Group dynamics

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Group dynamics is a system of behaviors and psychological processes occurring within
a social group (intragroup dynamics), or between social groups (intergroup dynamics). The
study of group dynamics can be useful in understanding decision-making behavior, tracking
the spread of diseases in society, creating effective therapy techniues, and following the
emergence and popularity of new ideas and technologies.
!"#
$roup dynamics are at the core
of understanding racism, se%ism, and other forms of social pre&udice and discrimination.
These applications of the field are studied in psychology, sociology, anthropology, political
science, epidemiology, education, social work, business, andcommunication studies.
Contents
!hide#
" 'istory
( )ey theorists
o (." $ustave *e +on
o (.( William ,c-ougall
o (.. /igmund Freud
o (.0 1acob *. ,oreno
o (.2 )urt *ewin
o (.3 William /chut4
o (.5 Wilfred +ion
o (.6 +ruce Tuckman
o (.7 ,. /cott 8eck
o (."9 :ichard 'ackman
. ;ntragroup dynamics
o .." $roup formation
o ..( $roup membership and social identity
o ... $roup cohesion
o ..0 +lack sheep effect
o ..2 $roup influence on individual behavior
o ..3 $roup structure
0 ;ntergroup dynamics
o 0." ;ntergroup conflict
o 0.( ;ntergroup conflict reduction
0.(." <ontact hypothesis (intergroup contact theory)
0.(.( /uperordinate identities
0.(.. ;nterdependence
2 /elected academic &ournals
3 /ee also
5 :eferences
History[edit]
The history of group dynamics (or group processes)
!(#
has a consistent, underlying premise=
>the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.> ? social group is an entity, which has ualities
that cannot be understood &ust by studying the individuals that make up the group. ;n "7(0,
$estalt psychologist, ,a% Wertheimer identified this fact, stating @There are entities where
the behavior of the whole cannot be derived from its individual elements nor from the way
these elements fit togetherA rather the opposite is true= the properties of any of the parts are
determined by the intrinsic structural laws of the wholeB (Wertheimer "7(0, p. 5).
!.#
?s a field of study, group dynamics has roots in both psychology and sociology. Wilhelm
Wundt ("6.(C"7(9), credited as the founder of e%perimental psychology, had a particular
interest in the psychology of communities, which he believed possessed phenomena (human
language, customs, and religion) that could not be described through a study of the
individual.
!(#
Dn the sociological side, Emile -urkheim ("626C"7"5), who was influenced by
Wundt, also recogni4ed collective phenomena, such as public knowledge. Dther key
theorists include $ustave *e +on ("60"C"7.") who believed that crowds possessed a >racial
unconscious> with primitive, aggressive, and antisocial instincts, and William ,c-ougall
(psychologist), who believed in a >group mind,> which had a distinct e%istence born from the
interaction of individuals.
!(#
Fltimately, it was social psychologist )urt *ewin ("679C"705) who coined the term group
dynamics to describe the positive and negative forces within groups of people.
!0#
;n "702, he
established The Group Dynamics Research Center at the ,assachusetts ;nstitute of
Technology, the first institute devoted e%plicitly to the study of group dynamics.
!2#
Throughout
his career, *ewin was focused on how the study of group dynamics could be applied to real-
world, social issues.
?n increasing amount of research has applied evolutionary psychology principles to group
dynamics. 'umans are argued to have evolved in an increasingly complicated social
environment and to have many adaptations concerned with group dynamics. G%amples
includes mechanisms for dealing with status, reciprocity, identifying cheaters, ostracism,
altruism, group decision, leadership, and intergroup relations.
!3#
Key theorists[edit]
Gustave Le Bon[edit]
Main article: Gustave Le Bon
$ustave *e +on was a French social psychologist whose seminal study, The Crowd: A Study
o the !opular Mind ("673) led to the development of group psychology.
William McDougall[edit]
Main article: "illiam McDougall #psychologist$
The +ritish psychologist William ,c-ougall in his work The Group Mind ("7(9) researched
the dynamics of groups of various si4es and degrees of organi4ation.
Sigmund Freud[edit]
Main article: Sigmund %reud
;n Group !sychology and the Analysis o the &go' ("7((), /igmund Freud based his
preliminary description of group psychology on *e +on>s work, but went on to develop his
own, original theory, related to what he had begun to elaborate in Totem and Ta(oo) Theodor
?dorno reprised Freud>s essay in "72" with his %reudian Theory and the !attern o %ascist
!ropaganda, and said that H;t is not an overstatement if we say that Freud, though he was
hardly interested in the political phase of the problem, clearly foresaw the rise and nature of
fascist mass movements in purely psychological categories.H
!5#
Jacob L Moreno[edit]
Main article: *aco( L) Moreno
1acob *. ,oreno was a psychiatrist, dramatist, philosopher and theoretician who coined the
term Hgroup psychotherapyH in the early "7.9s and was highly influential at the time.
!urt Le"in[edit]
Main article: +urt Lewin
)urt *ewin ("70., "706, "72") is commonly identified as the founder of the movement to
study groups scientifically. 'e coined the term group dynamics to describe the way groups
and individuals act and react to changing circumstances. $roup dynamics can be defined as
a field of enuiry dedicated to the advancing knowledge about the nature of groups, the laws
of their development and their interrelations with individuals, other groups and larger
institutions. +ased on their feelings and emotions, members of a group form a common
perception. The interactive psychological relationship in which members of a group form this
common perception is actually H$roup -ynamicsH.
The phrase H$roup -ynamicsH contains two words- (i) $roup- a social unit of two or more
individuals who have in common a set of beliefs and values, follow the same norms and
work for an establishable common aim. The members of the group share a set of common
purpose, tasks or goals. (ii) -ynamics- the flow of, coherent activities which as envisaged,
will lead the group towards the establishment of its set goals.
William Sc#ut$[edit]
Main article: "illiam Schut,
William /chut4 ("726, "733) looked at interpersonal relations from the perspective of three
dimensions= inclusion' control' and aection) This became the basis for a theory of group
behavior that sees groups as resolving issues in each of these stages in order to be able to
develop to the ne%t stage. <onversely, a group may also devolve to an earlier stage if unable
to resolve outstanding issues in a particular stage. 'e referred to these group dynamics as
Hthe interpersonal underworldH because they dealt with group processes that were largely
unseen, as opposed to HcontentH issues, which were nominally the agenda of group
meetings.
!6#!7#
Wil%red Bion[edit]
Main article: "ilred Bion
Wilfred +ion ("73") studied group dynamics from a psychoanalytic perspective, and stated
that he was much influenced by Wilfred Trotter for whom he worked at Fniversity <ollege
'ospital *ondon, as did another key figure in the 8sychoanalytic movement, Grnest 1ones.
'e discovered several mass group processes which involved the group as a whole adopting
an orientation which, in his opinion, interfered with the ability of a group to accomplish the
work it was nominally engaged in.
!"9#
'is e%periences are reported in his published books,
especially &-periences in Groups) The Tavistock ;nstitute has further developed and applied
the theory and practices developed by +ion.
Bruce &uc'man[edit]
Main article: Bruce Tuc.man
+ruce Tuckman ("732) proposed the four-stage model called Tuckman>s /tages for a group.
Tuckman>s model states that the ideal group decision-making process should occur in four
stages=
%orming (pretending to get on or get along with others)
Storming (letting down the politeness barrier and trying to get down to the issues
even if tempers flare up)
/orming (getting used to each other and developing trust and productivity)
!erorming (working in a group to a common goal on a highly efficient and
cooperative basis)
