y<
;arth fro' his feet and fro' his ear
#he 8uarters0 thus they fra'ed the worlds.
15
#here are hy'ns to 'any different gods in the Rig7>eda) al'ost a fourth of the' to
2ndra alone) and over two hundred to :gni) "ut to lovely Ushas) goddess of dawn) one
of the very few goddesses of any inde(endent %hara%ter in the whole of >edi%
religion) there are only twenty7one. $ost goddesses are 'erely given the fe'inine
for' of the na'e of their 'ore i'(ortant %onsorts. #hus 2ndrani is the wife of 2ndra.
#here are hy'ns to nu'erous sun gods) >ishnu) ,urya) Pusan) $itra) who later
a((ears in $ithrais' as a rival of &hristianity in the $editerranean area< to Rudra)
god of destru%tive stor') to *a'a) god of the dead) and 'any others) fro' whi%h it
would "e (leasant to 8uote if s(a%e allowed.
-nly a"out thirty hy'ns are not %on%erned with the worshi( of so'e one or another
of the gods. #wo of these have already "een %ited. #here are a do9en 'agi%al hy'ns0
2) 191< 22) @) @?< H) 1@5) 1I) 1I?) 1II) 1J?. #wo are riddles. 3our are dida%ti%) 2H)
11< H) D1) 11D) and H) ?@. #his latter has to do with ga'"ling whi%h was a((arently
very %o''on in >edi% ti'es) as later we shall find it re%urring in the ;(i% literature.
#he date of the %o'(letion of the %olle%tion of the Rig7>edi% hy'ns %annot "e fi5ed
with %ertainty. ,%holars differ in their %onBe%tures fro' as early as 1CC 77 1CCC B.&.
to as late as JCC7ICC B.&. :ll are agreed that it too+ (la%e "efore the a((earan%e of
Buddha in the si5th %entury. But sin%e also they are agreed that the later >edi%
literature is also (re7Buddhist) and that these (resu((ose the e5isten%e of the Rig7
>eda and indeed de(end u(on it) it would see' to this writer that a su"stantial la(se
of ti'e 'ust "e allowed for the very %onsidera"le develo('ent of religious thought
to ta+e (la%e. #hus it would see' that a date not far fro' 1CCC7JCC B.&. would "e
%alled for. #hat there were various res%ensions of the original %olle%tion is dou"tless
true. #he one whi%h has %o'e down to us is that of the ,a+ala+a s%hool. #he
re'ar+a"le thing is that it was (reserved and trans'itted orally for %enturies "efore it
was redu%ed to writing) (assed on fro' tea%her to (u(il. /hen the first written
edition was 'ade is not %ertainly +nown. 27tsing) &hinese traveller in 2ndia in the
seventh %entury :.D.) states that the >edas were still trans'itted orally.
1I
#his does
not 'ean ne%essarily that there were no written %o(ies) "ut only that de(enden%e for
authoritative trans'ission was not on the written %o(ies whi%h are so very 'u%h
su"Be%t to error) "ut u(on the (ainsta+ing oral trans'ission fro' tea%her to (u(il. 2t is
(ro"a"le that they were not %onsigned to written for' until so'eti'e not far fro' the
"eginning of the &hristian era.
2f this feat of 'e'ory see's al'ost in%redi"le to the 'odern student) de(endent
u(on his note"oo+ and (en) let hi' re%all that this was the wor+ of s(e%ialists whose
(ri'ary "usiness it was to %ultivate their 'e'ories) and who had a (rofound sense of
the i'(ortan%e of trans'itting) without error) the sa%red te5t. 3urther'ore s(e%ial
devi%es were e'(loyed to insure that no word or line sli((ed out of (la%e as so easily
ha((ens in %o(ying a written te5t "y hand) or setting it u( in ty(e. 2n general) the
s%he'es were designed so that ea%h se(arate word was lin+ed with the word or words
"efore and following it) so that it would "e al'ost i'(ossi"le either to o'it anything
fro' the te5t or add anything to it. #hree se(arate s%he'es are +nown to have "een
e'(loyed.
#he first was +nown as the ste( te5t) 'ost easily seen if we designate the first word
"y the letter 1a)1 the se%ond "y 1")1 and so on. #he te5t was then learned thus0 a" 77
"% 77 %d 77 de. ;'(loying this s%he'e in relation to 6enesis 101 in the Bi"le it would
read0 2n the) the "eginning) "eginning 6od) 6od %reated) %reated the) et%. et%. #he
ne5t 'ethod) %alled the woven te5t) was 'ore %o'(le5. 2t ran thus0 a" 77 "a 77 a"< "%
77 %" 77 "%< %d 77 d% 77 %d< et%. 12n the 77 the in 77 in the< the "eginning 77"eginning the
77 the "eginning< et%. et%.1 -ne would thin+ that any 'ista+e with this syste' would
"e al'ost i'(ossi"le) "ut Bust to "e 8uite sure) an even 'ore %o'(li%ated syste' for
learning the te5t was wor+ed out. 2t was +nown as the $hana-patha, the two
(reviously given) res(e%tively) as !rama-patha and %ata-patha. 2t reads as follows0
a" 77 "a 77 a"% 77 %"a 77a"%< "% 77 %" 77 "%d 77 d%" 77 "%d< or in Bi"li%al ter's0 12n the 77
the in 77 in the "eginning 77 "eginning the in 77 in the "eginning) et%.1
&ould error (ossi"ly %ree( in with this arrange'entE #he %han%es are that the >edi%
te5t has "een 'u%h 'ore %orre%tly trans'itted than has the te5t of an%ient holy writ
of the He"rew7&hristian tradition) whi%h %a'e to us via the %o(yists and the (rinters.
#he Rig7>eda is "y far the 'ost i'(ortant of the four >edas) and is to a large e5tent
the sour%e fro' whi%h 'u%h of the %ontent of the others) (arti%ularly the ,a'a7>eda
and the *aBur >eda) is derived. ;a%h of these two ,a'hitas) or %olle%tions) as they are
%alled) arose as the %ult develo(ed and are of interest %hiefly as revealing the nature
of the >edi% %ult. Both are essentially (riestly do%u'ents.
:s the %ult develo(ed it outgrew the si'(le household 'inistration of the father) and
a (riesthood arose. :t first a single (riest %ould (erfor' all the rites. ;ven so) his
various fun%tions were given s(e%ial na'es. :t one ti'e he was the &d'atri, or the
singer of hy'ns) at the ,o'a7sa%rifi%e. :gain) he was the sa%rifi%er) at the ani'al
sa%rifi%e or (otri, (erfor'ing hi'self the 'anual (arts as well as re%iting the ritual.
:s the %ult "e%a'e 'ore %o'(le5 an assistant was re8uired to ta+e %are of the
'anual (art of the sa%rifi%e) leaving the (otri free to give his whole attention to the
re%iting of (raises. ;ventually there were three ran+s of (riests)
the &d'atri, the (otri, and the Adhvaryu.
2t was for the &d'atri that the ,a'a7>eda or 1%hant1 >eda as it is so'eti'es %alled)
was for'ed. :ll "ut seventy7five of its 'ore than fifteen hundred verses are ta+en
dire%tly fro' the Rig7>eda. 2t is the 'usi%al >eda) %reated for the instru%tion of
the &d'atri (riests. #he first (art of it) the :r%hi+a or "oo+ of (raises) %onsists of 5J5
single stan9as ea%h to "e sung to a se(arate tune. 2n an%ient ti'es the tunes were
taught orally) "ut in written editions the 'usi% a%%o'(anies the words. /internit9
says that this (art is li+e a song7"oo+ in whi%h only the first stan9a of the song is
(rinted as an aid to the re%all of the 'elody. #he songs ta+en %hiefly fro' the Rig7
>eda are arranged a%%ording to the deities to whi%h they are dedi%ated. #he se%ond) or
Uttarar%hi+a) %ontains 15 stan9as) usually three to ea%h stro(he) arranged a%%ording
to the order of the (rin%i(al sa%rifi%es. /internit9 %o'(ares it to a song"oo+ in whi%h
the words are given) assu'ing that the 'elody is already +nown.
1D
-f i'(ortan%e in
the study of 2ndian 'usi%) and as throwing light on the >edi% %ult) it is of little
(o(ular interest) and adds nothing essential %on%erning >edi% life and "elief to what
is afforded "y the Rig7>eda.
#he *aBur7>eda was the >eda of the assisting (riest or :dhvaryu) whose duty it was
to (erfor' the 'anual (art of the sa%rifi%e. 3ro' early ti'es it was %usto'ary for the
(riest) while (erfor'ing various 'anual a%ts of the sa%rifi%e) to utter a((ro(riate
for'ulas. #hese 'ay have "een of the nature of 'agi% or in%antations. #his "e%a'e a
(art of the fun%tion of the s(e%iali9ed 'anual (riest) leaving the 'ore for'al and
(u"li% ritual utteran%es to the Hotri or sa%rifi%ing (riest. Later to these utteran%es
were added also %ertain (raises and (rayers derived fro' the Rig7>eda. 2t is this
'aterial for the use of the :dhvaryu that %onstitutes the *aBur7>eda %olle%tion. 2t is
found in various versions as taught in differing s%hools. ,o'e of these versions in
addition to the a"ove 'entioned for'ulas have in%or(orated also a %ertain a'ount of
theologi%al 'aterial or rahmana dire%tly into the te5t. #hese %onstitute the so7%alled
Bla%+ *aBur>eda. #he other) "etter +nown) /hite *aBur7>eda) has the Brah'ana
se(arated out fro' the for'ulas and (rayers and %arries it as an a((endi5 at the end.
Brief e5a'(les of (hrases used "y the :dhvaryu are as follows0 /hen a (ie%e of
wood with whi%h the sa%red fire is to "e +indled is dedi%ated) this for'ula is re%ited0
1#his) :gni) is thy igniter< through it 'ayst thou grow and thrive. $ay we also grow
and thrive.1 He addresses the halter "y whi%h a sa%rifi%ial vi%ti' is "ound to the sta+e
thus0 1Be%o'e no sna+e 77 "e%o'e no vi(er.1 #o the ra9or with whi%h the sa%rifi%er=s
"eard is a"out to "e shaved he says0 1- +nife) do not inBure hi'.1
1J
-f the forty se%tions %ontained in the *aBur7>eda) the first twenty7five) and earliest)
%ontain the (rayers for the 'ost i'(ortant sa%rifi%es) e.g.) the sa%rifi%es of the New
and 3ull $oon) the ,o'a sa%rifi%es in general) the Building of the 3ire :ltar) whi%h
re8uires a year) and the great Horse ,a%rifi%e. #he re'aining fifteen are 'u%h later)
and are 'ore or less an a((endi5 to the 'ain "ody of the wor+. 2t is o"vious that here
is a highly s(e%iali9ed (riestly literature of little (o(ular interest. Nevertheless) it is of
very great i'(ortan%e in the study of >edi% Hinduis'.
#he fourth of the >edas) the Atharva, is of a still different +ind. 2t has "een
%hara%teri9ed as a late "oo+) "ut as %ontaining a great deal of very an%ient 'aterial)
refle%ting the fol+ religion of the early :ryans) and as %arried along) it re(resents the
%ultural lag of the >edi% (eo(le. 3or) it is) to no s'all degree) a "oo+ of 'agi% and
%har's. 2t is one of the 'ost interesting "oo+s of anti8uity and a very valua"le sour%e
for an understanding of the fol+ religion of the >edi% (eriod. : glan%e at the ta"le of
%ontents reveals a fas%inating list of %har's. #here is) for e5a'(le) a %har' against a
%ough. 2t runs as follows0
1. :s the soul with the soul=s desire swiftly to a distan%e flies) thus do thou) -
%ough) fly forth along the soul=s %ourse of flight.
. :s a well shar(ened arrow swiftly to a distan%e flies) thus do thou)
%ough) fly forth along the e5(anse of earth.
?. :s the rays of the sun swiftly to a distan%e fly) thus do thou) - %ough fly
forth along the flood of the sea.1
19
Here is a %lear use of 'i'eti% 'agi%. :s the soul=s desire) as a shar(ened arrow) as
the rays of the sun swiftly to a distan%e fly 77 so let %ough fly also. But Bust to hel( out
there are %ertain things to "e done "esides re(eating the %har'. /hile re%iting the
sutra the (atient ta+es several ste(s away fro' the ho'e) again suggestive to the
%ough) "ut all this a)ter "eing fed with a %hurned drin+ or hot (orridge) i.e.) 'a+ing
(rudent use of a ho'e re'edy) li+e drin+ing hot le'onade) to 'a+e a %ure dou"ly
sure. : graduate student of ;nglish on reading this re%alled the following fro' the
Diary of the fa'ous ,a'uel Pe(ys a((arently 8uite so"erly intended.
- %ra'() "e thou faintless
:s our Lady was sinless
/hen she "are 4esus.
: %har' for finding lost o"Be%ts re%alls (ra%ti%es of the writer=s own "oyhood days.
#he for'ula is this0
-n the distant (ath of the (aths Pushan was "orn. . .
He +nows these regions all. . . .
Pushan shall fro' the east (la%e his right hand a"out
us and shall "ring again unto us what has "een lost.
#hose who see+ lost (ro(erty first have their hands and feet anointed. #his is ru""ed
off and again they are anointed with 'hi *%larified "utter! . #hen twenty7one (e""les
are thrown s%atteringly u(on a %rossroad. #hese sy'"oli9e the lost o"Be%ts and at the
sa'e ti'e are su((osed to %ountera%t their lost %ondition.
C
/e "oys of a later day found lost o"Be%ts so'eti'es "y %at%hing a daddy long7legs)
saying over hi' a for'ula whi%h unfortunately %an no longer "e re%alled) when the
great inse%t would sole'nly (oint one of his long legs in the su((osed dire%tion of
the lost o"Be%t. ,o'eti'es it was "y the 'u%h less elegant 'ethod of s(itting in the
(al' of the hand) stri+ing it with a finger and see+ing the lost o"Be%t in the dire%tion
in whi%h the largest s(it "all flew. 2nnu'era"le e5a'(les of li+e fol+ "eliefs and
(ra%ti%es 'ay "e found in any so7%alled advan%ed %ulture.
#hen there is a %har' to (ro'ote the growth of hair (I01?I! < to o"tain a hus"and
(0?! < to o"tain a wife (I0J! < to se%ure the love of a wo'an (I0J! < and to se%ure the
love of a 'an (D0?J! < a %har' to se%ure har'ony (?0C! < and one to (ro%ure
influen%e in an asse'"ly (?0?C! < a %har' to ward off danger fro' fire (I01CI! <
another to sto( an arrow in its flight. #here are (rayers too) one on "uilding a house
(?01! < one for su%%ess at ga'"ling (@0?J! < and (arti%ularly in (laying at di%e
(D05C! < an in%antation for the e5or%is' of evil drea's (I0@I! ) et%. et%.
2n addition there are re(eated not a few hy'ns fro' the Rig>eda) and still other
theoso(hi% and %os'ogoni% hy'ns of rare "eauty and insight whi%h do not see' to
fit in with the %ruder %on%e(t of religion a((arent in the 'agi%al (ortions of the "oo+.
:ny anthology whi%h (resents only the high and no"le (oints of a sa%red literature
really 'isre(resents that literature) for it is not all "y any 'eans of e8ual "eauty or
interest or of e8ual 'oral or religious insight. $ost religious literatures have their
high s(ots and their low. 3ro' the stand(oint of general reader interest the
Brah'anas re(resent the all7ti'e low of Hindu sa%red literature) and (ro"a"ly of all
the sa%red literatures of the world. #he Bi"le has se%tions that are hard going. $any
who "ravely set out to read the Bi"le through fro' 6enesis to Revelation "og down
in Leviti%us or sooner) and never finish. /ell) Leviti%us) in %o'(arison with the
greater (art of the Brah'ana literature) is far 'ore interesting and intelligi"le to the
non(riestly reader. 2t has the advantage) too) that it is 'u%h shorter. 4ulius ;ggeling)
translator of the ,ata(atha Brah'ana) says of the') 13or weariso'e (roli5ity of
e5(osition) %hara%teri9ed "y dog'ati% assertion and a fli'sy sy'"olis' rather than
serious reasoning) these wor+s are (erha(s not e8ualled anywhere unless indeed it "e
"y the s(e%ulative va(orings of the gnosti%s) than whi%h nothing 'ore a"surd has
(ro"a"ly ever "een i'agined "y rational "eings.1
1
#he Brah'anas are stri%tly (riestly "oo+s and are %on%erned (ri'arily with the
sa%rifi%es whi%h) with in%reasing %o'(le5ity) had develo(ed within >edi% Hinduis'.
