Biology Unit 2 Notes

Topic 4: Biodiversity and natural resources

Plant structure
Animal cell Plant Cell
Cell surface membrane only no cell wall Cellulose cell wall surrounds the cell
Contains lysosomes and centrioles Does not contain lysosomes or centrioles
Glycogen granules used for storage Starch grains used for storage
No chloroplasts Chloroplasts present
Sometimes vacuole present and they are
small and scattered
Large vacuole filled with sap


Ultra structure of plant cells:
o Plasmodesmata
Channels in the cell walls that link adjacent
cells together allow the transport of
substances and communication between
cells


o Pits
Regions where cell wall is thin. Arranged in
pairs, and allow for the transport of substances between cells

o Chloroplasts
Small, flattened structure surrounded by a double
membrane and is the site of photosynthesis.
Grana stacked up thylakoid
Stroma matrix which contains enzymes needed
for photosynthesis

o Amyloplasts
Contains starch granules, and can convert it to glucose to release when plant requires
it for respiration

o Vacuole and tonoplast
Vacuole contains cell sap made up of water, enzymes, minerals and waste products.
Keeps the cell turgid stores water and prevents plant from wilting
The tonoplast is the membrane that surrounds the vacuole controls what enters and
leaves it.

Cellulose and starch
o Starch: the main energy storage material in plants.
1. Mixture of two polysaccharides of alpha glucose amylose and amylopectin
o Amylose: long, unbranched chain of alpha glucose. Has a coiled structure,
which makes it compact and good for storage
o Amylopectin: long, branched chain
o of alpha glucose. The side branches allow for the enzymes to break it down
quickly.
2. Starch is insoluble in water good for storage

o Cellulose: the major component of cell walls in plants
1. Long unbranched chains of beta glucose joined by glycosidic bonds
2. Straight chains.
3. Between 50 and 80 cellulose chains are joined together by many hydrogen
bonds to form strong threads microfibrils.
4. The strong threads provide structural support.
Plant cell wall:
o Made up of largely insoluble cellulose
o Gives plant its strength and support



o When the beta glucose join together, every other monomer unit is inverted so
bonding can take place
o The linking of b-glucose molecules means that the hydroxyl groups stick out on both
sides of the molecule. This means hydrogen bonds can form between the partially
positively charged hydrogen atoms of the hydroxyl groups and the partially
negatively charged oxygen atoms elsewhere in the molecule.
o This is known as cross-linking and holds neighboring chains firmly together.
o Between 50 and 80 cellulose chains are linked together by hydrogen bonds to form
strong threads - microfibrils.
o Cellulose microfibrils are laid down in layers held together by a matrix of
hemicelluloses and other short chain carbohydrates which act as a kind of glue

The plant wall consists of several layers:
Middle lamella:
o The is the outermost layer of the cell
o It is shared between two adjacent plant cells
o Made mostly of the polysaccharide pectin, and acts as an adhesive sticking together
adjacent plant cells
o Gives plant stability
Primary cell wall:
o Next to middle lamella
o Made up of randomly arranged cellulose microfibrils embedded in pectin and
hemicellulose.
Secondary cell wall:
o Innermost layer formed in some plants after the primary cell wall has fully grown
o Made up of neatly arranged cellulose microfibrils run parallel to each other
o Lignin (woody like substance) is often deposited in the secondary cell wall
lignification. This gives the plant extra tensile strength (only happens in some plants
such as trees which are made up of wood) makes it impermeable
o The microfibrils are held in pectin, hemicelluloses and sometimes lignin.