Tuckman later added a fifth stage for the dissolution of a group called ad0ourning.
(Ad0ourning may also be referred to as mourning, i.e. mourning the ad&ournment of the
group). This model refers to the overall pattern of the group, but of course individuals within a
group work in different ways. ;f distrust persists, a group may never even get to the norming
stage.
M Scott (ec'[edit]
Main article: M) Scott !ec.
,. /cott 8eck developed stages for larger-scale groups (i.e., communities) which are similar
to Tuckman>s stages of group development.
!""#
8eck describes the stages of a community as=
!seudo1community
Chaos
&mptiness
True Community
<ommunities may be distinguished from other types of groups, in 8eck>s view, by the need
for members to eliminate barriers to communication in order to be able to form true
community. G%amples of common barriers are= e%pectations and
preconceptionsA pre&udicesA ideology, counterproductive norms, theology and solutionsA the
need to heal, convert, fi% or solve and the need to control. ? community is born when its
members reach a stage of HemptinessH or peace.
)ic#ard *ac'man[edit]
:ichard 'ackman developed a synthetic, research-based model for designing and managing
work groups. 'ackman suggested that groups are successful when they satisfy internal and
e%ternal clients, develop capabilities to perform in the future, and when members find
meaning and satisfaction in the group. 'ackman proposed five conditions that increase the
chance that groups will be successful.
!"(#
These include=
". Being a real team= which results from having a shared task, clear boundaries which
clarify who is inside or outside of the group, and stability in group membership.
(. Compelling direction= which results from a clear, challenging, and conseuential goal.
.. &na(ling structure= which results from having tasks which have variety, a group si4e
that is not too large, talented group members who have at least moderate social
skill, and strong norms that specify appropriate behavior.
0. Supportive conte-t= that occurs in groups nested in larger groups (e.g. companies).
;n companies, supportive conte%ts involves a) reward systems that reward
performance and cooperation (e.g. group based rewards linked to group
performance), b) an educational system that develops member skills, c) an
information and materials system that provides the needed information and raw
materials (e.g. computers).
2. &-pert coaching= which occurs on the rare occasions when group members feels
they need help with task or interpersonal issues. 'ackman emphasi4es that many
team leaders are overbearing and undermine group effectiveness.
Intragroup dynamics[edit]
2ntragroup dynamics (also referred to as ingroup-, within-group, or commonly &ust @group
dynamicsB) are the underlying processes that give rise to a set of norms, roles, relations, and
common goals that characteri4e a particular social group. G%amples of groups include
religious, political, military, and environmental groups, sports teams, work groups, and
therapy groups. ?mongst the members of a group, there is a state of interdependence,
through which the behaviors, attitudes, opinions, and e%periences of each member are
collectively influenced by the other group members.
!".#
;n many fields of research, there is an
interest in understanding how group dynamics influence individual behavior, attitudes, and
opinions.
The dynamics of a particular group depend on how one defines the (oundaries of the group.
Dften, there are distinct su(groups within a more broadly defined group. For e%ample, one
could define F./. residents (@?mericansB) as a group, but could also define a more specific
set of F./. residents (for e%ample, >?mericans in the /outh>). For each of these groups, there
are distinct dynamics that can be discussed. Iotably, on this very broad level, the study of
group dynamics is similar to the study of culture. For e%ample, there are group dynamics in
the F./. /outh that sustain a culture o honor, which is associated with norms of toughness,
honor-related violence, and self-defense.
!"0#!"2#
Group %ormation[edit]
$roup formation starts with a psychological bond between individuals. The social cohesion
approach suggests that group formation comes out of bonds of interpersonal attraction.
!(#
;n
contrast, the social identity approach suggests that a group starts when a collection of
individuals perceive that they share some social category (@smokersB, @nurses,B @students,B
@hockey playersB), and that interpersonal attraction only secondarily enhances the connection
between individuals.
!(#
?dditionally, from the social identity approach, group formation
involves both identifying with some individuals and e%plicitly not identifying with others. /o to
say, a level of psychological distinctiveness is necessary for group formation. Through
interaction, individuals begin to develop group norms, roles, and attitudes which define the
group, and are internali4ed to influence behavior.
!"3#
&mergent groups arise from a relatively spontaneous process of group formation. For
e%ample, in response to a natural disaster, an emergent response group may form. These
groups are characteri4ed as having no pree%isting structure (e.g. group membership,
allocated roles) or prior e%perience working together.
!"5#
Jet, these groups still e%press high
levels of interdependence and coordinate knowledge, resources, and tasks.
!"5#
Group members#ip and social identity[edit]
The social group is a critical source of information about individual identity.
!"6#
?n individualBs
identity (or self-concept) has two components= personal identity and social identity (or
collective self). DneBs personal identity is defined by more idiosyncratic, individual ualities
and attributes.
!(#
;n contrast, oneBs social identity is defined by his or her group membership,
and the general characteristics (or prototypes) that define the group and differentiate it from
others.
!(#
We naturally make comparisons between our own group and other groups, but we
do not necessarily make ob&ective comparisons. ;nstead, we make evaluations that are self-
enhancing, emphasi4ing the positive ualities of our own group (see ingroup bias).
!(#
;n this
way, these comparisons give us a distinct and valued social identity that benefits our self-
esteem. Dur social identity and group membership also satisfies a need to belong.
!"7#
Df
course, individuals belong to multiple groups. Therefore, oneBs social identity can have
several, ualitatively distinct parts (for e%ample, oneBs ethnic identity, religious identity, and
political identity).
!(9#
Dptimal distinctiveness theory suggests that individuals have a desire to be similar to others,
but also a desire to differentiate themselves, ultimately seeking some balance of these two
desires (to obtain optimal distinctiveness).
!("#
For e%ample, one might imagine a young
teenager in the Fnited /tates who tries to balance these desires, not wanting to be @&ust like
everyone else,B but also wanting to @fit inB and be similar to others. DneBs collective self may
offer a balance between these two desires.
!(#
That is, to be similar to others (those who you
share group membership with), but also to be different from others (those who are outside of
your group).
Group co#esion[edit]
Main article: Group cohesiveness
;n the social sciences, group cohesion refers to the processes that keep members of a social
group connected.
!0#
Terms such as attraction, solidarity, and morale are often used to
describe group cohesion.
!0#
;t is thought to be one of the most important characteristics of a
group, and has been linked to group performance,
!((#
intergroup conflict
!(.#
and therapeutic
change.
!(0#
$roup cohesion, as a scientifically studied property of groups, is commonly associated with
)urt *ewin and his student, *eon Festinger. *ewin defined group cohesion as the willingness
of individuals to stick together, and believed that without cohesiveness a group could not
e%ist.
!0#
?s an e%tension of *ewinBs work, Festinger (along with /tanley /chachter and )urt
+ack) described cohesion as, Kthe total field of forces which act on members to remain in the
groupL (Festinger, /chachter, M +ack, "729, p. .5).
!0#
*ater, this definition was modified to