,a%rifi%e had "e%o'e of enor'ous i'(ortan%e. By sa%rifi%e the gods %ould "e at first
won over to grant favors sought after< then as ti'e went on) it "e%a'e 'agi%al in its
(owers) and the gods the'selves %ould not resist the (rayer s(ell< indeed) what (ower
they had they owed to the sa%rifi%e.
2t "e%a'e a 'atter of (ri'ary i'(ortan%e that

the sa%rifi%e "e (ro(erly (erfor'ed) for in this its effi%a%y rested. #he Brah'anas
(rovide (re%isely that detailed dire%tion. Nothing is left to the i'agination or the
dis%retion of the (riest. /here he shall stand) whi%h way he shall turn) either to right)
or left) whether he shall use right hand or left) in what e5a%t order the various ritual
a%ts 'ust "e (erfor'ed) all this is given in 'inutest detail.
#y(i%al of the general %hara%ter of the Brah'anas is the des%ri(tion of the horse
sa%rifi%e whi%h o%%urs in the ,ata(atha Brah'ana. #his to "e sure was the 'ost
%o'(le5 as well as 'ost i'(ortant of all the Brah'ani% sa%rifi%es. 2t re8uires 1II
(ages in translation in the Sacred oo+s o) the ,ast, in%luding e5tensive footnotes
designed to e5(lain the 'ore o"s%ure referen%es in the te5t. 2t is 'u%h too long and
involved to in%lude here 77 even a detailed des%ri(tion of the sa%rifi%e) 'u%h less of
the ritual asso%iated with it. But a sa'(le (aragra(h will suffi%e to reveal its general
%hara%ter. #his one %hosen at rando') will do.
(He (uts the halter on the horse) with >ag. , HH22) ?) @)! 1;n%o'(assing thou
art)177 therefore the offer of the :sva'edha %on8uers all the 8uarters< 77 1the
world thou art)1 the world he thus %on8uers<77 1a ruler thou art) an u(holder)177
he thus 'a+es hi' an u(holder< 1go thou into :gni >aisvanara)1 he thus 'a+es
hi' go to :gni >aisvanara (the friend of all 'en! <77 1of wide e5tent)1 77 he
thus %auses hi' to e5tend in offs(ring and %attle< 77 1%onse%rated "y ,vaha
(hailK! )1 this is the >ashat 77 %all for it< 77 1good s(eed (to! thee for the godsK177
he thus 'a+es it of good s(eed for the gods< 1for PraBa(ati)177the horse is
sa%red to PraBa(ati0 he thus su((lies it with his own deity.
?
2f it is o"s%ure to you) do not "e trou"led. ;ven if you read it in its %onte5t it would
"e "ut little 'ore %lear. 2ndeed) even with the learned translator=s detailed footnotes it
still does not hold 'u%h 'eaning for one of our ti'e and our %ulture. Refle%t on the
fa%t that this is less than one of so'e 1IC (ages of only one !anda des%ri"ing only
one sa%rifi%e) and that the ,ata(atha7Brah'ana of whi%h it is a (art is "ut one of
'any Brah'anas) all of whi%h were regarded as sa%red "y the early Hindus) and
trans'itted orally fro' (riest to (riest for %enturies. Not only are dire%tions given as
to what to do and how to do it "ut) as a((eared in the sa'(le a"ove) so'e
e5(lanation) of either the origin or signifi%an%e of the a%t. #his often
runs into rather (rofound s(e%ulations) or often into very o"s%ure sy'"olis'. 2ndeed)
;ggeling %alls the' 1theologi%al treatises %o'(osed %hiefly for the (ur(ose of
e5(laining the sa%rifi%ial te5ts as well as the origin and dee(er 'eaning of the various
rites.1
@
Ha((ily also in the 'idst of tireso'e) re(etitious instru%tion are to "e found
at least the "eginnings of so'e i'(ortant as(e%ts of 2ndia=s later %ulture) (hiloso(hi%
s(e%ulation) gra''ar) astrono'y) logi%) and also a %onsidera"le a'ount of legend
and 'yth.
Here are to "e found) for e5a'(le) a nu'"er of %reation 'yths) not at all in
agree'ent with ea%h other. 2ndia never %on%eived of one single 'yth of the world=s
%reation) as found in the Bi"le and 'any other %ultures. Here is a rather delightful
a%%ount of the %reation of night0
1*a'a had died. #he gods tried to (ersuade *a' (a twin sister! to forget hi'.
/henever they as+ed her) she said0 1-nly today he has died.1 #hen the gods
said0 1#hus she will indeed never forget hi'< we will %reate nightK1 3or at that
ti'e there was only day and no night. #he gods %reated night< then arose a
'orrow< thereu(on she forgot hi'. #herefore (eo(le say0 1Day and night
indeed. Let sorrow "e forgotten.1
5
$ost s%ri(tures have so'ewhere within the' a flood story. Hindu literature is no
e5%e(tion) and it is found in the Brah'anas0
#here lived in an%ient ti'e a holy 'an)
&alled $anu) who "y (enan%es and (rayer
Had won the favor of the Lord of Heaven.
-ne day they "rought hi' water for a"lution<
#hen as he washed his hands a little fish
:((eared) and s(o+e in hu'an a%%ents thus0
1#a+e %are of 'e) and 2 will "e your savior.1
13ro' what wilt thou (reserve 'eE1 $anu as+ed.
#he fish re(lied) 1: flood will swee( away
:ll %reatures. 2 will res%ue thee fro' that.1
1But how shall 2 (reserve theeE1 $anu said.
#he fish reBoined) 1,o long as we are s'all)
/e are in %onstant danger of destru%tion)
3or fish eat fish. ,o +ee( 'e in a Bar<
/hen 2 outgrow the Bar) then dig a tren%h
:nd (la%e 'e there< when 2 outgrow the tren%h
#hen ta+e 'e to the o%ean< 2 shall then
Be out of rea%h of danger.1 Having thus
2nstru%ted $anu) straightway ra(idly
#he fish grew larger. #hen he s(o+e again)
12n su%h and su%h a year the flood will %o'e<
#herefore %onstru%t a shi( and (ay 'e ho'age<
/hen the flood rises enter thou the shi(
:nd 2 will res%ue thee.1 ,o $anu did
:s he was ordered) and (reserved the fish.
#hen %arried it in safety to the o%ean.
:nd in the very year the fish enBoined
He "uilt a shi() and (aid the fish res(e%t)
:nd there too+ refuge when the flood arose.
,oon near hi' swa' the fish) and to its horn
$anu 'ade fast the %a"le of the vessel.
#hus drawn along the waters $anu (assed
Beyond the northern 'ountain< then the fish)
:ddressing $anu said) 12 have (reserved thee.
Lui%+ly atta%h the shi( to yonder tree)
But lest the waters sin+ fro' under thee)
:s fast as they su"side) so fast shalt thou
Des%end the 'ountains gently after the'.1
#hus he des%ended fro' the northern 'ountain)
#he flood had swe(t away all living %reatures<
$anu was left alone. /ishing for offs(ring)
He earnestly (erfor'ed a sa%rifi%e.
2n a year=s ti'e a fe'ale was (rodu%ed<
,he %a'e to $anu< then he said to her)
1/ho art thouE1 ,he re(lied) 12 a' thy daughter.1
He said) 1How) lovely lady) %an that "eE1
12 %a'e forth)1 she reBoined) 1fro' thine o"lations
&ast u(on the waters< thou wilt find in 'e
: "lessing< use 'e in the sa%rifi%e.1
/ith her he worshi(ed) and with toilso'e 9eal
Perfor'ed religious rites) ho(ing for offs(ring.
#hus were %reated 'en %alled sons of $anu.
/hatever "enedi%tion he i'(lored
/ith her) was thus vou%hsafed in full a"undan%e.
I
But if la%+ing in interest for the general readers) these dry) unins(ired (riestly
dire%tions are of very great i'(ortan%e to the student of 2ndia=s religion. :lready 'ay
"e seen a nota"le shift away fro' the old si'(le >edi% %on%e(tions. #he >edi% gods
had largely lost their (ower and signifi%an%e. New deities) (arti%ularly PraBa(ati) Lord
of %reatures) stand as the %entral figures. 2n the end) as 'ay well "e i'agined) this
lu5uriant over7e'(hasis u(on the (ower of the sa%rifi%e) leading naturally to an
e5altation of the (ower of the (riests) who alone (ossessed the se%rets of their (ro(er
(erfor'an%e) were the undoing of >edi% religion) and it finally disa((ears. New
for's of religious faith ta+e its (la%e and new gods arise to re(la%e the older ones) as
we shall (resently see. 2t re(resents a stage in transition fro' >edi% religion to the
(hiloso(hi% Hinduis' and the se%tarian) theisti% Hinduis' whi%h has %o'e down to
our own ti'e.
#he date of the Brah'anas %annot "e fi5ed with e5a%tness) "ut they follow after the
>edas and (re%ede the rise of the U(anishads whi%h in turn are) the older ones)
definitely (re7Buddhisti%. #he Brah'anas are found in %onne%tion with the various
>edas. :s indi%ated a"ove in the Bla%+ *aBur7>eda) the Brah'ana 'aterial is
inters(ersed throughout the >eda) while in the /hite *aBur7>eda the Brah'ana for's
an a((endi5 to the >eda. #hey were undou"tedly at first designed for the training of
(riests. #he earlier instru%tion 'ay have "een 8uite infor'al) "ut gradually it "e%a'e
stereoty(ed and finally un%hangea"le. #here were) however) differen%es in the
Brah'anas as taught in different s%hools.
But not all the develo('ent of religious thought was of (riestly origin. 2ndeed) it 'ay
well have "een that as the %ult grew 'ore %o'(le5 and overgrown) lay 'e'"ers of
the %o''unity "e%a'e i'(atient with it and with the ideas "ehind it) and "egan to
thin+ a"out religion the'selves. By this ti'e) the stratifi%ation of so%iety into fi5ed
%astes) a thing un+nown in the >edas) save in the late tenth "oo+) was %o'(lete. #he
(referred (osition of the (riest or Brah'in had "een se%urely fi5ed. His was
definitely the to( ran+ing %lass) 8uite a"ove the Gshatriya) the ruler7warrior %lass) and
the >aisya or far'er7'er%hant grou() and his su(re'a%y has %ontinued into our own
ti'es. #hese three %lasses) +nown as the twi%e7"orn %astes) were shar(ly set off fro'
the lowly ,udra who was non7:ryan in origin) and %arried on the heavy un(leasant
wor+ of the world. But "y no 'eans all the intelligen%e was to "e found a'ong the
Brah'ins. ;ven in the Brah'anas and again and again in the U(anishads there are
stories of tea%hers see+ing enlighten'ent on (oints of religious thought fro' +ings or
no"les. Nor were all 'e'"ers of the Brah'in %aste (riests. Buddhis' very definitely
arose out of the e5(erien%e and (onderings of a (rin%e) one of the Gshatriyas. :nd it
is %onBe%tured that 'u%h of the i'(ulse to the (rofound religious and (hiloso(hi%al
s(e%ulation whi%h for's the "asis of the U(anishads was fro' the non7Brah'in
ran+s.
&ertain it is that "efore the ti'e of the U(anishads) 'en of the non7Brah'in %astes
had underta+en to "e%o'e as%eti%s and her'its and give the'selves to %onte'(lation
of the great (ro"le's of religious and (hiloso(hi% thought. #he Brah'ins) if they did
not originate the %usto') ulti'ately e'"ra%ed it and integrated it into a syste' of
:shra'as) or the four stages of life. #he first stage was that of the student. #hose of
the twi%e7"orn %astes were to "egin early the study of the >edas) whi%h 'eant to live
in the ho'e of a tea%her and serve hi' while learning the wisdo' of the sa%red te5ts.
:t an a((ro(riate ti'e the student was to "e%o'e a householder) 'arry) rear a fa'ily)
and (erfor' the (ro(er sa%rifi%es to the gods. #hen) when (ast 'iddle age) he was to
go a(art fro' the %o''on life) and to dwell in the forest) (assing the ti'e in
%onte'(lation and 'editation. /hen at last old age had %o'e he was su((osed to
a"andon all %onne%tions with ho'e) with fa'ily) and the %o''on life) and "e%o'e
a sannyasin, or holy 'an) a wandering "eggar for 6od.
-f %ourse not every 'ale of the twi%e7"orn %astes followed this (rogra') "ut 'any
did. U(on what should these forest dwellers 'editateE :t first this 'ay have "een left
wholly to the individual "ut in ti'e it also "e%a'e for'ali9ed) and there %a'e into
"eing what are +nown as the :ranya+as or 3orest #reatises. #hese were so'eti'es
in%luded in the Brah'anas or a((ended to the') "ut they were of a different +ind. No
longer is the %on%ern with the rules of sa%rifi%e and %ere'onies) "ut with 'ysti%is'
and the sy'"olis' of sa%rifi%e) and with the 'ore (hiloso(hi% as(e%ts of religion.
#here had grown u( a "ody of se%ret do%trine) an esoteri% ty(e of thought< not to "e
taught to the uninitiated in the villages) "ut to "e 'editated u(on in the forest. #his all
in ti'e "e%a'e a (art of the >eda. #here are :ranya+as "elonging to the various
s%hools) thus the :itareya7:ranya+a) whi%h %ontains the :itareya7U(anishad) is
atta%hed to the :itareya7Brah'ana of the Rig7>eda. #here is no %lear line of
distin%tion "etween the :ranya+as and the U(anishads whi%h the non7s(e%ialist %an
easily dis%ern.
#he U(anishads) whi%h) with the :ranya+as) for' the >edanta) or the end of the
>eda) are (ro"a"ly the 'ost i'(ortant (arts of the >eda. #hey are the "asis of 2ndian
(hiloso(hy and (hiloso(hi% Hinduis') the religion of the intelligentsia of 2ndia) and
have affe%ted the thought of all 2ndia with referen%e to religion.
,ave in the tenth "oo+ of the Rig7>eda) the >edas in general) li+e the -ld #esta'ent)
ta+e the gods for granted. #here is little or no refle%tion u(on the'. 2n the Brah'anas
there is the "eginning of 8uestioning a"out the world and its origins. 2n the :ranya+as
to a still greater degree it goes forward) "ut in the U(anishads it %o'es to
flower.
D
Here the %hief %on%ern is to as+ ulti'ate 8uestions %on%erning 'an) and his
world) and his final destiny. 2t re(resents "oth an intelle%tual and a religious interest.
&on%erned with the nature of the world ground) it is also interested in how 'an 'ust
relate hi'self to this ulti'ate reality in order to a%hieve what) in &hristianity) is
%alled salvation. #o the Hindu it was Mo+sha.
2t would "e a 'ista+e to thin+ of the U(anishads as for'al "oo+s of (hiloso(hy)
a"struse dis%ussions of highly (rofound and diffi%ult su"Be%ts. #hey are) first of all)
tied on "odily to the >edas) Brah'anas and :ranya+as) so'eti'es %ontained within
the latter. #here is in the' a great deal that has to do with sa%rifi%e and the %ult in
general. #here is also a good deal of 'yth and legend. #here are long) tireso'e)
re(etitious dis%ussions of what see') on first reading) to "e (uerile 'atters. -ne who
has heard of the vast i'(ortan%e of the U(anishads) and has read s%attered e5%er(ts of
rare "eauty and insight) is li+ely to feel a sense of sho%+ as he sits down to read
through the whole %olle%tion of the 1 or 1? (rin%i(al U(anishads. ,o'e of it is
%rude) %hildish) and in su%h (assages as give only the list of na'es of the tea%hers
through who' the tea%hings have "een handed down) one finds it a"out as ins(iring
as the 1"egatting1 or genealogi%al %ha(ters of the -ld and New #esta'ent. But if the
reader (ersists he will %o'e u(on (assages of dee( insight) "eauty of e5(ression and
(rofound understanding of the great (ro"le's of religion and hu'an thought. -ne=s
first e5%ursion into these "asi% (hiloso(hi% te5ts would "est "e through so'e 'odern
e5(urgated edition or anthology) whi%h has %arefully weeded out the %rudities) the
re(etitiousness) and %ontradi%tions that so 'u%h a"ound in the original.