Plant
stems:
Sclerenchyma cells and xylem vessels:
Xylem vessels:
o Found throughout the plant, particularly
around centre of the stem
o Provides a passage for transportation of
water and dissolved mineral ions from the
root system to the leaves.
o Made of long, tube like structures formed
from dead cells, joined end to end.
o Found together in bundles.
Primary cell wall Secondary cell wall
o Have a hollow lumen (no cytoplasm) and have no end walls uninterrupted
tube
o Walls are thickened with lignin which helps to support and strengthen the
plant.
o Water and mineral ions move into and out of the vessels through pits in the
walls where there is no lignin
Sclerenchyma fibres:
o Provide support
o Made of bundles of dead cells, and also have hollow lumen and no end walls
o Have strong secondary walls which are thickened with lignin
o They develop as the plant gets older to support the increasing weight of the
plant

Uses of plant fibres and how they may contribute to sustainability:

o Plant fibres are made of long tubes of plant cells e.g. sclerenchyma cells and xylem
tissue that are very strong.
o 2 reasons:
1. The cell wall contains cellulose microfibrils in a net-like arrangement this
gives the plant fibres a lot of strength
2. Secondary thickening of cell walls is when a secondary cell wall grows. Its a
much thicker layer than the primary cell wall, and the cellulose microfibrils
and extra lignin make it very strong and rigid

o Plant fibres can be used to make ropes or fabrics like hemp.
o Making products from plant fibres is more sustainable than making them from oil.
This is because crops can be re-grown to maintain the supply for future generations,
and less fossil fuel will be used up.
o Products from plant fibres are also biodegradable, unlike most oil based plastics.
o Plants are easier to grow and extracting the plant fibres is easy compared to extracting
and processing oil. E.g. natural decomposers can be used to break down the material
around the fibres this is known as retting.

Starch:
o Found in all plants
o Some plastics can be made from plant-based materials like starch called
bioplastics
o Fuel can also be made from starch. E.g. bioethanol.
o This is more sustainable again, because crops can be re-grown and less fossil
fuel is used up.
Core practical measuring the tensile strength of plant fibres
o Tensile strength maximum load the fibre can take before it breaks.

1. Plant material - stinging nettles- should be left to soak in a bucket for a week
to make fibre extraction easier (retting). Or, celery can be used and should be
left in beaker of coloured water for fibres to be seen easily and pulled out.
2. Once fibres removed, measure lengths of fibres used (must all be the same
length) and then connect between two clamp stands
3. Gradually add mass in the middle until the fibre breaks, and record the mass.
4. Repeat the experiment with different samples of the same fibre to increase
reliability.
5. Must make sure other variables are constant temperature, size of each
individual mass used.
Safety precautions: wear goggles to protect eyes and make sure the area where
weights will fall is clear.
Importance of water and inorganic ions to plants
o Water is needed for photosynthesis, to maintain structural rigidity, transport
minerals and regulate temperature.
o Magnesium ions Needed for the production of chlorophyll. Deficiency results in
yellow areas developing and growth slows down
o Nitrate ions Needed for production of DNA, proteins and chlorophyll. Deficiency
results in stunted growth, poor seed and fruit production and leaves appear light
green/yellow.
o Calcium ions Important components of plant cell wall, and required for plant
growth. Deficiency results in leaves turning yellow and crinkly, and poor fruit
development.
Core practical: Investigating plant mineral deficiencies
Using Mexican hat plantlets making sure they are the same height.
1. 9 test tubes 9 different nutrient solutions. 2 used as a control: all nutrients present
and lacking all nutrients
2. Cover test tubes with black paper this prevents algae growing in test tubes which
will take up the nutrients.
3. Put the nutrient solutions into the test tubes and label each one. Solutions should be
filled to the top so that the roots will be completely submerged. Label each one.
4. Cover test tubes with foil so that solutions dont evaporate and to keep the plant stable
5. Pierce hole in the top of each one, and gently push the Mexican hat plantlets through
the holes so that it is in the solution below.
6. Put in test tube racks and on a windowsill so that leaves are exposed to sunlight and to
maximise photosynthesis.
7. Check and observe after one week to see effect of the nutrient deficiencies.
Drug testing and drugs from plants
William Withering and his digitalis soup:
o He was a scientist in the 1700s
o Discovered that an extract of foxglove plants could be used to treat dropsy (swelling
brought about by heart failure. The extract contained the drug Digitalis
o Withering made a chance observation, gave digitalis to patients and they were cured,
but some died due to the poisonous nature of foxgloves.
o As a result of this, he tested different versions of the remedy with different
concentrations of digitalis
o Found that dried, powdered form was the most effective.
o Through trial and error he discovered the right amount to give to the patient.
Modern drug testing protocols are more rigorous and controlled:
Must pass each stage of testing to go onto the next:
1. Computers are used to model the potential effects of a substance
2. Tested on human tissues in a lab
3. Tested on animals this sees the affects it has on an entire organism. Testes on
rats and mice and then rodents and non-rodents to compare to other animals.
4. CLINICAL TRIALS three phases
Phase 1: Drug tested on small group of healthy volunteers to find out whether
its a safe dosage and to see how the body reacts to the drug.
Phase 2: Drug tested on a larger group of patients with the disease to see how
well the drug actually works
Phase 3: The drug is compared to existing treatments hundreds or thousands of
patients. They are randomly split into two groups, one receives new treatment, and
other group receives existing treatment. This aims to see if the new drug is better
than existing drugs.
During phase 2, the patients are split into 2 groups, and one is assigned a placebo this
allows scientists to see if the drug actually works compared to a placebo.
Phase 2 and 3 double blind study design the doctors and patients dont know who has
been given the placebo or the drug, or in phase three the existing or new treatments. This
reduces bias.