describe the forces acting on individual members to remain in the group, termed attraction to
the group.
!0#
/ince then, several models for understanding the concept of group cohesion
have been developed, including ?lbert <arronBs hierarchical model
!(2#
and several bi-
dimensional models (vertical v. hori4ontal cohesion, task v. social cohesion, belongingness
and morale, and personal v. social attraction). +efore *ewin and Festinger, there were, of
course, descriptions of a very similar group property. For e%ample, Gmile -urkheim
described two forms of solidarity (mechanical and organic), which created a sense of
collective conscious and an emotion-based sense of community.
!(3#
Blac' s#eep e%%ect[edit]
+eliefs within the ingroup are based on how individuals in the group see their other
members. ;ndividuals tend to upgrade likeable in-group members and deviate from
unlikeable group members, making them a separate outgroup. This is called the black
sheep effect.
!(5#
? person>s beliefs about the group may be changed depending upon whether
they are part of the ingroup or outgroup.
/ew mem(ers of a group must prove themselves to the full members, or Kold-timersL, to
become accepted. %ull mem(ers have undergone sociali4ation and are already accepted
within the group. They have more privilege than newcomers but more responsibility to help
the group achieve its goals. Marginal mem(ers were once full members but lost membership
because they failed to live up to the groupBs e%pectations. They can re&oin the group if they
go through re-sociali4ation. ;n a +ogart and :yan study, the development of new members>
stereotypes about in-groups and out-groups during sociali4ation was surveyed. :esults
showed that the new members &udged themselves as consistent with the stereotypes of their
in-groups, even when they had recently committed to &oin those groups or e%isted as
marginal members. They also tended to &udge the group as a whole in an increasingly less
positive manner after they became full members.
!(6#
-epending on the self-esteem of an individual, members of the in-group may e%perience
different private beliefs about the groupBs activities but will publicly e%press the oppositeN
that they actually share these beliefs. Dne member may not personally agree with something
the group does, but to avoid the black sheep effect, they will publicly agree with the group
and keep the private beliefs to themselves. ;f the person is privately self-aware, he or she is
more likely to comply with the group even if they possibly have their own beliefs about the
situation.
!(5#
;n situations of ha4ing within fraternities and sororities on college campuses, pledges may
encounter this type of situation and may outwardly comply with the tasks they are forced to
do regardless of their personal feelings about the $reek institution they are &oining. This is
done in an effort to avoid becoming an outcast of the group.
!(6#
Dutcasts who behave in a way
that might &eopardi4e the group tend to be treated more harshly than the likeable ones in a
group, creating a black sheep effect. Full members of a fraternity might treat the incoming
new members harshly, causing the pledges to decide if they approve of the situation and if
they will voice their disagreeing opinions about it.
Group in%luence on individual be#avior[edit]
;ndividual behavior is influenced by the presence of others.
!"6#
For e%ample, studies have
found that individuals work harder and faster when others are present (see social facilitation),
and that an individualBs performance is reduced when others in the situation create
distraction or conflict.
!"6#
$roups also influence individualBs decision-making processes. These
include decisions related to ingroup bias, persuasion (see ?sch conformity e%periments),
obedience (see ,ilgram G%periment), and groupthink. There are both positive and negative
implications of group influence on individual behavior. This type of influence is often useful in
the conte%t of work settings, team sports, and political activism. 'owever, the influence of
groups on the individual can also generate e%tremely negative behaviors, evident in Ia4i
$ermany, the ,y *ai ,assacre, and in the ?bu $hraib prison(also see ?bu $hraib torture
and prisoner abuse).
!(7#
Group structure[edit]
? group>s structure is the internal framework that defines members> relations to one another
over time.
!.9#
Freuently studied elements of group structure include roles, norms, values,
communication patterns, and status differentials.
!."#
)oles can be defined as a tendency to behave, contribute and interrelate with others in a
particular way. :oles may be assigned formally, but more often are defined through the
process of role differentiation.
!.(#
:ole differentiation is the degree to which different group
members have speciali4ed functions. Functional (task) roles are generally defined in relation
to the tasks the team is e%pected to perform.
!..#
Dther types of roles are the socio-emotional
role, which helps maintain the social fabric of the group, the individual role and the leader
role.
+orms are the informal rules that groups adopt to regulate members> behaviour. Iorms refer
to what should be done and represent value &udgments about appropriate behaviour in social
situations. ?lthough they are infreuently written down or even discussed, norms have
powerful influence on group behaviour.
!.0#
,alues are goals or ideas that serve as guiding principles for the group.
!.2#
*ike norms, values
may be communicated either e%plicitly or on an ad hoc basis. Oalues can serve as a rallying
point for the team. 'owever, some values (such as conformity) can also be dysfunction and
lead to poor decisions by the team.
Communication patterns describe the flow of information within the group and they are
typically described as either centrali4ed or decentrali4ed. With a centrali4ed pattern,
communications tend to flow from one source to all group members. <entrali4ed
communications allow consistent, standardi4ation information but they may restrict the free
flow of information. -ecentrali4ed communications make it easy to share information directly
between group members. When decentrali4ed, communications tend to flow more freely, but
the delivery of information may not be as fast or accurate as with centrali4ed
communications. ?nother potential downside of decentrali4ed communications is the sheer
volume of information that can be generated, particularly with electronic media.
Status di%%erentials are the relative differences in status among group members. /tatus can
be determined by a variety of factors, including e%pertise, occupation, age, gender or ethnic
origin. /tatus differentials may affect the relative amount of pay among group members and
they may also affect the group>s tolerance to violation of group norms (i.e., people with
higher status are given more freedom to violate group norms).
Intergroup dynamics[edit]
2ntergroup dynamics refers to the behavioral and psychological relationship between two or
more groups. This includes perceptions, attitudes, opinions, and behaviors towards oneBs
own group, as well as those towards another group. ;n some cases, intergroup dynamics is
prosocial, positive, and beneficial (for e%ample, when multiple research teams work together
to accomplish a task or goal). ;n other cases, intergroup dynamics can create conflict. For
e%ample, Fischer M Ferlie found initially positive dynamics between a clinical institution and
its e%ternal authorities dramatically changed to a >hot> and intractable conflict when
authorities interfered with its embedded clinical model.
!.3#
/imilarly, underlying the
"777 <olumbine 'igh /chool shooting in *ittleton, <olorado, Fnited /tates, intergroup
dynamics played a significant role in Gric 'arrisB and -ylan )leboldBs decision to kill a
teacher and "0 students (including themselves).
!(7#
-ntergroup con%lict[edit]
?ccording to social identity theory, intergroup conflict starts with a process of comparison
between individuals in one group (the ingroup) to those of another group (the outgroup).
!.5#
This comparison process is not unbiased and ob&ective. ;nstead, it is a mechanism for
enhancing oneBs self-esteem.
!(#
;n the process of such comparisons, an individual tends to=