J
#he word U(anishad see's to 'ean 1se%ret do%trine.1 2t is also defined as 'eaning)
literally) that whi%h dis(els dar+ness or ignoran%e %o'(letely. 2t 'ay "e written in
(rose) or in (oetry. #here are) all told) over 1CC U(anishads in e5isten%e) 'any of
the' 8uite late. But of the earlier ones whi%h 'ay "e surely said to "e >edi% there are
only a few) so'e re%ogni9e twelve) so'e fourteen. R. ;. Hu'e=s "oo+) The Thirteen
Principal &panishads,
-.
%ontains a translation of those whi%h are rather generally
a%%e(ted as "asi% to a study of Hindu religion and (hiloso(hy.
: great deal of the 'aterial of the U(anishads is in dialogue for'. : see+er after
+nowledge %o'es to a re%ogni9ed tea%her to in8uire a"out so'e (hase of religion or
thought. : so'ewhat ,o%rati% dialogue ensues) in whi%h the answer is finally given.
2t is interesting to note the variety of (eo(le who as+ the 8uestions) +ings and
%o''oners) so'e of very hu'"le "irth) "oth 'en and wo'en. :((arently wo'en
enBoyed a relatively high status at that ti'e.
:s an e5a'(le of dialogue that "etween *aBnaval+ya) a fa'ous tea%her) and a
wo'an) 6argi) 'ay "e %ited. ,he a((roa%hes the tea%her and "egs (er'ission to as+ a
8uestion. *aBnaval+ya re(lies gra%iously0
,he said0 1#hat) - *aBnaval+ya) whi%h is a"ove the s+y) that whi%h is "eneath
the earth that whi%h is "etween these two) s+y and earth) that whi%h (eo(le %all
the (ast and the (resent and the future 77 a%ross what is that woven) war( and
woofE1
He said0 A#hat) - 6argi) whi%h is a"ove the s+y that whi%h is "etween these
two) s+y and earth) that whi%h (eo(le %all the (ast) and (resent and future 77
a%ross s(a%e is that woven) war( and woof.1
,he said0 1:doration to you) *aBnaval+ya) in that you have solved this 8uestion
for 'e. Pre(are yourself for the other.1
1:s+) 6argi.1
,he said) 1:%ross what then) (ray) is s(a%e woven) war( and woofE1
He said0 1#hat) - 6argi) Brah'ans %all the 2'(erisha"le (:+sara! . 2t is not
%oarse) not fine) not short) not long) not glowing (li+e fire! ) not adhesive (li+e
water! ) without shadow and without dar+ness) without air and without s(a%e)
without sti%+iness (intangi"le! ) odorless) tasteless) without eye) without ear)
without voi%e) without wind) without energy) without "reath) without 'outh)
without (ersonal or fa'ily na'e) unaging) undying) without fear) i''ortal)
stainless) not un%overed) not %overed) without 'easure) without inside and
without outside.
12t %onsu'es nothing soever.
1No one soever %onsu'es it.
A>erily) - 6argi) at the %o''and of that 2'(erisha"le the sun and the 'oon
stand a(art. >erily) - 6argi) at the %o''and of that 2'(erisha"le the earth and
the s+y stand a(art. >erily) - 6argi) at the %o''and of that 2'(erisha"le the
'o'ents) the hours) the days) the nights) the fortnights) the 'onths) the
seasons) and the years stand a(art. >erily) - 6argi) at the %o''and of that
2'(erisha"le so'e rivers flow fro' the snowy 'ountains to the east) others to
the west) in whatever dire%tion ea%h flows. >erily) - 6argi) at the %o''and of
that 2'(erisha"le 'en (raise those who give) the gods are desirous of a
sa%rifi%er) and the fathers (are desirous! of the $anes7sa%rifi%e.
1>erily) - 6argi) if one (erfor's sa%rifi%es and worshi(s and undergoes
austerity in this world for 'any thousands of years) "ut without +nowing that
2'(erisha"le) li'ited indeed is that (wor+! of his. >erily) - 6argi) he who
de(arts fro' this world without +nowing that 2'(erisha"le is (itia"le. But) -
6argi) he who de(arts fro' this world +nowing that 2'(erisha"le is Brah'an.
1>erily) - 6argi) that 2'(erisha"le is the unseen ,eer) the unheard Hearer) the
unthought #hin+er) the ununderstood understander. -ther than 2t there is
naught that sees. -ther than 2t there is naught that hears. -ther than 2t there is
naught that understands. :%ross this 2'(erisha"le) - 6argi) is s(a%e woven)
war( and woof.1
?C
-n another o%%asion when 6argi had (ushed *aBnaval+ya "a%+ ste( "y ste() a devi%e
often used in the U(anishads and +nown as the regressus) to Brah'an as the ulti'ate
reality) she still (ersisted in as+ing what lay "ehind Brah'an. *aBnaval+ya said0
16argi) do not 8uestion too 'u%h) lest your head fall off. 2n truth) you
are 8uestioning too 'u%h a"out a divinity a"out whi%h 8uestions %annot
"e as+ed. 6argi) do not over78uestion.1
#hereu(on 6argi >a%a+naivi held her (ea%e.
?
=
:nother regressus throws not a little light u(on the shifting away fro' the old >edi%
gods to the -ne) Brah'an. 2t is given in slightly a""reviated for'0
1. #hen >idagdha ,a+alya 8uestioned hi'. 1How 'any gods are there)
*aBnaval+yaE1
He answered in a%%ord with the following /ivid *invo%ationary for'ula! 0 1:s
'any as are 'entioned in the /ivid of the Hy'n to :ll the 6ods) na'ely) three
hundred and three) and three thousand and three (M??CI! .1
1*es)1 said he) 1"ut Bust how 'any gods are there) *aBnaval+yaE1
1#hirty7three.1
1,i5.1
1#hree.1
1#wo.1
-ne and a half.1
1-ne.1
?
#here is s(a%e for only one final dialogue dealing with the :t7'an) whi%h) together
with Brah'an) %onstitute the two 'aBor %on%e(ts dealt with in the U(anishads. #heir
ulti'ate identifi%ation in Brah'an7:t'an is the %ul'ination of the long ti'e trend
toward the 'onisti% or (antheisti% world7soul whi%h "egan in the tenth "oo+ of the
Rig7>eda. :lso the reali9ed identifi%ation of the :t'an) or self) or soul of 'an) with
Brah'an) %onstitutes mo+sha or salvation for so'e s%hools of (hiloso(hi% Hinduis'.
Ging 4ana+a of >ideha on%e as+ed of *aBnaval+ya<
. 1*aBnaval+ya) what light does a (erson here haveE1
1He has the light of the sun) - +ing)1 he said) 1for with the sun) indeed) as his
light) one sits) 'oves around) does his wor+) and returns.
1Luite so) *aBnaval+ya.
?. 1But when the sun has set) *aBnaval+ya) what light does a (erson here
haveE1
1#he 'oon) indeed) is his light)1 said he) 1for with the 'oon) indeed) as his
light) one sits) 'oves around) does his wor+) and returns.1
@. 1But when the sun has set) and the 'oon has set) what light does a (erson
here haveE1
13ire) indeed) is his light)1 said he) 1for with fire)1 et%.
5. 1But when the sun has set) *aBnaval+ya) and the 'oon has set) and the fire
has gone out) what light does a (erson here haveE1
1,(ee%h) indeed) is his light)1 said he) 1for . . . when a voi%e is raised (even in
the dar+! then one goes straight towards it.1
I. 1But when the sun has set) *aBnaval+ya) and the 'oon has set) and the fire
has gone out) and s(ee%h is hushed) what light does a (erson here haveE1
1#he soul (at'an! ) indeed) is his light)1 said he) 1for with the soul) indeed) as
his light) one sits) 'oves around) does his wor+) and returns.1
??
#he fa'ous (hrase tat tvam asi, 1that art thou)1 e5(ressing the identity of the self of
'an with Brah'an7:t'an o%%urs over and over again in a long dialogue "etween
,veta+etu and his father) for e5a'(le0
,aid the father0
1. 1Pla%e this salt in the water. 2n the 'orning %o'e unto 'e.
#hen he did so.
#hen he said to hi'0 1#hat salt you (la%ed in the water last evening 77 (lease
"ring it hither.1
#hen he gras(ed for it) "ut did not find it) as it was %o'(letely dissolved.
. 1Please ta+e a si( of it fro' this end)1 said he. 1How is itE1
1,alt.1
1#a+e a si( fro' the 'iddle)1 said he. 1How is itE1
1,alt.1
1#a+e a si( fro' that end)1 said he. 1How is itE1
1,alt.1
1,et it aside. #hen %o'e unto 'e.
He did so) saying) 12t is always the sa'e.1
#hen he said to hi'0 1>erily) indeed) 'y dear) you do not (er%eive Being here.
>erily) indeed) it is here.
?. 1#hat whi%h is the finest) essen%e 77 this whole world has that as its soul.
#hat is Reality. #hat is :t'an (,oul! . #hat art thou) ,veta+etu.1
1Do you) sir) %ause 'e to understand even 'ore.
1,o "e it) 'y dear)1 said he.
?@
But how shall this mo+sha whi%h is release fro' the round of re"irth "e
a%%o'(lishedE #o the authors of the U(anishads) >edi% sa%rifi%e was una"le to hel(
one here. 2t %ould %o'e only through +nowledge or reali9ation of the truth of the
identity of the :t'an of living 'an with Brah'an7:t'an. #he U(anishads
the'selves suggest the way of 'editation under dire%tion of a tea%her) "ut have little
to say with regard to the (re%ise 'ethods to "e e'(loyed. Later thin+ers were to
develo( ela"orate s%he'es where"y 'an 'ight a%hieve this end. 2n general *oga
(ra%ti%e in one for' or another) i.e.) dis%i(lined 'editation) was the answer.
Here in the U(anishads %o'e to full e5(ression two do%trines un+nown in the >edas)
that of Gar'a) ot the law of sowing and rea(ing) and that of rein%arnation. Both are
e5(ressed in the following0
?. Now as a %ater(illar) when it has %o'e to the end of a "lade of grass) in
ta+ing the ne5t ste( draws itself together towards it) Bust so this soul in ta+ing
the ne5t ste( stri+es down this "ody) dis(els its ignoran%e) and draws itself
together (for 'a+ing the transition! .
@. :s a golds'ith) ta+ing a (ie%e of gold) redu%es it to another newer and 'ore
"eautiful for') Bust so this soul) stri+ing down this "ody and dis(elling its
ignoran%e) 'a+es for itself another newer and 'ore "eautiful for' li+e that
either of the fathers) or of the 6andharvas) or of the gods) or of PraBa(ati) or of
Brah'an) or of other "eings.
5. >erily) this soul is Brah'a) 'ade of +nowledge) of 'ind) of "reath) of
seeing) of hearing) of earth) of water) of wind) of s(a%e) of energy and of non7
energy) of desire and of non7desire) of anger and of non7anger) of virtuousness
and of non7virtuousness. 2t is 'ade of everything. #his is what is 'eant "y the
saying 1'ade of this) 'ade of that.1
:%%ording as one a%ts) a%%ording as one %ondu%ts hi'self) so does he "e%o'e.
#he doer of good "e%o'es good. #he doer of evil "e%o'es evil. -ne "e%o'es
virtuous "y virtuous a%tion) "ad "y "ad a%tion.
?5
#hough the do%trine of rein%arnation was wor+ed out in 'u%h greater detail in
su"se8uent Hindu sa%red literature) it is e5(ressed in the Li(anishads in rudi'entary
for' thus0
15. #hose who +now this) and those) too) who in the forest truly worshi(
(u(asate! faith (sraddha! ) (ass into the fla'e (of the %re'ation7fire! < fro' the
fla'e) into the day< fro' the day) into the half 'onth of the wa5ing 'oon<
fro' the half 'onth of the wa5ing 'oon) into the si5 'onths during whi%h the
sun 'oves northward< fro' these 'onths) into the world of the gods
(devalo+a! < fro' the world of the gods) into the sun< fro' the sun) into the
lightning7fire. : (erson ((urusa! %onsisting of 'ind ('anasa! goes to those
regions of lightning and %ondu%ts the' to the Brah'a7worlds. 2n those
Brah'a7worlds they dwell for long e5tents. -f these there is no return.
1I. But they who "y sa%rifi%ial offering) %harity) and austerity %on8uer the
worlds) (ass into the s'o+e (of the %re'ation7fire! < fro' the s'o+e) into the
night< fro' the night) into the half 'onth of the waning 'oon< fro' the half
'onth of the waning 'oon) into the si5 'onths during whi%h the sun 'oves
southwaid< fro' those 'onths) into the world of the fathers< fro' the world of
the fathers) into the 'oon. Rea%hing the 'oon) they "e%o'e food. #here the
gods 77 as they say to Ging ,o'a) 12n%reaseK De%reaseK177 even so feed u(on
the' there. /hen that (asses away for the') then they (ass forth into this
s(a%e< fro' s(a%e) into air< fro' air) into rain< fro' rain) into the earth. -n
rea%hing the earth they "e%o'e food. :gain they are offered in the fire of 'an.
#hen%e they are "orn in the fire of wo'an. Rising u( into the world) they %y%le
round again thus.
But those who +now not these two ways) "e%o'e %rawling and flying inse%ts
and whatever there is here that "ites.
?I
Parts of the U(anishads are in verse. Here we have s(a%e for only three "rief (oe's
on Brah'an) favorite the'e of the writers of the 1se%ret do%trine.1
:s oil in sesa'e seeds) as "utter in %rea')
:s water in river7"eds) and as fire in the fri%tion7sti%+s)
,o is the ,oul (:t'an! a((rehended in one=s own soul)
2f one loo+s for Hi' with true austerity (ta(as! .
#he ,oul (:t'an! ) whi%h (ervades all things
:s "utter is %ontained in %rea')
/hi%h is rooted in self7+nowledge and austerity 77
#his is Brah'a) the highest 'ysti% do%trine (u(anishad! K
#his is Brah'a) the highest 'ysti% do%trineK
?D
#he se%ond illustrates the way in whi%h the Brah'an %on%e(t gathers u( into itself
the old >edi% gods.
#hou art Brah'a) and verily thou art >ishnu.
#hou art Rudra. #hou art PraBa(ati)
#hou art :gni) >aruna) and >ayu.
#hou art 2ndra. #hou art the $oon.
#hou art food. #hou art *a'a. #hou art the ;arth.
#hou art :ll. *ea) thou art the unsha+en oneK
3or Nature=s sa+e and for its own
2s e5isten%e 'anifold in thee.
- Lord of all) hail unto theeK
#he ,oul of all) %ausing all a%ts)
;nBoying all) all life art thouK
Lord ((ra"hu! of all (leasure and delightK
Hail unto thee) - tran8uil ,oul (santat'an! K
*ea) hail to thee) 'ost hidden one)
Unthin+a"le) unli'ited)
Beginningless and endless) tooK
?J
:nd finally) fro' the $unda+a %o'es this su''ing7u( of the whole in Brah'an0
Brah'a) indeed) is this i''ortal. Brah'a "efore)
Brah'a "ehind) to right and to left.
,tret%hed forth "elow and a"ove.
Brah'a) indeed) is this whole world) this widest e5tent.
?9
#he U(anishads have had an e5traordinary influen%e on all su"se8uent religious and
(hiloso(hi% thought. No writer on 2ndian (hiloso(hy would thin+ of "eginning
anywhere "ut in the >eda) 'eaning (ri'arily the U(anishads. -ut of the' have
grown si5 histori%al s%hools of (hiloso(hi% thought) and ea%h of these has had its
effe%t u(on 2ndian religion. Best +nown in the /est is the >edanta s%hool. -thers are
the Nayaya) the $i'ansa) the ,an+hya) the *oga) and the >aiseshi+a.
@C
Religiously) the %on%e(t of Brah'an has had a very (rofound effe%t on 2ndian
religion. ,in%e Brah'an is the one and only real 77 all the gods of whatever se%tarian
grou( %an have no reality other than they have in Brah'an. #hey %an only "e
regarded as 'anifestations) at various levels) of the neuter world soul. #hus a %loa+ of
unity is thrown over all +inds of religions whi%h have a((eared in 2ndia. 2ndeed) this
%on%e(t (rovides Hinduis' with an a"sor(tive 8uality whi%h ena"les it to a%%e(t any
religion fro' any sour%e as si'(ly a (hase of the ulti'ately real Brah'an 77 so long
as it does not 'a+e e5%lusive %lai's for its deity as do &hristianity and 2sla'. Here
the resistan%e is rather on the (art of the re(resentatives of these aggressively
e5%lusivist faiths to su%h an a%%e(tan%e.
#he U(anishads have "een 8uite influential throughout the west. ,%ho(enhauer)
a'ong ;uro(ean (hiloso(hers) has s(o+en of the' in ter's of high estee'0
2n the whole world there is no study e5%e(t that of the originals) as "enefi%ial
and so elevating as that of the U(anishads (in translation! . 2t has "een the
sola%e of 'y life< it will "e the sola%e of 'y death.
3ro' every sNnten%e dee( original and su"li'e thoughts arise) and the whole
is (ervaded "y a high) holy and earnest s(irit.
@1
;'erson got the ins(iration fro' their reading for his great (oe') rahma. #horeau
read the' and was influen%ed "y the'. #he whole at'os(here of New ;ngland
thought in the latter (art of the nineteenth %entury was affe%ted "y the'. 2n 'ore
re%ent ti'es) as translations have "een 'uhi(lied) they have "een read "y vast
nu'"ers of (eo(le. : re%ent "oo+) #edanta )or the 0estern 0orld inter(rets the' to
an in%reasing %ir%le of intelligent readers. #heoso(hy has ta+en over so'e of the
"asi% ideas of the U(anishads and (o(ulari9ed the' in the /est) and their indire%t
influen%e is to "e seen in a nu'"er of s'all 'odern religious 'ove'ents in
:'eri%a.
@
#he U(anishads are the sour%e of the do%trines whi%h furnish the "asis for the
>edanta7,utras of Badarayana) whi%h are "y so'e %onsidered to "e sruti literature.
-n this are "ased the %o''entaries of ,han+ara and of Ra'anuBa whose writings
have influen%ed and are still influen%ing the religious thought of %ountless 'illions of
2ndians.
/ith the U(anishads we %o'e to the end of the >eda) and also the end of
the sruti sa%red literature) with the e5%e(tion of the Bhagavad 6ita) whi%h if not
universally so re%ogni9ed is) "y great nu'"ers of 2ndians) ran+ed along with the 'ost
sa%red >edi% literature. #o that we shall %o'e "a%+ later. But we are only at the
"eginning of the dis%ussion of literature of the smriti ty(e) whi%h) for all (ra%ti%al
(ur(oses) is 8uite as i'(ortant in the religious life of the 2ndian (eo(le as the
older sruti. 2ndeed) rather 'ore so) for a%tually >edi% religion no longer e5ists. #he
old >edi% gods are gone) with the e5%e(tion of a very few 77%hiefly >ishnu. -rthodo5
2ndians regard their later literatures as growing out of and fulfilling the >edas) "ut in
no sense as a"rogating the'. #y(i%al of the attitude of 'odern Hindu thought is the
state'ent of D. ,. ,ar'a in his Primer o) (induism, written for the instru%tion of
young Hindus in this faith0
L. /hy) if the >eda is our (ri'ary s%ri(ture) should we not go dire%t to it
without %aring for any of the se%ondary s%ri(turesE
A. #he >eda is li+e a 'ine of gold) and the later s%ri(tures are li+e the gold
%oins of the various ages. /hen you want to (ro%ure things that would 'a+e
you %o'forta"le) you should have ready 'oney and not a (ie%e of ro%+ with
veins of gold in it straight fro' the 'ine. -f %ourse every gold %oin that is in
the %ountry is ulti'ately derived fro' the 'ine< "ut has undergone various
(ro%esses that 'a+e it useful to us at on%e. #he ore has "een s'elted) the dross
has "een re'oved) the true 'etal has "een refined) (ut into 'oulds and
sta'(ed. ,i'ilarly the golden truths of the >eda have "een refined "y the
wisdo' of the ages and (resented to us in a useful for') in our later s%ri(tures.
#hat is why 2 re%o''end to you the 6ita) rather than the U(anishads.
@?
/hile the a((li%ation was in this %ase s(e%ifi%ally to the Bhagavad 6ita) note that he
says 1(resented to us in our later s%ri(tures.1
,u((le'entary to the >edas there grew u( a great "ody of what is +nown
as sutra literature. #he na'e %o'es fro' the (ra%ti%e) ado(ted for 'ne'oni% reasons)
of %ou%hing what was to "e re'e'"ered in very terse) al'ost telegra(hi% for') whi%h
then needed to "e e5(anded) to 'a+e %o'(lete senten%es. #hus0 1four %astes<
Brah'ans) Gshatriyas) >aisyas) and ,udras)1 re8uires adding 1#here are.1 1-f these
the (re%eding one (is! always "etter) a%%ording to "irth (than the su%%eeding one! .1
#he words in (arentheses 'ust "e su((lied.
@@
#he oldest of these sutras are found in %onne%tion with the :ranya+as and
Brah'anas. ;ventually there e'erged the !alpa or ritual sutras. #hose dealing with
the great (u"li% sa%rifi%es are %alled ,rauta sutras< those with the do'esti% rites the
6rihya sutras. #hese latter deal with the si'(le household sa%rifi%es and o"servan%es
%onne%ted with su%h things as "uilding a house) %attle "reeding) far'ing) also rites for
the (revention of disease) love rites) the an%estral and funeral rites. #hey %onstitute a
verita"le 'ine of infor'ation as to the ho'e and fa'ily life of the (eo(le and also
throw a great deal of light u(on the way the >edas were inter(reted and used in a%tual
(ra%ti%e.
#here are also sutras %on%erning the Dhar'a. Dhar'a is a word not easily translated.
2t is so'eti'es rendered as law) %usto') usage) and even religion. #he Dhar'a sutras
were) then) sutras %overing a great variety of o"ligations) all the way fro' (ersonal
eti8uette to for'al law. #hese were for'ulated "y different >edi% s%hools and
(ur(ortedly "ased u(on the >edas. #here are several i'(ortant "oo+s of this
%hara%ter) so'e earlier) so'e later) the :(asta'"a 77 the Baudhayana) the 2nstitutes of
>ishnu) and 'ost i'(ortant of all that of the $anavan ,%hool) the $anavan sutras)
or) when) (ut into (oeti% for') as was a%tually done) the $anavan Dhar'a ,astras)
"etter +nown as the 1a2s o) Manu. #hese "oo+s have "een of enor'ous i'(ortan%e
in 2ndian life) even down to the (resent ti'e. 3or e5a'(le) until re%ently a British
'agistrate in 2ndia) where an 2ndian %iti9en had to "e Budged on the "asis of the law
of his (arti%ular religious %o''unity) had to "e instru%ted in Hindu re8uire'ents as
set forth in the &ode of $anu) as well as in the Goran) whi%h is the "asis of $osle'
law. /hen refor's have "een (ressed) for e5a'(le with referen%e to %hild 'arriage)
or the (ro"le' of (er'itting divor%e) a strong a((eal has "een 'ade "y -rthodo5y to
the Laws of $anu as having (er'anently fi5ed these relationshi(s. #hey %harge the
govern'ent with infringe'ent of religious freedo' in setting aside what was therein
written.
The 1a2s o) Manu is a fas%inating law "oo+) %o'(ara"le in 'any ways to the &ode
of Ha''ura"i or to the He"rew %odes found in ;5odus) Leviti%us) and Deuterono'y.
2f one desires to +now %aste rules) or how wo'en should "e regarded) or the
o"ligations of servant to 'aster) or wife to hus"and) or %hildren to (arents) or +ing to
(eo(le) or (eo(le to ruler) or %on%erning al'ost any 8uestion of so%ial relationshi()
here 'ay "e found what) until 8uite re%ent 'odern ti'es) was the %hara%teristi%
2ndian answer.
@5
-rdinarily one would not regard the great national e(i%s as s%ri(tures though) in the
%ase of the Iliad and the Odyssey, they %o'e %lose to for'ing at least an e8uivalent of
s%ri(ture for the 6ree+ (eo(le) and to students of 6ree+ religion they (rovide a ri%h
'ine of 'aterial with referen%e to the gods of %lassi%al 6ree+ religion. But in 2ndia) if
not sruti they are at least smriti, and (lay a highly signifi%ant role in 2ndian religion.
D. ,. ,ar'a in his Primer o) (induism so %lassifies the' along with the Puranas) the
:ga'as and Darsanas. #his is an indi%ation of how 'odern 2ndians regard the'.
@I
2n his introdu%tion to the $aha"harata of whi%h he is the su((osed author or
%o'(iler) >yasa says0 A#he reading of the Bharata is sa%red0 all the sins of hi' who
reads "ut one (ortion of it shall "e o"literated without e5%e(tion. He who in faith
shall (ersevere in listening to the re%ital of this sa%red "oo+ shall o"tain long life)
great renown and the way to heaven.1
Ro'esh Dutt) translator of the ;(i%s in ;very'an=s Li"rary says of the'0 1#he
Hindu s%ar%ely lives) 'an or wo'an) high or low) edu%ated or ignorant) whose
earliest re%olle%tions do not %ling to the story and the %hara%ter of the great ;(i%s.
;ven the traditions and tales whi%h s(oil the ;(i% have the'selves a %har' and an
attra%tion< and the 'orals in%ul%ated in these tales sin+ into the hearts of a naturally
religious (eo(le) and for' the "asis of their 'oral edu%ation. $others in 2ndia +now
no "etter the'e for i'(arting wisdo' and instru%tion to their daughters) and elderly
'en +now no ri%her storehouse for narrating tales to %hildren) than these stories
(reserved in the ;(i%s. No single wor+ e5%e(t the Bi"le has su%h influen%e in
affording 'oral instru%tion in &hristian lands as the $aha"harata and the Ra'ayana
in 2ndia. #hey have "een the %herished heritage of the Hindus for three thousand
years< they are to the (resent day interwoven with the thoughts and "eliefs and the
'oral ideas of a nation.1
@D
#he longer of the two great 2ndian ;(i%s is the $aha"harata. 2ndeed) it is the longest
e(i% in the world) %onsisting of a"out C)CCC lines. 2n %o'(arison)
the Iliad and Odyssey %o'"ined have so'e ?C)CCC. 2t is not all stri%tly e(i% in
%hara%ter "ut a %o'"ination of e(i% and dida%ti% 'aterial whi%h has "een
in%or(orated into it. $odern s%holars distinguish "etween the e(i% and the dida%ti%
e(i%.
#he real e(i% %onsists of so'e @)CCC stan9as) al'ost twi%e the length of the 6ree+
e(i%s) "ut even this is not all of a (ie%e) for in the e(i% itself there is referen%e to the
fa%t that it originally had only J)JCC stan9as.
#he original e(i% had its histori% "asis in the an%ient %onfli%t "etween two tri"es 77 the
Gurus and Pandavas. #his (ro"a"ly o%%urred at so'e ti'e (rior to 1CCC B.&.) though
e5a%t dating is i'(ossi"le. :round this histori% struggle grew u( a %olle%tion of songs
%ele"rating the (rowess of outstanding leaders and this was handed down orally. #his
'ay then have "een woven into a "rief e(i% "y so'e (oet. #he fa%t that in this e(i%)
Brah'a is the %hief god is eviden%e to so'e s%holars that it is still early) "efore the
rise to (ro'inen%e of the great divinities >ishnu or ,hiva) who figure in the later
stage of growth as on a (ar with Brah'a. Here 'ention of the 6ree+s a((ears whi%h
would re8uire a date as late as ?CC B.&. or later. $a%donell assigns it to the (eriod
"etween ?CC B.&. and the "eginning of the &hristian era.
@J
#he final stage in the
develo('ent of the e(i% was the in%lusion of a vast 'ass of dida%ti% 'aterial in the
e(i% 77 dou"tless in order to get it +nown. 3or the ;(i% was (o(ular) and if so'e
tea%hing 'atter %ould "e in%or(orated into it) it 'ight get attention whi%h it would
otherwise fail to re%eive. #he (ro%ess is %o'(ara"le to the 'odern effort of tea%hers
of religion and 'orals to atte'(t to get their 'aterial into the 'ovies) on the radio) or
in television) whi%h are the 'edia of 'ass a((eal of today. ,o one thing after another
was added) designed) says $a%donell) 1to i'(ress the (eo(le) es(e%ially +ings) with
the do%trines of a (riestly %aste. 2t thus at last assu'ed the %hara%ter of a vast treatise
on dhar'a in whi%h the divine origin and i''uta"ility of Brah'an institutions) the
eternity of the %aste syste') and the su"ordination of all to the (riest is laid down.
@9
#his was (ro"a"ly %o'(leted "y a"out @CC :D. 2n the end it
%o'es out as a >ishnuite do%u'ent in whi%h the worshi( of >ishnu and his divine
in%arnations) es(e%ially Grishna) is (ro'oted0 #his rea%hes its %li'a5 in the
Bhagavad 6ita whi%h was one of the dida%ti% se%tions in%luded.
,o'eti'es the in%luded 'aterial fits. #here 'ay "e) after all) so'e a((ro(riateness in
inserting a lengthy dis%ussion on i''ortality "y two survivors of a dreadfully
destru%tive "attle as they survey the %or(se7strewn "attlefield. #he Bhagavad 6ita
see's so'ewhat less a((ro(riately (la%ed. 2t inter(olates at the (re%ise 'o'ent
when the "attle lines are drawn and the warriors await only the "lowing of the %on%h
shell as signal to %harge u(on the ene'y) a dis%ussion running through eighteen
%ha(ters on very (rofound religious the'es "etween :rBuna the warrior and Grishna
the god) disguised as a %harioteer. But to the 6ita we will return later.
-nly a very "rief and inade8uate su''ary of the ;(i% %an "e given here.
-f the house of Bharata there were two sons) Pandu and Dhrita7rashtra. Pandu had
five sons %alled the Pandavas) "y na'e *udhisthira the eldest) Bhi'a) :rBuna) Na+ula
and ,ahadeva. Dhrita7rashtra) who was "lind) had several sons of who' Duryodhana
was the eldest and Duhsasana the "ravest. #his fa'ily was %alled the Gauravas.
-n the death of Pandu) Dhrita7rashtra) the "lind +ing) too+ his "rother=s five sons into
his own ho'e to rear) and they were trained in the 'anly arts along with his own
sons) "y Drona. :rBuna (roved the favorite. /hen they were all well trained Drona
suggested a tourna'ent in whi%h they 'ight e5hi"it their s+ill. #his was a 'ista+e)
for :rBuna e5%elled all in his 'astery of the "ow) the sword) the s(ear) and aroused
Bealousy in the 'inds of his %ousins) the Gauravas. #he tourna'ent ended in a
general fight "etween the %ousins. Ging Dhrita7 rashtra saw the ne%essity of
se(arating the rivals) so divided his +ingdo') giving a distant se%tion of it to the
Pandavas. *udhisthira) as eldest) e5er%ised rule and soon won the love of his su"Be%ts.
#hen one day the father of Drau(adi) a very "eautiful (rin%ess who had %o'e to the
age to wed) announ%ed a s2ayamvara, at whi%h a hus"and would "e %hosen for her)
and all neigh"oring +ings and (rin%es were invited to %ontest for the hand of the
lovely (rin%ess. #his is 8uite a %o''on literary devi%e and re%urs fre8uently in the
e(i%s and other 2ndian literature. 2t "rought together a %olorful %o'(any) not wholly
unli+e the tourna'ents asso%iated with the +nights of the Round #a"le in ;nglish
lore. #he (arti%ular test on this o%%asion was to shoot an arrow through a revolving
wheel and stri+e the eye of a golden fish. #he five Pandavas attended the event
disguised as Brah'ins. /hen none of the %ontestants %ould even "end and string the
"ow) :rBuna ste((ed forward in his Brah'in=s gar") to the sur(rise of the %rowd
whi%h s%orned the notion that a Brah'in %ould (erfor' a feat of (hysi%al (rowess.