favor the ingroup over the outgroup

e%aggerate and overgenerali4e the differences between the ingroup and the
outgroup (to enhance group distinctiveness)

minimi4e the perception of differences between ingroup members

remember more detailed and positive information about the ingroup, and more
negative information about the outgroup
!.6#
Gven without any intergroup interaction (as in the minimal group paradigm), individuals begin
to show favoritism towards their own group, and negative reactions towards the outgroup.
!.6#
This conflict can result in pre&udice, stereotypes, and discrimination. ;ntergroup conflict can
be highly competitive, especially for social groups with a long history of conflict (for e%ample,
the "770 :wandan $enocide, rooted in group conflict between the ethnic 'utu and Tutsi).
!(#
;n contrast, intergroup competition can sometimes be relatively harmless, particularly in
situations where there is little history of conflict (for e%ample, between students of different
universities) leading to relatively harmless generali4ations and mild competitive behaviors.
!(#
;ntergroup conflict is commonly recogni4ed amidst racial, ethnic, religious, and political
groups.
The formation of intergroup conflict was investigated in a popular series of studies
by ,u4afer /herif and colleagues in "73", called the :obbers <ave G%periment.
!.7#
The
:obbers <ave G%periment was later used to support realistic conflict theory.
!09#
Dther
prominent theories relating to intergroup conflict include social dominance theory, and
social-Pself-categori4ation theory.
-ntergroup con%lict reduction[edit]
There have been several strategies developed for reducing the tension, bias, pre&udice, and
conflict between social groups. These include the contact hypothesis, the 0igsaw classroom,
and several categori4ation-based strategies.
Contact #ypot#esis .intergroup contact t#eory/[edit]
;n "720, $ordon ?llport suggested that by promoting contact between groups, pre&udice can
be reduced.
!0"#
Further, he suggested four optimal conditions for contact= eual status
between the groups in the situationA common goalsA intergroup cooperationA and the support
of authorities, law, or customs.
!0(#
/ince then, over 299 studies have been done on pre&udice
reduction under variations of the contact hypothesis, and a meta-analytic review suggests
overall support for its efficacy.
!0(#
;n some cases, even without the four optimal conditions
outlined by ?llport, pre&udice between groups can be reduced.
!0(#
Superordinate identities[edit]
Fnder the contact hypothesis, several models have been developed. ? number of these
models utili4e a superordinate identity to reduce pre&udice. That is, a more broadly defined,
@umbrellaB groupPidentity that includes the groups that are in conflict. +y emphasi4ing this
superordinate identity, individuals in both subgroups can share a common social identity.
!0.#
For e%ample, if there is conflict between White, +lack, and *atino students in a high
school, one might try to emphasi4e the @high schoolB groupPidentity that students share to
reduce conflict between the groups. ,odels utili4ing superordinate identities include
the common ingroup identity model, the ingroup pro&ection model, the mutual intergroup
differentiation model, and the ingroup identity model.
!0.#
-nterdependence[edit]
There are also techniues for reducing pre&udice that utili4e interdependence between two or
more groups. That is, members across groups have to rely on one another to accomplish
some goal or task. ;n the :obbers <ave G%periment, /herif used this strategy to reduce
conflict between groups.
!.6#
Glliot ?ronsonBs 1igsaw <lassroom also uses this strategy of
interdependence.
!00#
;n "75", thick racial tensions were abounding in ?ustin, Te%as. ?ronson
was brought in to e%amine the nature of this tension within schools, and to devise a strategy
for reducing it (so to improve the process of school integration, mandated under +rown v.
+oard of Gducation in "720). -espite strong evidence for the effectiveness of the 0igsaw
classroom' the strategy was not widely used (arguably because of strong attitudes e%isting
outside of the schools, which still resisted the notion that racial and ethnic minority groups
are eual to Whites and, similarly, should be integrated into schools).
Selected academic journals[edit]
Group !rocesses 3 2ntergroup Relations
Group Dynamics: Theory' Research' and !ractice
Small Group Research
Group Analysis
2nternational *ournal o Group !sychotherapy
The *ournal or Specialists in Group "or.
Social "or. "ith Groups
2nternational *ournal on Minority and Group Rights
Group %acilitation: A Research and Applications *ournal
See also[edit]
<og>s *adder
<ollaboration
<ollaborative method
-ecision downloading
Gntitativity
Facilitator
$roup behaviour
$roup narcissism
;nterpersonal relationships
,aintenance actions
Drganisation climate
Dut-group homogeneity
/mall-group communication
/ocial Tuning
Team-based learning
Team effectiveness
References[edit]
4) Jump up0 +ackstrom, *.A 'uttenlocher, -.A )leinberg, 1.A *an, Q. ((993). H$roup
formation in large social networksH. H8roceedings of the "(th ?<, /;$)-- international
conference on )nowledge discovery and data mining - )-- >93H.
p. 00. doi="9.""02P""2909(.""290"(. ;/+I "2727...72. edit
5) R 1ump up to=
a

b

c

d

e

f

g

h

i

j

k

l
'ogg, ,. ?.A Williams, ). -. ((999). HFrom ; to we=
/ocial identity and the collective selfH. Group Dynamics: Theory' Research' and
!ractice 1= 6". doi="9."9.5P"967-(377.0.".6". edit
6) Jump up0 Westheimer, $. ("777). H$estalt theory reconfigured= ,a%
Wertheimer>s anticipation of recent developments in visual
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1ohnson, ). ,.A ,c$lynn, G. ?. ((999). H:educing intergroup conflict= From
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56.. doi="9."9.5P99((-.2"0.79.2.52". 8,;- "35.5.5(. edit
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8re&udice :eductionH. !ersonality and Social !sychology Bulletin 29 (()=
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*ongman. ;/+I 756-9-35.-77.6.-9.
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!roup "ynamics$ it%s
characteristics& stages& types and
other "etails ' (anagement
by Smriti Chand (anagement
!roup "ynamics$ it%s characteristics& stages& types&
factors &team building and other "etails)
People may underestimate the importance of society and group
memberships on their lives. Whilst people sometimes undertake
solo journeys yet by and large much of our experiences of life
involves being engaged with others and groups.
-mage Courtesy ; dannys"ebcom<"p=content<uploads<2544<56<Leaders#ip>pg
Within an organiation we do find number of groups. !ndividuals
joining group "s# is a reality $ may be formal or informal groups.
People work in groups %uite fre%uently and in many different
areas of their life e.g. at work& school'college& sport& hobbies. (he
managers need to understand Group )ynamics that can enable
managers to adopt the right approach of interacting with them.
*hat is !roup "ynamics+
Group dynamics deals with the attitudes and behavioral patterns
of a group. Group dynamics concern how groups are formed&
what is their structure and which processes are followed in their
functioning. (hus& it is concerned with the interactions and
forces operating between groups.
Group dynamics is relevant to groups of all kinds $ both formal
and informal. !f the *P+ government has set up Group of
,inisters for every governance issue& the Supreme Court of !ndia
has -. Group of /udges committees overseeing all manner of
non0judicial work in the apex court. !n an organiational setting&
the term groups are a very common and the study of groups and
group dynamics is an important area of study.
*hat is A !roup+
1very organiation is a group unto itself. + group refers to two or
more people who share a common meaning and evaluation of
themselves and come together to achieve common goals. !n other
words& a group is a collection of people who interact with one
another2 accept rights and obligations as members and who
share a common identity.
haracteristics of a !roup$
Regardless of the si,e or the purpose& e#ery group has
similar characteristics$
"a# - or more persons "if it is one person& it is not a group#
"b# 3ormal social structure "the rules of the game are defined#
"c# Common fate "they will swim together#
"d# Common goals "the destiny is the same and emotionally
connected#
"e# 3ace0to0face interaction "they will talk with each other#
"f# !nterdependence "each one is complimentary to the other#
"g# Self0definition as group members "what one is who belongs to
the group#
"h# 4ecognition by others "yes& you belong to the group#.
Process-Stages of !roup "e#elopment-.#olution$
Group )evelopment is a dynamic process. 5ow do groups
evolve6 (here is a process of five stages through which groups
pass through. (he process includes the five stages7 forming&
storming& forming& performing& and adjourning.
/orming$
(he first stage in the life of a group is concerned with forming a
group. (his stage is characteried by members seeking either a
work assignment "in a formal group# or other benefit& like status&
affiliation& power& etc. "in an informal group#. ,embers at this
stage either engage in busy type of activity or show apathy.
Storming$
(he next stage in this group is marked by the formation of dyads
and triads. ,embers seek out familiar or similar individuals and
begin a deeper sharing of self. Continued attention to the
subgroup creates a differentiation in the group and tensions
across the dyads ' triads may appear. Pairing is a common
phenomenon. (here will be conflict about controlling the group.
Norming$
(he third stage of group development is marked by a more
serious concern about task performance. (he dyads'triads begin
to open up and seek out other members in the group. 1fforts are
made to establish various norms for task performance.
,embers begin to take greater responsibility for their own group
and relationship while the authority figure becomes relaxed.
8nce this stage is complete& a clear picture will emerge about
hierarchy of leadership. (he norming stage is over with the
solidification of the group structure and a sense of group identity
and camaraderie.
Performing$
(his is a stage of a fully functional group where members see
themselves as a group and get involved in the task. 1ach person
makes a contribution and the authority figure is also seen as a
part of the group. Group norms are followed and collective
pressure is exerted to ensure the Process of Group effectiveness
of the group.
(he group may redefine its goals )evelopment in the light of
information from the outside environment and show an
autonomous will to pursue those goals. (he long0term viability of
the group is established and nurtured.
Adjourning$
!n the case of temporary groups& like project team& task force& or
any other such group& which have a limited task at hand& also
have a fifth stage& (his is known as adjourning.
(he group decides to disband. Some members may feel happy
over the performance& and some may be unhappy over the
stoppage of meeting with group members. +djourning may also
be referred to as mourning& i.e. mourning the adjournment of the
group.
(he readers must note that the four stages of group development
mentioned above for permanent groups are merely suggestive. !n
reality& several stages may go on simultaneously.
0ypes of !roups$
8ne way to classify the groups is by way of formality $ formal
and informal. While formal groups are established by an
organiation to achieve its goals& informal groups merge
spontaneously. 3ormal groups may take the form of command
groups& task groups& and functional groups.
12 ommand !roups$
Command groups are specified by the organiational chart and
often consist of a supervisor and the subordinates that report to
that supervisor. +n example of a command group is a market
research firm C18 and the research associates under him.
32 0as4 !roups$