But :rBuna) (utting aside his Brah'in=s ro"es) easily "ent and strung the "ow) then
sent the arrow straight to its 'ar+ and "y so doing won the "eautiful (rin%ess)
Drau(adi. Returning ho'e with the "ride) one of the "rothers %alled out to the 'other
on a((roa%hing the house0 1/e have 'ade a fine a%8uisition today.1 ,he) not having
seen what it was) re(lied0 1,hare it e8ually a'ong yourselves) 'y sons.1 :nd the
'other having s(o+en) her words %ould not "e set aside. ,o) Drau(adi "e%a'e the
wife of all five "rothers. #he irrevo%a"ility of a (arent=s word is a wides(read "elief
77 it will a((ear again in the Ra'ayana. 2n He"rew %usto' the granting of the
"lessing to 4a%o" "y 2saa% is a good e5a'(le.
#he Bealousy felt "y the Gauravas was not lessened "y this su%%ess of the Pandavas.
#hey (lotted their downfall. #hey invited the' to a festival) and %hallenged the' to a
ga'e of di%e. *udhisthira had a wea+ness for ga'"ling. He lost steadily until he had
sta+ed all his (ossessions) his +ingdo') his "rothers and finally his wife 77 and lost
the' all. #his 'eant slavery for the %ousins) "ut the "lind +ing would not (er'it this.
2nstead) they were e5iled to the forest for fourteen years. #his) too) is a fa'iliar 'otif
in 2ndian literature. 2t a((ears again and again) nota"ly in the Ra'ayana.
/hile they were in the forest saints %a'e to visit the' and) in order to entertain and
en%ourage the') told a nu'"er of stories) a'ong the' the Ra'ayana itself)
indi%ating that it is the older of the two. 2n this way there are introdu%ed into the e(i%
so'e re'ar+a"le stories whi%h have no other %onne%tion with the e(i% than that they
were re%ounted to the Pandavas. -ne of the') Savitri and Satyavan or 1ove
3on4uers 5eath, 'ay have "een introdu%ed for dida%ti% (ur(oses) "ut aside fro' its
tea%hing it is a good story) "eautifully told. Briefly it is as follows0
,avitri) a "eautiful (rin%ess) was the only daughter of Ging :sva7Pati. (#he 2ndians)
too) li+e stories of "eautiful (rin%esses and "rave no"le (rin%es) Bust as ;nglish and
:'eri%an %hildren do.! /hen she rea%hed the age to 'arry instead of %alling the
usual s2ayamvara and inviting the (rin%es to %ontend for her hand) she was (er'itted
"y her father to set out on a sear%h for a hus"and 77 %ertainly fro' the stand(oint of
the 2ndia of 'ore re%ent ti'es a very unusual thing for a wo'an to do. But she found
no one who suited her. -ne day she %a'e u(on a her'it and his wife in a forester=s
%ottage and at first sight fell in love with their son ,atyavan) a young woods'an.
Really they were a royal fa'ily) de(rived "y wi%+ed 'en of their rule. #he +ing
%onsented to their 'arriage. #he sage Narada warned her that ,atyavan was doo'ed
to die in a year) "ut she "raved widowhood) and insisted on the 'arriage.
,o they were wed 77 lived in a hu'"le way in the forest) and were "oth very ha((y)
"ut she with a se%ret dread. -n the fateful day on whi%h he was to die) she went with
hi' to his wood7%utting) against his wish. He was suddenly stri%+en. ,he atte'(ted
to revive hi') "ut to no avail. *a'a) god of the dead) %a'e to ta+e his soul away.
,avitri followed after hi') unwilling to turn "a%+) though i'(ortuned to do so "y the
ruler of the real' of the dead. 1/herever 'y lord is "orne there shall 2 surely go< he
is 'y all) 2 %annot leave hi'. 2 'ust go with thee.1 *a'a offered her "oon after "oon
if she would %ease following hi'. ,till she followed. #o his insistent de'and that she
return she only re(lied) 12 would go "a%+ if 2 %ould) "ut in your ar's you %arry 'y
own life.1
3inally) *a'a) 'oved "y her love) %ried) 1#hou art inno%en%e itself) and tenderness
and truth. #hou hast taught 'e lessons new of wo'an=s fidelity. :s+ any "oon thou
wilt and it shall "e thine.1 #his ti'e she %ried0 12 as+ not wealth nor throne) nor
heaven itself< 2 %rave 'y heart) 'y life) give 'e 'y ,atyavan.1 ,o *a'a restored her
"eloved to her) and all was well. #he (arents were restored to their throne 77 and they
all lived ha((ily ever afterward) we will su((ose.
5C
:nother story told the' was /ala and 5amyanti. Both are (rin%es. : swan %arries to
Da'yanti the (rin%ess) word of Nala who' she has not seen) and she falls in love
with hi'. /hen a s2ayamvara is set for her to %hoose a (rin%e) four gods de%lare that
Da'yanti shall "e for one of the' and they send (rin%e Nala as their 'essenger to
woo for the') li+e 4ohn :lden in the 3ourtship o) Miles Standish, des(ite the fa%t that
he de%lares that he too loves her. Relu%tantly he goes and (leads for the'. ,he
de%lares that it is hi' she loves and that she will reBe%t the gods. #hey 'ust all a((ear
one day and she will %hoose hi' "efore the'. -n the given day (rin%es and +ings
arrive) a'ong the' Nala and the gods) "ut they have all 'ade the'selves to a((ear
e5a%tly as Nala so that she 'ay not "e a"le to distinguish hi' fro' the rest. But she
(rays the' so earnestly that at last they reveal the'selves. ,he %hooses Nala and the
gods grant hi' eight "oons. #hey are 'arried and are very ha((y.
But Gali) another god (no %onne%tion with the goddess Gali) now so widely
worshi((ed! is angered and swears vengean%e. :fter several years of ha((y 'arried
life) two %hildren having "een "orn to the') Gali see+s to "rea+ u( this ho'e. He
does so "y 'eans of ga'"ling. Playing at di%e) Nala) li+e *udhisthira) ga'"les away
everything) "ut refuses to throw for his wife. ,o he too is e5iled.
,he with true wifely devotion refuses to leave hi') as ,ita refuses to leave Ra'a.
Under the s(ell of Gali) Nala a"andons her. ,he) left alone and wandering in the
forest) is a"out to "e +illed "y a ser(ent) "ut is saved "y a hunter who 'a+es violent
love to her. ,he %alls down a %urse u(on hi' and he falls dead. 3inally she "e%o'es
servant to a 8ueen) and Nala the %harioteer of the +ing. ,he eventually returns to her
father "ut +ee(s u( a %onstant sear%h for Nala. :t last she dis%overs his wherea"outs.
#hen she as+s her father to %all a s2ayamvara for her to %hoose a hus"and. Nala
%o'es as %harioteer to the +ing he serves. #hey are reunited. He wins "a%+ his
+ingdo' "y a throw of the di%e) the de'on leaves hi') and they live ha((ily ever
after. #here is no 'oral not to ga'"le i'(lied in the story.
:fter the long e5ile was ended (re(arations were 'ade for a war "etween the two
houses 77 although atte'(ts were 'ade to effe%t a re%on%iliation "etween the rival
%lans. /hen these failed) "efore "eginning the "attle they drew u( a set of rules of
warfare7(erha(s the first 1London &onferen%e1 in the history of the hu'an ra%e. #he
(rovisions were 'ost interesting) designed %learly to 'aintain good s(orts'anshi(
throughout. 2n what stri+ing %ontrast they stand to the %urrent (ra%ti%es in 'odern
warfare. 3irst) there 'ust "e no strategy or trea%hery. 2t 'ust "e a straightforward)
honora"le %o'"at) everything a"ove "oardK 2n intervals) "etween a%tive fighting there
was to "e friendly inter%ourse "etween the %a'(s. ,in%e they were not to fight at
night) this left ti'e for fraterni9ation. 2t 'ust have 'ade war so 'u%h (leasanterK
Before they had finished they did fight at night also. Rules are so hard to +ee( in
warti'eK 3ugitives were not to "e +illed. (Re'e'"er how in the last war (risoners
were often 'a%hine gunned en 'asse.! Horse'en 'ust fight only with horse'en)
foot7soldiers with those li+ewise on foot. #here 'ust "e a s(orting %han%e given. No
su"'arines atta%+ing (assenger shi(s) no air(lanes "o'"ing %ivilians. /hen fighting
only with words 77 it was the %usto' to hurl insults at ea%h other endlessly "efore
"eginning to fight (%f. the Philistines and the He"rew ar'ies in the story of the
slaying of 6oliath
51
! 77
ar's 'ust not "e ta+en u( against the ene'y. Nor should any atta%+ "e 'ade without
fair warning) no Pearl Har"ors) no sudden air atta%+s on %itiesK :nd finally) when two
were engaged in %o'"at no third (arty should intervene. /ar was to "e a fair %ontest
of s+ill and (rowess.
2t need not "e said that the rules were not always +e(t. #here were a%ts of trea%hery)
there was fighting at night) 'ore than one did atta%+ an ene'y 77 this is all related in
the (oe'. Rules of war wor+ed then a"out as well as now when it is the %ontrol of
ato'i% wea(ons that is the desired goal of those who would 'a+e war 'ore hu'ane.
3inally the "attle was Boined and raged for eighteen days and so'e nights. #here are
re%ounted stories of valiant %o'"at) individual and %olle%tive. Pro"a"ly no stories of
'ortal struggle were ever 'ore vividly told. -ne is re'inded on (age after (age of
the Iliad of Ho'er. ;nor'ous nu'"ers were engaged. ;ven %hariots were %ounted "y
the 'illions. But at the end of the struggle only eleven survivors re'ained. #he
Pandavas were vi%torious "ut it was a tragi% triu'(h. *udhisthira) %ons%ien%e7
stri%+en at the vast sa%rifi%e of life and (ro(erty is a"out to a"di%ate his throne and
"e%o'e an as%eti%. He is (ersuaded rather to (erfor' the horse sa%rifi%e and so
relieve hi'self fro' his guilt. #his he does. :fter he has given enor'ous 8uantities
of gold to the (riests he is freed fro' his sins and rules his +ingdo' Bustly and well.
But Grishna) who until now has "een a warrior and friend and hel(er) "e%o'es
involved in another war and is +illed "y an arrow whi%h stru%+ hi' in the sole of the
foot) his only vulnera"le s(ot. He is to a((ear in the Bhagavad76ita as god as we
shall later see. 2n%onsola"le for the death of their friend) *udhisthira and his wife and
"rothers a"andon the +ingdo' and set off on their last Bourney) wandering forth to the
Hi'alaya 'ountains to the divine 'ountain $eru.
2t is one of the 'ost fas%inating se%tions of the 6reat ;(i%) "eautifully translated into
;nglish "y ,ir ;dwin :rnold under the title The $reat %ourney. #hey set out wal+ing)
"ut one "y one failed and died. 3irst Drau(adi) the wife of the five "rothers< then
Bhi'a and the rest) until only *udhisthira alone) followed "y a dog) at last rea%hed
heaven=s gate. He was war'ly wel%o'ed "ut the dog was not (er'itted to enter with
hi'0
*udhisthira (rotested0
1- $ost High)
- #housand7eyed and wisestK %an it "e
#hat one e5alted should see' (itilessE
Nay) let 'e lose su%h glory0 for its sa+e
2 %annot leave one living thing 2 loved.1
5
But 1he is un%lean)1 asserted the gods) and unfit to (ass through heaven=s (ortal.
Un%onvin%ed) the hero) *udhisthira) still refused to enter without the dog. #hereu(on
the +ing of heaven s'iled and said0
1#here "e four sins) - ,a+ra) grievous sins0
#he first is 'a+ing su((liants des(air)
#he se%ond is to slay a nursing wife)
#he third is s(oiling Brah'ans= goods "y for%e)
#he fourth is inBuring an an%ient friend.
#hese four 2 dee' not direr than the %ri'e)
2f one) in %o'ing forth fro' woe to weal)
:"andon any 'eanest %o'rade then.1
5?
:s he s(o+e) the hound vanished and there stood in his stead the Lord of Death and
4usti%e) Dhar'a. #hen said 2ndra0
. . . 1Be%ause thou didst not 'ount
#his %ar divine) lest the (oor hound "e shent
/ho loo+ed to thee) loK there is none in heaven
,hall sit a"ove thee) GingK 77 Bharata=s sonK
;nter thou now to the eternal Boys)
Living and in thy for'. 4usti%e and Love
/el%o'e thee) $onar%hK thou shalt throne with usK1
5@
But entering heaven) *udhisthira did not find his "rothers nor his lovely wife who'
he had e5(e%ted to dis%over already there. ,o he %ried0
. . . 12 will not live
: little s(a%e without those souls 2 loved.
- ,layer of the de'onsK let 'e go
/here Bhi'a and 'y "rothers are) and she)
$y Drau(adi) the Prin%ess with the fa%e
,ofter and dar+er than the >rihat7leaf)
:nd soul as sweet as are its odors. LoK
/here they have gone) there will 2 surely go.1
55
#he gods "esought hi' to re'ain) "ut he refused0
. . . 1,how 'e those soulsK
2 %annot tarry where 2 have the' not.
Bliss is not "lissful) Bust and 'ighty -nesK
,ave if 2 rest "eside the'. Heaven is there
/here Love and 3aith 'a+e heaven. Let 'e goK1
5J
,o) forth he went fro' heaven. 6uided "y a golden Deva) and des%ending "y a (ath
evil and dar+) he entered through the 1,inners Road1 into one of the hells. ,o'e idea
of the gri' nature of the Hindu %on%e(t of these hells 'ay "e seen in the following
(assage0
. . . #he tread of sinful feet
$atted the thi%+ thorns %ar(eting its slo(eK
#he s'ell of sin hung foul on the'< the 'ire
:"out their roots was tra'(led filth of flesh
Horrid with rottenness) and s(lashed with gore
&urdling in %ri'son (uddles< where there "u99ed
:nd su%+ed) and settled) %reatures of the swa'()
Hideous in wing and sting) gnat7%louds and flies)
/ith 'oths) toads) newts) and sna+es red7gulleted<
:nd livid) loathso'e wor's) writhing in sli'e
3orth fro' s+ull7holes and s%al(s and tu'"led "ones.
5D
/hile in this dreadful (la%e) he suddenly heard the voi%es of
those he loved0
. . .77 words of woe
Hu'"le and eagerK and %o'(assion sei9ed
His lordly 'ind.
5J
#hen *udhisthira %alled aloud) 1/ho s(ea+s with 'eE1 -ut of the dar+ness %a'e the
voi%es of Garna and Bhi'a) :rBuna and the other "rothers) and finally the voi%e of his
wife) Drau(adi. #his angered hi') for only re%ently he had seen in heaven 'en
against who' he had fought in the great war) and he %ould not understand how su%h
as they were a%%orded (aradise) and those he loved %onsigned to hell. ;very instin%t
urged hi' to turn "a%+ toward heaven) "ut to his angel guide he said0
. . . 16o to those thou serv=st<
#ell the' 2 %o'e not thither. ,ay 2 stand
Here in the throat of hell) and here will "ide 77
Nay) if 2 (erish 77 while 'y well7"elov=d
/in ease and (ea%e "y any (ains of 'ine.1
59
/hereu(on the angel returned with the 'essage to the gods.
#hen the gods answered *udhisthira0
1Ging *udhisthiraK - thou long7ar'ed Lord)
#his is enoughK :ll Heaven is glad of thee.
2t is enoughK &o'e) thou 'ost "lessed one)
Unto thy (ea%e) well7gained. . . .
IC
1&o'e thou to seeK Garna) who' thou didst 'ourn) 77
#hat 'ightiest ar%her) 'aster in all wars) 77
He hath attained) shining as doth the sun<
&o'e thou and seeK 6rieve no 'ore) Ging of 'enK
/hose love hel(ed the' and thee) and hath its 'eed.