(ask groups consist of people who work together to achieve a
common task. ,embers are brought together to accomplish a
narrow range of goals within a specified time period. (ask groups
are also commonly referred to as task forces. (he organiation
appoints members and assigns the goals and tasks to be
accomplished.
1xamples of assigned tasks are the development of a new
product& the improvement of a production process& or designing
the syllabus under semester system.
8ther common task groups are ad hoc committees& project
groups& and standing committees. +d hoc committees are
temporary groups created to resolve a specific complaint or
develop a process are normally disbanded after the group
completes the assigned task.
52 /unctional !roups$
+ functional group is created by the organiation to accomplish
specific goals within an unspecified time frame. 3unctional
groups remain in existence after achievement of current goals
and objectives. 1xamples of functional groups would be a
marketing department& a customer service department& or an
accounting department.
!n contrast to formal groups& informal groups are formed
naturally and in response to the common interests and shared
values of individuals. (hey are created for purposes other than
the accomplishment of organiational goals and do not have a
specified time frame. !nformal groups are not appointed by the
organiation and members can invite others to join from time to
time.
!nformal groups can have a strong influence in organiations
that can either be positive or negative. 3or example& employees
who form an informal group can either discuss how to improve a
production process or how to create shortcuts that jeopardie
%uality. !nformal groups can take the form of interest groups&
friendship groups& or reference groups.
i2 Interest !roup$
!nterest groups usually continue over time and may last longer
than general informal groups. ,embers of interest groups may
not be part of the same organiational department but they are
bound together by some other common interest.
(he goals and objectives of group interests are specific to each
group and may not be related to organiational goals and
objectives. +n example of an interest group would be students
who come together to form a study group for a specific class.
ii2 /riendship !roups7
3riendship groups are formed by members who enjoy similar
social activities& political beliefs& religious values& or other
common bonds. ,embers enjoy each other9s company and often
meet after work to participate in these activities. 3or example& a
group of employees who form a friendship group may have a
yoga group& a 4ajasthani association in )elhi& or a kitty party
lunch once a month.
iii2 Reference !roups7
+ reference group is a type of group that people use to evaluate
themselves. (he main objectives of reference groups are to seek
social validation and social comparison. Social validation allows
individuals to justify their attitudes and values while social
comparison helps individuals evaluate their own actions by
comparing themselves to others. 4eference groups have a strong
influence on members9 behavior. Such groups are formed
voluntarily. 3amily& friends& and religious affiliations are strong
reference groups for most individuals.
/actors Affecting !roup 6eha#iour$
(he success or failure of a group depends upon so many factors.
Group member resources& structure "group sie& group roles&
group norms& and group cohesiveness#& group processes "the
communication& group decision making processes& power
dynamics& conflicting interactions& etc.# and group tasks
"complexity and interdependence#.
12 !roup (ember Resources$
(he members9 knowledge& abilities& skills2 and personality
characteristics "sociability& self0 reliance& and independence# are
the resources the group members bring in with them. (he
success depends upon these resources as useful to the task.
32 !roup Structure$
!roup Si,e$
Group sie can vary from - people to a very large number of
people. Small groups of two to ten are thought to be more
effective because each member has ample opportunity to take
part and engage actively in the group. :arge groups may waste
time by deciding on processes and trying to decide who should
participate next.
1vidence supports the notion that as the sie of the group
increases& satisfaction increases up to a certain point. !ncreasing
the sie of a group beyond ;<0;- members9 results in decreased
satisfaction. !t is increasingly difficult for members of large
groups to identify with one another and experience cohesion.
!roup Roles7
!n formal groups& roles are always predetermined and assigned
to members. 1ach role shall have specific responsibilities and
duties. (here are& however& emergent roles that develop naturally
to meet the needs of the groups.
(hese emergent roles will often substitute the assigned roles as
individuals begin to express themselves and become more
assertive. Group roles can then be classified into work roles&
maintenance roles& and blocking roles.
Work roles are task0oriented activities that involve
accomplishing the group9s goals. (hey involve a variety of
specific roles such as initiator& informer& clarifier& summarier&
and reality tester.
,aintenance roles are social0emotional activities that help
members maintain their involvement in the group and raise their
personal commitment to the group. (he maintenance roles are
harmonier& gatekeeper& consensus tester& encourager& and
compromiser.
=locking roles are activities that disrupt the group. =lockers will
stubbornly resist the group9s ideas& disagree with group members
for personal reasons& and will have hidden agendas. (hey may
take the form of dominating discussions& verbally attacking other
group members& and distracting the group with trivial
information or unnecessary humour.
8ften times the blocking behaviour may not be intended as
negative. Sometimes a member may share a joke in order to
break the tension& or may %uestion a decision in order to force
group members to rethink the issue. (he blocking roles are
aggressor& blocker& dominator& comedian& and avoidance
behaviour.
4ole conflicts arise when there is ambiguity "confusion about
delegation and no specific job descriptions# between the sent role
and the received role which leads to frustration and
dissatisfaction& ultimately leading to turnover2 inconsistency
between the perceived role and role behaviour "conflict between
work roles and family roles#2 and conflicting demands from
different sources while performing the task.
!roup Norms7
>orms define the acceptable standard or boundaries of
acceptable and unacceptable behaviour& shared by group
members. (hey are typically created in order to facilitate group
survival& make behaviour more predictable& avoid embarrassing
situations& and express the values of the group.
1ach group will create its own norms that might determine from
the work performance to dress to making comments in a
meeting. Groups exert pressure on members to force them to
conform to the group9s standards and at times not to perform at
higher levels. (he norms often reflect the level of commitment&
motivation& and performance of the group.
(he majority of the group must agree that the norms are
appropriate in order for the behaviour to be accepted. (here
must also be a shared understanding that the group supports the
norms. !t should be noted& however& that members might violate
group norms from time to time.
!f the majority of members do not adhere to the norms& then they
will eventually change and will no longer serve as a standard for
evaluating behaviour. Group members who do not conform to
the norms will be punished by being excluded& ignored& or asked
to leave the group.
!roup ohesi#eness7
Cohesiveness refers to the bonding of group members or unity&
feelings of attraction for each other and desire to remain part of
the group. ,any factors influence the amount of group
cohesiveness $ agreement on group goals& fre%uency of
interaction& personal attractiveness& inter0group competition&
favourable evaluation& etc.
(he more difficult it is to obtain group membership the more
cohesive the group will be. Groups also tend to become cohesive
when they are in intense competition with other groups or face a
serious external threat to survival. Smaller groups and those who
spend considerable time together also tend to be more cohesive.
Cohesiveness in work groups has many positive effects& including
worker satisfaction& low turnover and absenteeism& and higher
productivity. 5owever& highly cohesive groups may be
detrimental to organiational performance if their goals are
misaligned with organiational goals.
5ighly cohesive groups may also be more vulnerable to
groupthink. Groupthink occurs when members of a group exert
pressure on each other to come to a consensus in decision
making. Groupthink results in careless judgments& unrealistic
appraisals of alternative courses of action& and a lack of reality
testing.
1vidence suggests that groups typically outperform individuals
when the tasks involved re%uire a variety of skills& experience&
and decision making. Groups are often more flexible and can
%uickly assemble& achieve goals& and disband or move on to
another set of objectives.
,any organiations have found that groups have many
motivational aspects as well. Group members are more likely to
participate in decision0making and problem0solving activities
leading to empowerment and increased productivity. Groups
complete most of the work in an organiation2 thus& the
effectiveness of the organiation is limited by the effectiveness of
its groups.
52 !roup Processes$
)ecision0making by a group is superior& because group generates
more information and knowledge& generates diverse alternatives&
increases acceptance of a solution& and increases legitimacy. =ut
it is also true& that decision making is like ?munde munde
matirbhinna9.
)ecisions take longer time& minority is dominated& pressure is
applied to conform to group decisions& and none is responsible
for the decisions. Group processes also include communication&
conflict management& and leadership that we shall discuss in
details in the chapters to follow hereafter.
0urning !roups into .ffecti#e 0eams$
+ll teams are groups but not all groups are teams. (eams often
are difficult to form because it takes time for members to learn
how to work together. People in every workplace talk about
building the team& working as a team& and my team& but few
understand how to create the experience of team work or how to
develop an effective team. =elonging to a team& in the broadest
sense& is a result of feeling part of something larger than oneself.
!t has a lot to do with your understanding of the mission or
objectives of your organiation.
!n a team0oriented environment& one contributes to the overall
success of the organiation. 8ne works with fellow members of
the organiation to produce these results. 1ven though you have
a specific job function and you belong to a specific department&
you are unified with other organiation members to accomplish
the overall objectives. (he bigger picture drives your actions2
your function exists to serve the bigger picture.
!t is on record that teams are better than groups& because they
are more flexible and responsive to dynamic environment. +
work group has no opportunity to involve in collective works.
!t is the work team whose members ?work intensely on a specific&
common goal using their positive synergy& individual and mutual
accountability& and complementary skills9.
(eam0building helps to increase intra0group and inter0group
effectiveness to bring members together& make them share their
perception of each other and understand each other9s point of
view.
(hus& resolve problems and work together in a cooperative and
collaborative mode. (eams can be of four types $ problem0
solving teams "only making suggestion#& self0managed& teams
"operate without a manager#& cross0functional teams "a group of
experts from different specialities#& and virtual team "members
collaborate online#. !n terms of sie& teams may be institutional
"comprising of hundreds of members# and operational "a small&
cooperative group& in regular contact and contributes responsibly
to achieve task at hand#.
.ight s for 0eam 6uilding$
(o show business results and profitability& ways are explored by
the executives to improve their productivity.
Successful team building& that creates effecti#e& focused
wor4 teams& re7uires attention to each of the following$
12 lear .8pectations$
(he managers must clearly tell the team members of the
expected performance and the team members must understand
the reason for its creation. 3or it the organiation must support
the team with resources of people& time and money.
32 ommitment$
(eam members must participate in the team& feel that the team
mission is important& and show commitment to accomplishing
the team mission and expected outcomes. Commitment will
come if team members perceive their service as valuable to the
organiation and to their own careers.
52 ompetence$
(eam members must have the knowledge& skill and capabilities&
the resources& strategies and support needed to accomplish its
mission to address the issues for which the team was formed.
92 ontrol$
(he team must have not only enough freedom and empowerment
to feel the ownership necessary to accomplish its charter& but
also the accountability. (here has to be a defined review process.