RaBas and 'aharaBas) warriors) aids) 77
:ll thine are thine forever. Grishna waits
#o greet thee %o'ing) A%o'(anied "y gods)
,eated in heaven) fro' toils and sorrows saved.
,onK there is golden fruit of no"le deeds)
-f (rayer) al's) sa%rifi%e. #he 'ost Bust gods
Gee( thee thy (la%e a"ove the highest saints)
/here thou shalt sit) divine) %o'(assed a"out
/ith royal souls in "liss) as Hari sits.1
I1
,o everything ends ha((ily0
. . . the reBoi%ing Ging
(#hy an%estor) - LiegeK! (ro%eeded straight
Unto that river=s "rin+) whi%h floweth (ure
#hrough the #hree /orlds) 'ighty) and sweet) and (raised.
#here) "eing "athed) the "ody of the Ging
Put off its 'ortal) %o'ing u( arrayed
2n gra%e %elestial) washed fro' soils of sin)
3ro' (assion) (ain) and %hange. ,o) hand in hand
/ith "rother7gods) glorious went *udhisthir)
Lauded "y lovely 'instrelsy) and songs
-f un+nown 'usi%) where those heroes stood 77
#he (rin%ess of the Pandavas) his +in 77
:nd lotus7eyed and loveliest Drau(adi)
/aiting to greet hi') gladdening and glad.
I
Unli+e the $aha"harata) the Ra'ayana is traditionally su((osed to "e the wor+ of a
single (oet) >al'i+i. #he story of its %o'(osition and re%ital "efore Ging Ra'a
hi'self is told in the twelfth "oo+ of the (oe' itself. #his is really a su((le'ent to
the real e(i% whi%h (ro(erly ends with the ha((y return of lovely ,ita to her lord after
her long %a(tivity "y the Ra+shasas. But first the story) one of the 'ost interesting
ever told. >ery "riefly) it is the story of Ging Ra'a and his faithful 8ueen who was
a"du%ted "y a de'on and %arried away to Lan+a (&eylon! where) des(ite all his
"landish'ents) ,ita re'ained un'oved and s%ru(ulously loyal to Ra'a. $eanwhile
Ra'a had for a long ti'e vainly sought to find her) until aided "y his 'on+ey friend)
Hanu'an) he dis%overed her wherea"outs and after a "itterly fought war he was
vi%torious and res%ued his "eloved wife.
Ra'a was a (rin%e of the Gosalas) eldest son of Ging Dasa7ratha and) as su%h) the
heir a((arent to the throne. &a'e a day when the good +ing de%ided to a"di%ate the
throne and (la%e his eldest son u(on it. 6reat (re(arations were 'ade for the event
and with 'u%h enthusias' the (eo(le awaited the %rowning of their well7loved
(rin%e. But "ehind the s%enes trou"le stal+ed. Dasa7ratha had 'ore than one 8ueen
and one of the younger ones %oveted the throne for her son rather than for Ra'a. By
a ruse Dasa7ratha was tri%+ed into offering her any "oon she 'ight as+) and the
"eautiful) "ut wi%+ed) Gai+eyi at on%e de'anded that her son "e enthroned instead of
Ra'a) and that Prin%e Ra'a "e "anished for fourteen years to Danda+=s forest. #he
+ing was heart7"ro+en "y the %ruel re8uest) "ut having given his word) there was
nothing he %ould do a"out it 77 (%f. the story of 4a%o" and ;sau) and the word of the
'other of the Pandavas telling the "rothers to share their (ri9e) Drau(adi. 2saa% %ould
not restore the inheritan%e to ;sau) even though it had "een se%ured "y de%eit. 2t 'ust
re'ain with 4a%o") the su((lanter) "e%ause the father had s(o+en.! #his is a fre8uent
'otif in stories out of the an%ient world.
Ra'a 'ight have refused to a%%e(t this %ruel reversal of the (lan for his %oronation.
He 'ight have lifted the standard of revolt and won "y "attle what had "een snat%hed
out of his gras(. But he did nothing of the sort. He 8uietly a%%e(ted his father=s word
as law) and "egan to (re(are for his e5ile in the great forest.
But Ra'a was 'arried. He had won in a great tourna'ent) des%ri"ed in the first "oo+
of the ;(i%) the (rin%ess of the >idehas) 1soft7eyed1 ,ita. ,he 'ust not a%%o'(any
hi' in his "anish'ent. ,he 'ust re'ain at %ourt) serve his 'other) even his rival
Bharat) half7"rother) now %rowned +ing) and await faithfully the day of his return.
#he rigors of forest life were not for her. However) ,ita was of sterner stuff. ,he will
not listen to hi' "ut %ries0
1Lightly 2 dis'iss the %ounsel whi%h 'y lord hath lightly said)
3or it ill "e%o'es a warrior and 'y hus"and=s (rin%ely grade.
3or the faithful wo'an follows where her wedded lord 'ay lead.
2n the "anish'ent of Ra'a) ,ita=s e5ile is de%reed.
2f the righteous son of Raghu wends to forest dar+ and drear
,ita ste(s "efore her hus"and wild and thorny (aths to %lear.1
I?
Here s(ea+s 2ndian wo'anhood) for ,ita is the (rototy(e of all that is lovely and
virtuous in wo'an. ,he is the ideal wo'an of 2ndia) sweet) %o'(liant) loyal) hu'"le
in the (resen%e of her lord) utterly devoted to hi' and to his servi%e. #his ideal is
"rea+ing down at so'e (oints in 'odern 2ndia) "ut for %enturies and even today in
'ost res(e%ts ,ita e'"odies the 2ndian ideal of fe'inine %har' and loveliness and
%hara%ter. ,he was eventually deified. as was Ra'a) and is very widely worshi((ed
"y 2ndia=s wo'en today.
Ra'a=s "rother) La+sh'an) also "egged to a%%o'(any hi' in his e5ile) so the three
set off) la'ented "y (arents and "y the %iti9ens of Gosala) for their fourteen years in
Danda+=s forest. ;ven when Bharat) the son for who' Gai+eyi had de'anded the
throne "ut who hi'self had had no (art in the (lot) %a'e to "esee%h Ra'a to return)
he would not do so) for 1a righteous father=s 'andate duteous son 'ay not re%all.1
Bharat returned to rule "ut vowed to wear her'it=s gar" for the duration. He "esought
Ra'a that he 'ight have his sandals with whi%h to de%orate his throne) and if at the
end of the fourteen years Ra'a should not return alive he de%lared he would die u(on
the (yre.
/hile dwelling in the forest there a((eared a Ra+shasa 'aiden) sister of the +ing of
the Ra+shasas who) when she saw Ra'a) fell violently in love with hi' and "esought
hi' to forsa+e ,ita and 'arry her. Re(ulsed) she atta%+ed ,ita to +ill her. La+sh'an
defended her) %utting off the Ra+shasa=s nose and ears. #his "rought on a "loody
struggle with other evil de'ons. #hese were van8uished "ut sought revenge. #hey
had the (ower to assu'e any sha(e they desired. -ne of the' "e%a'e a lovely deer
and wandered near where ,ita one day sat. ,he at on%e wanted the deer %a(tured or
+illed. Ra'a set out to do so) "idding La+sh'an re'ain with ,ita. Una"le to overta+e
or tra( the deer) Ra'a shot the ani'al) whi%h as it fell sent out a (ier%ing %ry)
i'itating Ra'a= s voi%e. 1,(eed 'y faithful "rother) La+sh'an) hel(less in the
woods 2 die.1 Relu%tant to leave ,ita he) nevertheless) urged "y her insistent (lea) left
her for a 'o'ent to res%ue Ra'a. #his gave the o((ortunity whi%h Ravan) the
Ra+shasa +ing) awaited) and ta+ing the for' of a her'it he a((eared "efore ,ita.
,eeing her sur(assing "eauty he fell 'adly in love with her. Passionately he sought to
woo her) "ut was vigorously re(ulsed. Undeterred "y her (iteous (leadings and her
unheard %alls to Ra'a) Ravan sei9ed her and entering his %elestial %ar was "orne
swiftly to Lan+a) Ravan=s ho'e.
Ra'a was heart7"ro+en at the loss of his faithful wife and sought her) hel(ed of
%ourse "y La+sh'an.
#he 'on+ey +ing ,urgriva
I@
had also had the 'isfortune to have "een ro""ed of his
wife and +ingdo' "y his "rother. Ra'a agrees to hel( hi' against his "rother if
,urgriva will aid hi' in finding ,ita. ,u%%essful in a "attle with his evil "rother) "y
Ra'a=s aid) ,urgriva %o''issions Hanu'an) one of his %ounsellors and son of the
/ind7god) to find ,ita. He lo%ates her in Lan+a "y the aid of a vulture who had
witnessed the a"du%tion. :rriving at the o%ean) he is at first dis'ayed) "ut with a
'ighty lea( he sails through the air for four days) rea%hes &eylon) and finds ,ita who)
"e%ause she had re(ulsed Ravan=s advan%es) had "een %onfined in an :so+a grove.
He reassures her of her deliveran%e) ta+es to the air again and returns to re(ort the
su%%ess of his 'ission. 3ollows then the "attle with Ravan. #he 'on+ey ar'y is
ena"led to %ross the straits "y "uilding a "ridge and after fearful slaughter Ravan is
slain in 'ortal %o'"at with Ra'a. Li+e Hydra) he see's to have grown a new head
when Ra'a=s sword severed one fro' his "ody. But at last Ra'a=s sword finds its
way to the Ra+shasa=s heart and he falls. #hus is ,ita li"erated.
But strangely enough) fro' our view(oint) Ra'a will not re%eive her "a%+ as his
wife. ,he) after "itter %o'(laint) re8uests to die on a funeral (yre and Ra'a %onsents.
2nvo+ing the fire as witness of her inno%en%e) she rushes into the fla'es) "ut :gni the
fire7god arises out of the "urning (yre and res%uing ,ita) gives her to Ra'a. Ra'a)
who now de%lares that he never had entertained dou"ts of her (urity) re%eives her
"a%+) asserting that it was only to (rove her inno%en%e to the (eo(le that he (er'itted
the ordeal. ,o they are reunited and rule ha((ily over their +ingdo'.
Here s%holars thin+ (ro"a"ly the real ;(i% ended) "ut a final Boo+ >22 is added. 2n
this it is re%ounted that sus(i%ion was a"road %on%erning ,ita) and the 'orals of the
wo'en of the land were "eing endangered. Una"le to "ear the re(roa%h that he is
setting a "ad e5a'(le to his (eo(le) Ra'a has La+sh'an ta+e ,ita into the forest and
desert her 77 ni%e 'anK Here she finds shelter in the her'itage of >al'i+i) an as%eti%.
,hortly after) she gives "irth to twin sons) Gusa and Lava. *ears (ass< the twins) now
grown) have "e%o'e (u(ils of >al'i+i. Ra'a organi9es a horse sa%rifi%e. >al'i+i
and his (u(ils attend and "efore Ra'a hi'self they re%ite in 5CC %antos the story of
Ra'a and ,ita whi%h >al'i+i has %o'(osed.
Ra'a learns that the two young 'en are sons of ,ita) and sends word "y >al'i+i
as+ing her to (urify herself "y an oath "efore the whole asse'"led %o'(any. -n the
following day >al'i+i "rings ,ita and the two "oys) and sole'nly de%lares that they
are true sons of Ra'a. Ra'a de%lares hi'self satisfied) "ut still desires that ,ita
(urify herself "y 'eans of an oath. ,ita thereu(on says) 1:s truly as 2 have never)
even with so 'u%h as a single thought) thought of another than Ra'a 77 'ay 6oddess
;arth o(en her ar's to 'eK :s truly as 2 have always) in thought) word and deed)
honored only Ra'a 77 'ay 6oddess ;arth o(en her ar's to 'e. :s 2 have here
s(o+en the truth and never +nown another than Ra'a 77 'ay 6oddess ;arth o(en her
ar's to 'eK1 /hereu(on) $other ;arth a((ears and vanishes with her into a funow.
,o ,ita whose very na'e 'eans 1the field7furrow1 returns to her own ele'ent
when%e) as told in the first "oo+) she had "een 'ira%ulously "orn. Ra'a is greatly
distressed and "egs $other ;arth to restore her to hi') "ut only god Brah'a %o'es
to %o'fort hi' with the ho(e that he will "e reunited with her in heaven. ,oon
thereafter) Ra'a gives over his +ingdo' to his two sons and resu'es his (la%e in
heaven as >ishnu) as whose in%arnation he had "een "orn) a%%ording to Boo+ 2.
2t see's o"vious on reading the entire Ra'ayana that "oth the first and last "oo+s are
not real (arts of the ;(i%) "ut later additions. 2n the ;(i% (ro(er there is no indi%ation
that Ra'a is other than a hero. 2t was a((arently after the deifi%ation of Ra'a that the
other "oo+s were added. 2n the 'ain (art of the wor+ it is 2ndra who is invo+ed
wherever religion or 'ythology enters in. How long a ti'e would "e re8uired for the
(ro%ess of deifi%ation to ta+e (la%eE &ertainly a 'atter of %enturies. /internit9 thin+s
that the (oe' had assu'ed its (resent for' "y a"out the end of the se%ond %entury
B.&.) at least two %enturies earlier than the $aha"harata. #here is no agree'ent
a'ong s(e%ialists in the field. -n the whole) however) the %entral %ore of the
$aha"harata is generally %onsidered older than the real e(i% story of the Ra'ayana.
/hat is signifi%ant fro' the stand(oint of religion is that "y the ti'e these great
(oe's were %o'(leted there had %o'e a"out a very i'(ortant set of %hanges in the
religious outloo+. >edi% religion was (retty well gone. #he old gods) %ertainly in the
dida%ti% (arts of "oth e(i%s) had lost their (ower and a new grou( were now %entral)
es(e%ially >ishnu) who had "een "ut a 'inor sun deity in the >edi% (eriod) was now a
su(re'e 6od) who along with Brah'a) the %reator 6od) and ,hiva the destroyer) was
regarded as the Preserver 77 and worshi((ed %hiefly through his in%arnations. #he two
'ost i'(ortant of these were Grishna) found in the $aha"harata) and Ra'a in the
Ra'ayana) first as hero) then as god in%arnate in the later (ortions.
#he Grishna in%arnation) (erha(s the 'ost widely worshi((ed of all of the') finds
his highest develo('ent as divinity in a (ortion of the dida%ti% e(i%) +nown as the
Bhagavad 6ita or the Lord=s song. #his e5%er(t fro' the $aha"harata has "e%o'e
(erha(s the 'ost widely read and "est loved of all the s%ri(tures of 2ndia. 2t is found
in %hea( editions) even vest (o%+et editions) of the sort al'ost anyone %an own) and
is avidly read "y 'ultitudes of 2ndians. 2t has also "e%o'e the 'ost widely diffused
of the 2ndian sa%red writings in the western world. 2t has "een translated 'ore
fre8uently into ;nglish than any other 2ndian sa%red wor+. ,o'e years ago 2 found
that it had "een translated thirty7si5 ti'es into ;nglish) and a nu'"er of editions have
sin%e a((eared. ,o'e of the 'ore widely read translations are indi%ated on (age 1@@.
#he writer=s own favorite version) is that of ,ir ;dwin :rnold whi%h) while not as
s%holarly as 'any versions) has %aught the s(irit of the (oet author and rendered it
into very "eautiful ;nglish (oeti% for'.
#he (oe' is a dialogue "etween :rBuna the great e(i% hero) and Grishna disguised as
his %harioteer) Bust on the eve of the great "attle of the Bharatas. #he foes are drawn
u( ready and waiting for the signal to atta%+. #hen the warrior :rBuna) refle%ting on
how +ins'en were a"out to destroy ea%h other in "attle) suddenly s(ea+s 77 and in his
s(ee%h gives utteran%e to one of the no"lest (rotests against war ever uttered "y a
soldier. He says) in the translated version of ;dwin :rnold0
1GrishnaK as 2 "ehold) %o'e here to shed
#heir %o''on "lood) yon %on%ourse of our +in)
$y 'e'"ers fail) 'y tongue dries in 'y 'outh)
: shudder thrills 'y "ody) and 'y hair
Bristles with horror< fro' 'y wea+ hand sli(s
6andiv) the goodly "ow< a fever "urns
$y s+in to (ar%hing< hardly 'ay 2 stand< . . .
12t is not good) - GeshavK nought of good
&an s(ring fro' 'utual slaughterK Lo) 2 hate
#riu'(h and do'ination) wealth and ease)
#hus sadly wonK . . .
1,hall 2 deal death on these
;ven though they see+ to slay usE Not one "low)
- $adhusudanK will 2 stri+e to gain
#he rule of all #hree /orlds< then) how 'u%h less
#o sei9e an earthly +ingdo'K1
I5
But Grishna re(lies) and it is interesting that here it is the god) not the warrior) who is
defending war and Bustifying the slaughter of his ene'ies. He says0
1How hath this /ea+ness ta+en theeE /hen%e s(rings
#he inglorious trou"le) sha'eful to the "rave
Barring the (ath of virtueE Nay) :rBunK
3or"id thyself to fee"lenessK it 'ars
#hy warrior7na'eK %ast off the %oward7fitK
/a+eK Be thyselfK :rise) ,%ourge of thy foesK1
II
#he "asis of that defense is that 'an %annot "e +illed. -nly the "ody %an "e
destroyed) the s(irit lives on.
1He who shall say) ALo) 2 have slain a 'anK=
He who shall thin+) ALo) 2 a' slainK= those "oth
Gnow naught. Life %annot slay. Life is not slainK . . .
1Nay) "ut as when one layeth
His outworn ro"es away)
:nd ta+ing new ones) sayeth
A#hese will 2 wear todayK=
,o (utteth "y the s(irit
Lightly its gar" of flesh
:nd (asseth to inherit
: residen%e afresh.
2 say to thee that wea(ons rea%h not the Life.1
#hen %ried Grishna0
. . . 1Do thy (art
Be 'indful of thy na'e) and tre'"le notK
Nought "etter %an "etide a 'artial soul
#han lawful war< ha((y the warrior
#o who' %o'es Boy of "attle 77 %o'es as now
6lorious and fair) unsought) o(ening for hi'
: gateway unto Heaven. But if thou shunn=st
#his honora"le field 77 a Gshatriya 77 ('e'"er of warrior %aste!
2f +nowing thy duty and thy tas+) thou "idd=st
Duty and tas+ go "y 77 that shall "e sinK
:nd those to %o'e shall s(ea+ the infa'y
3ro' age to age< "ut infa'y is worse
3or 'en of no"le "lood to "ear than deathK1
ID
2n this state'ent is found the very heart of 2ndian ethi%s. #o (erfor' the duty or
dhar'a) %orres(onding to one=s (osition 77that is to fulfil the re8uire'ents of ethi%s as
2ndians today see it.
#he (oe' %ontains eighteen %ha(ters) ea%h treating of so'e s(e%ial the'e< one) of the
way of salvation "y wor+) another "y +nowledge 77 "ut throughout there is e'(hasis
u(on salvation "y faith or devotion to Grishna. #here are (assages here that see' to
%o'e right out of the New #esta'ent. -nly the na'e of 4esus would have to "e
su"stituted for that of Grishna to 'a+e it sound e5a%tly li+e the gos(els.
1/ho %leave) who see+ in $e
Refuge fro' "irth and death) those have the #ruth.1
IJ
1#hou too) when heart and 'ind are fi5ed on $e
,halt surely %o'e to $e. :ll who %leave
/ith never7wavering will of fir'est faith
-wning none other gods0 all %o'e to $e.1
I9
Perha(s the reason for its al'ost universal a((eal is the fa%t that it is e%le%ti% in its
religious a((roa%h. -ne 'ay see+ salvation and find it "y various (aths. 2t "e%o'es
every 'an=s "oo+. But it is (ree'inently a "oo+ of devotion. 2t has "een %o'(ared to
the 6os(el of 4ohn) whi%h) 'ore than any other of the 6os(els) has served as a
devotional guide for &hristians through the %enturies. -ne writer says that if
&hristianity is ever to 'a+e an a((eal to the edu%ated 2ndian it will "e through the
6os(el of 4ohn) "e%ause it 'a+es an a((eal si'ilar to that of the 6ita. 2t is
noteworthy that to 'any in the west who are no longer held "y the ties of orthodo5y)
the 6ita has "e%o'e a favorite "edside ta"le "oo+. Perha(s the thing that 'ade it
a((eal to so 'any in 2ndia was its universalis'. ,alvation was for every 'an of
every %lass 77 for wo'en as well as 'en. Grishna throws o(en the road to whosoever
will %o'e.
1Be %ertain none %an (erish) trusting $eK
- Pritha=s ,onK whoso will turn to $e)
#hough they "e "orn fro' the very wo'" of ,in)
/o'an or 'an< s(rung of the >aisya %aste
-r lowly disregarded ,udra)77 all
Plant foot u(on the highest (ath< how then
#he holy Brah'ans and $y Royal ,aintsE
:hK ye who into this ill world are %o'e73leeting and false 77 set your faith fast on
$eK
3i5 heart and thought on $eK :dore $eK Bring
-fferings to $eK $a+e $e (rostrationsK $a+e
$e your su(re'est BoyK and) undivided) Unto $y rest your s(irits shall "e guided.1
DC
2n 2ndia 'any stories and legends have grown u( a"out the 6ita. $argaret No"le
relates this one0
2n the 6ita is found a word of Grishna whi%h says0 1#hey who de(end u(on 'e)
(utting aside all %are) whatsoever they need) 2 'yself %arry it to the'.1 : Brah'in
one day) %o(ying the verse) hesitated when he %a'e to the word 1%arry.1 #his see'ed
to hi' so'ehow to "e irreverent. How should Grishna 1%arry1 anythingE 3or in 2ndia
to %arry a load is a 'enial tas+. ,o he su"stituted for it the word) 1send.1 : little later
his wife said0 1#here is no food in the house.1 #hen said he) 1Let us as+ the Lord to
fulfil his (ro'ise. $eanwhile he went to "athe.
,oon a youth %a'e to the door with a "as+et of food. 1/ho sent thisE1 the wife
as+ed. 1*our hus"and as+ed 'e to %arry it)1 he re(lied) giving it to her0 :s she too+
the "as+et she noted %uts and gashes on the youth=s "reast a"ove his heart.
1:las) who wounded theeE1 she %ried.
1*our hus"and) "efore he %alled 'e) %ut 'e with a s'all shar( wea(on.1 #hen the
youth vanished. #he hus"and "eing re(roved "y his wife for his ill treat'ent of the
young 'an) de%lared that he had not left the house. #hen they +new. :nd they
restored the word 1%arry1 to its rightful (la%e.
D1
$ahat'a 6andhi had the highest regard for the 6ita. :nd) strangely enough) des(ite
the defense of +illing in war given "y Grishna the god) he finds in it a su((ort for his
do%trine of satyagraha or soul7for%e "y whi%h non7violent 'eans he a%hieved su%h
signal vi%tories and finally won the inde(enden%e of 2ndia. He wrote of it on
o%%asion0
Nothing elates 'e so 'u%h as the 'usi% of the 6ita or the Ra'ayana "y
#ulasidas) the only two "oo+s in Hinduis' 2 'ay "e said to +now. /hen 2
fan%ied 2 was ta+ing 'y last "reath) the 6ita was 'y sola%e.
D
#he literary (ro"le's raised "y the 6ita are nu'erous) and s%holars are not at all in
agree'ent as to its origin or the date. By so'e it is regarded as an original (oe'
setting forth Grishnais' "ased u(on the ,an+hya7*oga (hiloso(hy) "ut 'odified later
"y the additions in whi%h the >edanta is taught.
D?
-thers thin+ that it is an old verse
U(anishad wor+ed over "y a (oet in the interest of Grishnais') after the "eginning of
the &hristian era.
D@
,. Radha+rishnan) latest and (erha(s 'ost e'inent of the translators and
%o''entators on the 6ita) thin+s that 1fro' its ar%hai% %onstru%tion and internal
referen%es we 'ay infer that it is definitely a wor+ of the (re7&hristian era. 2ts date
'ay "e assigned to the fifth %entury B.&.) though the te5t 'ay have re%eived 'any
alterations in su"se8uent ti'es1.
D5
3or our (ur(oses it does not greatly 'atter. 2t will "e enough to say that so'ewhere)
not far fro' the "eginning of the &hristian era it attained its (resent for' and has
"een sin%e that ti'e the highest e5(ression of the essentially devotional ty(e of
Hinduis' at its "est. 2t is a tri"ute to its worth that in the %ourse of ti'e it should
have ta+en its (la%e alongside the >eda as sruti.
12s the tea%hing of the 6ita
DI
as authoritative as that of the Sruti67 runs a 8uestion
as+ed in D. ,ar'a=s Primer o) (induism.
1*es) the 6ita "eing the essen%e of the U(anishads is %onsidered as authoritative as
the Sruti.
DD
#he Puranas have had 'u%h less attention fro' s%holars than has the literature of
2ndia thus far studied. *et %onte'(orary Hinduis' is (erha(s 'ore influen%ed "y
the' than "y the other s%ri(tures. #hey are the s%ri(tures of the se%tarian "ran%hes of
Hinduis' whi%h) while (aying li( servi%e to the >edas as 'ost (re%ious) draw 'u%h
of their "elief a"out the gods of their own (ri'ary devotion and worshi( fro' these
"oo+s. 3or 'ost of the gods whi%h now are (o(ularly worshi((ed
DJ
in 2ndia are gods
of little i'(ortan%e) or 8uite un+nown to the >edas. >ishnu is) to "e sure) a not very
i'(ortant sun7god in the Rig7>eda) "ut Ra'a) ,hiva) ,ita) Gali) Durga) U'a) Parvati)
6anesha) La+sh'i are strangers to the >eda. #hey are) so'e of the') +nown in the
;(i%s) "ut these in religious "elief if not in ti'e) are %loser to %onte'(orary religions
than they are to the >eda.
Purani% literature whi%h "y very definition of the word Purana 'eans old or an%ient)
is (ur(ortedly the re%ord of the very "eginnings of the world) i.e.) they are "oo+s of
origins li+e 6enesis in the -ld #esta'ent. &ertainly they are the sour%e of the (o(ular
ideas of the %reation of the world) the gods) and early history of the ra%e. #hey are) it
need hardly "e said) largely legendary. #heoreti%ally a Purana is su((osed to deal
with five su"Be%ts0 (1! the %reation< (! re7%reation) the (eriodi%al destru%tion and
renewal of the worlds< (?! the genealogy of the gods and the an%ient Rishis< (@! the
great ti'e (eriods) ea%h of whi%h has a (ri'al an%estor or $anu< and (5! the history
of the early dynasties whi%h tra%e their origin to the sun or the 'oon. :%tually the
e5isting Puranas do not all follow this s%he'e. #his 'ay have "een the stereoty(ed
for' of an%ient Puranas to whi%h referen%e is 'ade in very early literary sour%es) "ut
%ertainly not of the Puranas of today.
#he Puranas the'selves 'ention eighteen Puranas whi%h are the generally
re%ogni9ed ones today. ,trangely enough ea%h lists the' as though no one is older
than any other. -"viously this listing would "e a late addition. #hey are) usually
listed in this order0
(1! Brah'a (B! < (! Pad'a (>! < (?! >ishnu (>! < (@! ,hiva (,! < or >ayu< (5!
Bhagavata (>! < (I! Narada (>! < (D! $ar+andeya (B! < (J! :gni (,! < (9! Bhavisya
(B! < (1C! Brah'avaivarta (B! < (11! Linga (,! < (1! >araha (>! < (1?! ,+anda (,! <
(1@! >a'ana (B! < (15! Gaur'a (,! < (1I! $atsya (,! < (1D! 6aruda (>! < (1J!
Brah'ananda (B! .
#hey are generally se%tarian in %ontent. #he (arti%ular divinity to whi%h ea%h is
(artial is indi%ated in the a"ove list "y the initial letter following the na'e of the
Purana 77 1>1 for >ishnu) 1,1 for ,hiva and 1B1 for Brah'a. 2t should "e said that) in
general) Brah'a here 'eans not the 1neuter world soul)1 "ut the (ersonal %reator god
who with >ishnu and ,hiva for's the Hindu #ri'urti) so'eti'es translated #rinity.
: ty(i%al legend esta"lishing one of the gods as the (referred divinity of worshi( is
found in the Pad'a Purana) and in%identally reveals the strong se%tarian "ias of that
Purana whi%h is %learly >ishnuite.
-n%e a 8uarrel arose a'ong the Rishis as to whi%h of the three great gods)
Brah'a) >ishnu or ,hiva) was 'ost deserving of worshi(. :%%ordingly the
great as%eti% Bhrgu was %o''issioned to go to the gods and Budge for hi'self
(ersonally whi%h was "est. He first goes to the 'ountains Gailasa to visit
,hiva. But ,hiva is enBoying the love of his wife and doesn=t ad'it hi' at all.
Bhrgu thereu(on (ronoun%es a %urse u(on ,hiva) %onde'ning hi' to ta+e the
for' of the generative organs 77 thus a((arently a%%ounting for the worshi( of
the *oni and Linga.
D9
He goes then to the world of Brah'a "ut he is seated u(on his lotus throne
surrounded "y all the gods) and) filled with (ride) does not even a%+nowledge
the ho'age of Bhrgu. He too is %ursed "y the Rishi) to the effe%t that no one
shall worshi( hi' 77 an e5(lanation) dou"tless) of the fa%t that al'ost no
worshi( is a%tually a%%orded Brah'a.
&o'ing to the a"ode of >ishnu) the Rishi finds the god aslee(. Roughly
+i%+ing hi' in the %hest) >ishnu is awa+ened) only to stro+e gently the sage=s
foot and e5(ress his gratitude and honor at his visit. He rises and with his wife
does honor to the guest. /hereu(on Bhrgu "ursts into tears of Boy) and %ries0
1#hou alone shalt "e worshi((ed "y the Brah'ans. No other of the gods is
worthy to "e worshi((ed.1 He then returns and 'a+es his re(ort to the
asse'"led Rishis.
JC

2n this sa'e Purana) ,hiva) tal+ing with his wife) hi'self de%lares the (ower and
glory of >ishnu and his in%arnations. 2n the %ourse of his eulogy he tells the Ra'a
story. He further de%lares) in answer to a 8uestion of Parvati) that the adherents of the
,hivite se%t are hereti%s. Undou"tedly e8ually se%tarian (roof of the su(eriority of
,hiva o%%urs in the ,hivite Puranas.
2n the fifth "oo+ of the >ishnu7Purana whi%h is given u( wholly to stories of Grishna)
%hief avatar or in%arnation of >ishnu) is to "e found so'e of the 'ost interesting
'aterial for the general reader. #he stories are al'ost e5a%tly li+e those found in the
Hariva'sa) usually %onsidered "y 2ndians as an a((endi5 to the $aha"harata) "ut
hardly to "e distinguished fro' the Puranas in general style) %hara%ter) or %ontent.
Here we %an only s+et%h a few of the Grishna stories.
3irst of all the 'anner of his "irth. : (ro(he%y was 'ade to an evil +ing Ga'sa that
the eighth son of Deva+i his aunt) and wife of >asudeva) would +ill hi'. :%%ordingly
he deter'ined that the %hild should "e destroyed. But i''ediately after Grishna=s
"irth he was e5%hanged for a %hild of a %owherd) Nanda and his wife. #his %hild was
slain "y Ga'sa) and Grishna grew u( as a %hild of hu'"le %owherd fol+. Re'ar+a"le
stories are told of his %hildhood whi%h re'ind one of so'e of the stories told of the
%hild 4esus in the a(o%ry(hal gos(els.
-ne day his foster 'other left hi' lying aslee( under a wagon. :wa+ening and
i'(atient for food) little Grishna with one foot u(set the wagon. :nother ti'e to +ee(
hi' fro' running away) she tied a ro(e around his waist and se%ured it to a heavy
'ortar. 1Now get away) if you %an)1 she said. But Grishna si'(ly wal+ed off with it.
/hen it %aught "etween two trees) he tore the trees out "y their roots.
He "e%a'e a tri%+ster and (layed all sorts of Bo+es not only u(on his (lay'ates) "ut
u(on older fol+ as well. -n one o%%asion he %a'e u(on a grou( of 'opis or
'il+'aids "athing in a (ool. He sei9ed their ro"es and hid the'.