:2 ollaboration$
(he team should understand group processes and work
effectively and cooperatively with other members of the team.
3or it they have to understand the roles and responsibilities of
team members& team leaders& and team recorders.
;2 ommunication$
(o make team members clear about the priority of their tasks&
and receive regular feedback& team members must clearly and
honestly with each other. )iverse opinions be welcome and
conflicts be taken up positively.
<2 reati#ity$
(he team should value creative thinking& uni%ue solutions& and
new ideas2 and reward members who take reasonable risks to
make improvements. !f necessary& it should provide the training&
education& access to books and films& and field trips to stimulate
new thinking.
(he creative development of new products& new technologies&
new services& or new organiational structures is possible
because teams may have variety of skills needed for successful
innovation.
(eam members can uncover each other9s flaws and balance each
other9s strengths and weaknesses. ,anagers should empower the
team and make it accountable for the innovation process.
=2 oordination$
(eams should understand the concept of internal customer to
whom they provide a product or a service. (eam efforts need to
be coordinated by a central leadership team that assists the
groups to obtain what they need for success.
(he cross0 functional and multi0department teams must work
together effectively. (he organiation should develop a customer0
focused and process0focused orientation and move away from
traditional departmental thinking.
Spend time and attention on each of these eight tips to ensure
your work teams contribute most effectively to your business
success. @our team members would love you& your business will
see new heights& and empowered people will AownB and be
responsible to their work processes
Informal !roup$
!n every organisation along with formal groups there exists
informal groups which emerge naturally due to the response and
common interests of the members who can easily identify with
the goals or independent activities of the informal groups.
Sometimes the efforts may be driven by a common goal that may
compliment or work against the goals of the formal group. +n
informal group can be defined as a group that evolves
spontaneously& not shown in the organiation9s structure& with
the objective of fulfilling personal and social need of its
members.
Informal !roup >s Informal ?rganisation$
+n informal group is a voluntary group of people casually
ac%uainted with each other for their own personal fulfillment
because they have some common and shared backgrounds&
characteristics and concerns "values ' interests ' hobbies '
friendship#.
Whilst it is easy to differentiate between a formal group and a
formal organisation& the differences between informal group and
informal organisation tend to be difficult. (he difference between
informal organiation and informal group is that informal
organisation is a larger entity consisting of all informal groups in
an organiation.
!nformal 8rganisationC Sigma !nformal Groups7
+n informal group is the nucleus of informal organiation. When
an informal group adopts a formally defined structure and group
processes& it no longer remains an informal group.
Informal !roup #s2 /ormal !roup$
(he two are different in very many ways.
haracteristics of Informal !roups$
12 reation$
!t is not created by the organisation but springs up
spontaneously.
32 Satisfaction of Needs$
(he needs which cannot be satisfied within the framework of
formal organisation& like social and psychological needs of
people& such people create informal groups.
52 >oluntary (embership$
>obody is compelled to join an informal organiation.
92 (ulti@!roup (embership$
+ member of an informal group can be a member of more than
one informal group to pursue different interests.
:2 Systems and Processes$
,embers of such groups follow their own norms& leadership&
communication& etc. to remain cohesive. (he communication
channels are referred to as ?Grapevine9. Grapevine i.e.& informal
channel runs very fast to spread the information across the
organiation.
;2 Aeadership$
1very informal group has a leader& selected by the group& and
who is capable of helping to realie their goals. (he moment it is
realied that the leader is incapable& "s# he is replaced with a new
leader.
Reasons for the .mergence of Informal !roups$
;. People working together may come together.
-. People with similar values& beliefs& attitudes& and interests
often feel attraction to come together.
D. >eed satisfaction $ to belong& to associate& etc.
E. 4emoval of monotony of routine tasks $ to get rid of
monotony and psychological fatigue& job0related boredom and
frustration provides an opportunity to behave in a natural and
relaxed manner.
F. Promotion of other interests and pursuit of goals $ People join
4otary or :ions Club to expand their contacts which may help
them to satisfy their personal goals.
6enefits of Informal !roups$
0he benefits of an informal group are as follows$
;. =lending with formal group allows people to work for the
formal organisation.
-. !nformal work group lightens the workload for the formal
manager.
D. =rings satisfaction and stability to the organisation as a whole.
E. Provides a useful channel of communication.
F. 1ncourages managers to plan and act more carefully.
Aimitations of Informal !roups$
0he limitations are as follows$
;. 4esistance to Change because they do not want to deviate from
existing norms and learn new ways.
-. !nformal group provides most fertile ground for 4umour
,ongering because of maliciousness& lack of proper
communication systems and processes and ambiguous
circumstances.
D. Since a member of an informal group is also a member of a
formal group& at times it creates role conflict.
E. Creativity of group member "s# is restricted because of strong
pressure for conformity applied by the group.
Related Articles$
;. Group )ynamics7 (ypes& 3ormation of Groups and Group
Cohesiveness
-. Group )ynamics7 ,eaning and !mportance of Group
)ynamism
D. Conflict ,anagement 7 Characteristics& (ypes& Stages&
Causes and other )etails
E. 5uman 4elations7 (op G !mportance of 5uman 4elations $
1xplainedH
F. Group Conflicts7 F Ways of 4esolving Group Conflicts $
)iscussedH
I. (eam work7 D (ypes of (eams for =usiness )evelopment
"Winning (eams Js :osing (eams#
.. F 3actors +ffecting (eam 1ffectiveness !n +n 8rganisation
G. . ,ain Characteristics of !nformal 8rganisation
K. ;D !mportant Characteristics of Secondary Group in
Sociology
;<. )ifferences between Primary and Secondary Group ".GG
Words#
group dynamics
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