:s a youth he was handso'e and a'orous. #he 'opis all fell Ain love with hi'. #he
a'orous e5(loits of the youthful "u%oli% lover) told in this and in other Puranas) were
later to "e%o'e the "asis of an eroti% (hase of Grishna worshi( in whi%h the s(orts of
Grishna were ta+en all too literally as %ult (ra%ti%es. -thers) less literal7'inded) 'ade
the' sy'"oli% of 'ysti% e5(erien%e of the soul with god.
He slays 'onsters and dragons) and over%o'es evil rulers. He re"els at the worshi(
of 2ndra) and "ids his followers arrange a 'ountain sa%rifi%e instead. 2ndra is
infuriated and sends u(on the' a terri"le stor'. Grishna lifts a 'ountain and holds it
over the' as an u'"rella and they are (rote%ted. He attends a festival arranged "y
Ga'sa) the "ad +ing) "ends and "rea+s a "ow whi%h not even the gods %ould "end)
tears out the tus+ of a great ele(hant whi%h sought to tra'(le hi') and +ills the "east)
and finally slays Ga'sa hi'self. He even des%ends into the real' of the dead)
over%o'es *a'a) the god of death) and restores the son of a tea%her who) as his fee)
had re8uired that Grishna "ring "a%+ the son who had drowned at sea.
,(a%e for"ids further indi%ation of the detailed %ontent of these "oo+s. 2n their
legendary a%%ounts of the world and the gods they are the "asis of 'u%h of the
religious faith of 2ndia. 2n their regulations for daily living) in their glorifi%ation of
sa%red (la%es and a%ts of worshi( they are a great sti'ulant to the religious (ra%ti%es
of the (eo(le.
/hile it is generally agreed that there were so'e very an%ient Puranas) u(on whi%h)
to so'e e5tent) the Puranas as we have the' are "ased) they are the latest of all the
sa%red writings. Puranas or at least writings that (ur(ort to "e Puranas) usually %alled
U(a(uranas) have %ontinued to a((ear until within relatively re%ent ti'es. #hey all
(ur(ort to %o'e fro' >yasa) re(uted author of the $aha"harata) "ut o"viously they
re(resent a slow growth a%ross the %enturies. 2n literary style they stand far "elow the
great earlier writings. #hey are diffuse) %onfused) and %ontradi%tory "oth within and
a'ong the'selves) "ut 2ndia has never "een (ri'arily %on%erned with %onsisten%y in
her literature. 2ndeed) there is found in one of the sa%red law "oo+s this state'ent in
effe%t0 12f within this "oo+ there are found %ontradi%tory state'ents they are "oth to
"e ta+en as true.1
#hus we %o'e to the end of this very s+et%hy) yet relatively lengthy) a%%ount of
2ndian sa%red literature. 2n it is to "e found heights and de(ths of s(iritual
understanding that %o'(are favora"ly with the "est that have "een found anywhere.
2ts vastness) its diversity) on the whole) its la%+ of dis%ri'inating Budg'ent as to what
'ay "e %alled sa%red 77 so that it in%ludes "oth the highly 'oral and the "ase 77 'a+e
it a literature diffi%ult for (eo(les of He"rew7&hristian "a%+grounds to a((re%iate
fully. But that it is interesting to study) %hallenging to s%holarshi() and not without
great interest in 'any of its (arts for the general reader) there %an "e no dou"t. #o
Hindus it %ontains the %lue to salvation and the good life as at various levels they
a((rehend it.

Sacred Literature of induism
Sources for Further Reading
Referen%es have "een 'ade to s(e%ifi% "oo+s on the several dlvisions or "oo+s of
Hindu sa%red writings. Here are 'entioned sets) or series of volu'es) or single
volu'es whi%h %ontain translations of so'e (arts of that literature.
!n The Vedas
Sacred oo+s o) the ,ast, >ols. ? and @ and @I (@ :tharva >eda! . Sacred oo+s
and 1iterature o) the ,ast, >ol. 9
:. :. $a%donell) (ymns o) the i'-#eda, :sso%iation Press) &al%utta) 19.
R. #. H. 6riffith) (ymns o) the 8i'-#eda, ;. 4. La9arus) Benares) nd ;dition) 1J9I7
1J9D.
!n The Brahmanas
Sacred oo+s o) the ,ast, >ols. 1 and @@.
(arvard Oriental Series, >ol. 5.
Sacred oo+s and ,arly 1iterature o) the ,ast, >ol. 9.
!n The "panishads
Sacred oo+s o) the ,ast, >ols. 1 and 15.
(. ;. Hu'e) Thirteen Principal &panishads, &harles ,%ri"ner=s ,ons) N. *
!n The #pics
Ro'esh Dutt) The 8amayana and the Mahabharata, ;very'an=s ;dition) ;. P.
Dutton and &o'(any) N. *.) 199.
,ir ;dwin :rnold) Indian Idylls, Ro"erts Brothers) Boston. The 8amayana, translated
"y R. #. H. 6riffith) 5 >ols.
!n The Bha$a%ad &ita
,ir ;dwin :rnold) The Son' 3elestial, Ro"erts Brothers) Boston) 1JJ5. 2t has
a((eared in 'any editions.
3ran+lin ;dgerton) The ha'avad $ita, >ols.) Harvard University Press) 19@I.
,. Radha+rishnan) The ha'avad $ita with ,ans+rit #e5t and ;nglish translation and
notes) Har(er and Brothers) N. *.) 19@J.
#here are nearly two s%ore ;nglish translations in %ir%ulation.
!n The Le$al Literature
Sacred oo+s o) the ,ast, >ols. ) D)1@ and 5. #he last is the 'ost fa'ous Laws of
$anu.
!n The 'uranas
H. /. /ilson) The #ishnu Purana, 5 vols.) London) 1JI@ 771JDD.
In the Antholo$ies
(indu Scripture, edited "y Ni%ol $a%Ni%ol) ;very'an=s Li"rary) 4. $. Dent 9 ,ons)
London) 19?J.
The 0isdom o) 3hina and India, edited "y Lin *utang) Rando' House) 2n%.)
New*or+) 19@) ((. 17?15.
(arvard 3lassics, >ol. @5) ((. D997JJ@.
Lewis Browne) The 0orld:s $reat Scriptures, ((. 5D71?.
Ruth ,'ith) The Tree o) 1i)e, ((. D1711@.
Ballon) The ible o) the 0orld, ((. ?71JC.
6ra%e #urn"ull) Ton'ues o) ;ire, ((. D7@) @57ID.
3rost) Sacred 0ritin's o) the 0orld:s $reat 8eli'ions, ((. 97IJ.
,ohra") The ible o) Man+ind, ((. ?179C.

(ootnotes:
1. #his is given "y /internit9) >ol. 2) (. ?5) f.n.) as fro' law "oo+ of 6auta'a H22) @7
I.
. R.#.H. 6riffith) (ymns o) the 8i'-#eda
?. H.D. 6riswold) The 8eli'ion o) the 8i'-#eda) >ol. 1) Boo+
>20 J) ((. 5J9759C
@. Ral(h #.H. 6riffith) (ymns o) the 8i'-#eda) >ol. 1) Boo+ >20 J) ((. 5J9759C.
5. H.D. 6riswold) The 8eli'ion o) 8i'-#eda) ((. 19) 19?.
I. &f. Latin i'nus for fire.
D. Ral(h #.H. 6riffith) Hy'ns of the Rig7>eda) >ol.2) ((.??57??I.
J. H.D. 6riswold) The 8eli'ion o) 8i'-#eda, (..
9. 6riswold) The 8eli'ion o) 8i'-#eda, ((.@17@.
1C. Ral(h #.H. 6riffith) (ymns o) the 8i'-#eda) >ol. 22) Boo+ 2H0 @) ((. D17D.
11. Boo+ >22) JI) 6riswold) 8eli'ion o) the 8i'-#eda ((. 1171.
1. Ibid., Boo+ >. J5) D7J (. 1@.
1?. H.D. 6riswold) op. cit.) Boo+ 2) 5) (.1J
1@. H.D. 6riswold) 8eli'ion o) the 8i'-#eda) Boo+ H) 11) ((. ?@J7?@9
15. H.D. 6riswold) 8eli'ion o) the 8i'-#eda) Boo+ H) 9C) ((. ?@@7?@I.
1I. /internit9) >ol. 2) (. ?I) f.n. #a+a+usu translation) (. 1J.
1D. Op. cit.) 2) (. 1DJ.
1J. Luoted "y /internit9) 22) (. 1DJ
19. Sacred oo+s o) the ,ast) >ol. @) (. J.
C. Sacred oo+s o) the ,ast) >ol. @) ((. 15971IC.
1. Sacred oo+s o) the ,ast) >ol. . 2ntrodu%tion (.i5
. /internit9 2) (. 9I.
?. ,ata(atha7Brah'ana H222) 1))?. Sacred oo+s o) the ,ast) >ol. @@) ((. DI7DD.
@. Sacred oo+s o) the ,ast) >ol. 1. 2ntrodu%tion) (.55ii.
5. $aitrayani7,a'hita 2) 5)1. Luoted "y /internit9
I. $onier7/illia's= #ranslation) Indian 0isdom) (. ?
D.,o'e ,%holars 'a+e no distin%tion "etween the :ranya+as and the U(anishads.
J. ,ele%tions will "e found in The ible o) the 0orld, pp. ?J7DD< Lewis
Browne) Scriptures o) the $reat 8eli'ions. ((. II79I< Lin *utang) The 0isdom o)
3hina and India, ((. ?175?< The Ten Principal &panishads, (ut into ;nglish "y ,hree
Purohit ,wa'i and /. B. *eats) #he $a%'illan &o.) N. *.) 19?9.
9. -5ford University Press) nd ed.) 19?1.
?C. Re(rinted fro' Thirteen Principal &panishads, "y Ro"ert ;. Hu'e< nd ed.
%o(yright 19?1 "y -5ford University Press< used "y (er'ission of the (u"lishers. P(.
11J7119.
?1. R. ;. Hu'e) Thirteen Principal &panishads, (. 11?.
?. Hu'e) The Thirteen Principle &panishads) ((. 11971C.
??. Hu'e) The Thirteen Principal &panishads) (. 1??.
?@. Hu'e) The Thirteen Principal &panishads) (. 1I?
?5. Ibid.) (. 1@C
?I. Hu'e) The Thirteen Principal &panishshads) (. 1I?
?D. Hu'e) The Thirteen Principals &panishads) ((. ?9I7?9D
?J. Ibid.) (. @?
?9. Ibid.) (. ?D?
@C. : very "rief) rather oversi'(lified dis%ussion of the 'ain features of ea%h of these
s%hools is to "e found in #heos Bernard) (indu Philosophy, #he Philoso(hi%al
Li"rary) New *or+) 19@D. #wo great treatises "y %onte'(orary 2ndian (hiloso(hers
are ,. N. Dasgu(ta) (istory o) Indian Philosophy, ? vols.) &a'"ridge University
Press) 19719@C) and ,. Radha+rishnan) Indian Philosophy, yols.) 6eorge :llen
and Unwin) London) 19D.
@1. Luoted in Sacred oo+s and ,arly 1iterature o) the ;ast) >ol. 9) P. ID.
@. ,ee 'y These Also elieve) $a%'illan) N.*. (19@9!
@?. ,ar'a) Primer o) (induism) (. @
@@. :(asta'"a) 2) 1)1) @7J.Sacred oo+s o) the ,ast) >ol.22)(.1.
@5. 2t is translated in >ol. 5) Sacred oo+s o) the ,ast. -ther law "oo+s are0 #he
2nstitutes of >ishnu) >ol. >22) Sacred oo+s o) the ,ast. #he :(asta'"a and
Baudhayana) >ol. H2< 6auta'a and >asisht"a) >ol. H2>< 6rihya ,utras) >ol. HH2H)
HHH. Briefer sele%tions of so'e of these are to "e found in the Sacred oo+s and
1iterature o) the ,ast, >ol. 9.
@I. D.,. ,ar'a) Primer o) (induism) (. 1C.
@D. The 8amayana and the Mahabharata) ((. ??7???.
@J. :. :. $a%donell) (istory o) Sans+rit 1iterature, (. JI. 2t should "e said that) in
general) 2ndian s%holars in%line to assign the ;(i%s to an earlier date than do western
s%holars.
@9. Op. cit.) (. JI
5C. #his (oe' is to "e found in Dutt=s translation of the e(i%) in The 8amayana and
Mahabharata, ((. 1D7?C) ;very'an=s Li"rary) ;. P. Dutton . &o.) N. *.
51. 2 ,a'uel 1D017@9.
5. ;dwin :rnold) Indian Idylls) (.9.
5?. Ibid.) (. 9@.
5@. Ibid.) (. 95.
55. ;dwin :rnold) Indian Idylls) (. 9J.
5I. Ibid.) (. ?C5.
5D. Ibid.) (. ?CI.
5J. Ibid.) (. ?C9.
59. ;dwin :rnold) Indian Idylls) (. ?11.
IC. Ibid.) (. ?1@
I1. Ibid.) ((. ?157?1I
I. ;dwin :rnold) Indian Idylls) (. ?1J.
I?. Ro'esh Dutt) The 8amayana and the Mahabharata,
;very'an=s Li"rary) ;. P. Dutton . &o.) N. *.) 199) (. ?@.
I@. Dutt e5(lains that this referen%e to 'on+eys is only the result of 1that %onte'(t
for a"original ra%es whi%h has 'ar+ed %ivili9ed %on8uerors in all ages.1 #his led the
(oet to des%ri"e the indigenous (eo(les a'ong who' Ra'a found hi'self as
'on+eys and "ears) or as the 'on+ey (eo(le and the "ear (eo(le. Op. cit., (. J9.
I5. ;dwin :rnold) The Son' 3elestial) ((. 1D719
II. Ibid.) (. 1.
ID. P(. I7J) passim
IJ. P. DD.
I9. P. J1.
DC. ;dwin :rnold) The Son' 3elestial) ((.9?79@.
D1. 0eb o) Indian 1i)e) (. 11.
D. 6andhi) <oun' India) ((. JCC7JC1.
D?. R. 6ar"e) ,ncyclopedia o) 8eli'ion and ,thics) >ol. ) (. 5?
D@. 3ar8uhar) Outlines o) 8eli'ious 1iterature o) India) (. 9.
D5. #he Bhagavad 6ita) Har(er and Brothers) N.*.) 19@J) (. 1@
DI. ,o'e of the "etter +nown translations of the 6ita are the following0
,. Radha+rishnan. The ha'avad $ita, with an introdu%tory essay) ,ans+rit #e5t)
;nglish translation and notes. Har(er and Brothers) N. *.) 19@J.
3ran+lin ;dgerton) The ha'avad $ita, translated and inter(reted. vols. Harvard
University Press) &a'"ridge) 19@I. #he first volu'e %ontains the ,ans+rit te5t and
;dgerton=s translation. >ol. %ontains his inter(retation and also ;dwin :rnold=s
translation.
,ir ;dwin :rnold) The Son' 3elestial, (u"lished in 'any se(arate editions. #o "e
found also in Sacred oo+s and 1iterature o) the ,ast, >ol. 9.
,wa'i Para'ananda) The lessed 1ord:s Son', in Lin *utang) 0isdom o) 3hina and
India, ((. 5D711@.
,wa'i Pra"havananda and &hristo(her 2sherwood) $ar%el Rodd &o.) Hollywood)
&al.) 19@I) The ha'avad $ita, The Son' o) $od. ;5%er(ts in%luded in Lewis
Browne) The 0orld:s $reat Scriptures, pp.997119.
$rs. :nnie Besant) The ha'avad $ita, The 1ord:s Son'. ;5%er(ts in%luded in
Ballou) The 0orld ible, ((. J571C1. $rs. Besant was a #heoso(hist leader.
DD. P. 1?.
DJ. $any 'odern Hindus) of%ourse) regard these all as "ut different as(e%ts of the
sa'e reality.
D9. #he fe'ale and the 'ale se5 organs.
JC. :s given in /internit9) History of 2ndian Literature) 2) ((. 5@75@?.
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