Core practical - investigating antimicrobial properties of plants
Equipment: agar plate seeded with bacteria, plant material: e.g. garlic and mint, pestle and
mortar, 10cm^3 industrial denatured alcohol, sterile pipette, paper discs, sterile Petri dish,
sterile forceps, hazard tape, marker pen
1. Make plant extracts by crushing 3g of plant material with 10cm^3 alcohol and shake
occasionally for 10mins (must shake for long time to ensure there is enough active
ingredient)
2. Pipette 0.1cm^3 of the separate extracts onto sterile paper discs, and place on the
sterile Petri dish and allow it to dry. Two paper discs are controls: With water and
with nothing.
3. Label the agar plates with the different plant extracts and split into 4 sections, 1 for
each type of extract.
4. Place the discs into each quadrant of the agar plate and close and tape with hazard
tape.
5. Leave to incubate and observe zone of inhibitions.
Outcome: control discs completely covered with bacteria, and some plant extracts will have
larger inhibition zones than others which show they are more effective at lower
concentration.
Must make sure surfaces, and all equipment used is STERILE, otherwise unwanted microbes
will grow on the agar plates.

Adaptation and evolution:
Niche the role of an organism or species within its habitat, its way of life. Includes its
interactions with other living and non-living environment.
o Every species has its own unique niche, and a niche can only be occupied by one
species.
o If two species try to occupy same niche they will compete and then only one species
will be left.
Adaptations to niche:
Adaptations: features that increase an organisms chance of survival and reproduction
1. Anatomical: structural features of an organisms body/ body characteristics
e.g.: whales and seals have blubber which protects them and has many functions.
2. Physiological: processes inside an organisms body that increases its chance of
survival
e.g.: the mammalian diving reflex allows diving mammals to stay under water for
longer because their heart rate drops and the blood pumps less oxygen.
3. Behavioural: ways an organism acts
e.g.: penguins huddle together to stay warm, and birds of paradise have a special
dance when they want to mate.
Adaptations become more common by evolution:
Natural selection: one of the processes by which evolution occurs. It explains why living
organisms change over time to have the anatomy, functions and behaviour that they have
1. Individuals within a population show variation in their phenotypes and genotypes.
2. Predation, disease, and competition create a struggle for survival
3. Individuals that are better adapted have characteristics which are favourable and
give them an advantage and are more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on their
advantageous adaptations to offspring.
4. Over time, the number of individuals with the advantageous adaptations increases
5. Over generations, this leads to evolution as the favourable adaptations become more
common in the population.
Biodiversity and Endemism
Biodiversity: the variety of organisms in an area. This includes:
o Species diversity: number of different species and abundance of each species in an
area
o Genetic diversity: Variation of alleles within a species or population of species.
Conservation needed to help maintain biodiversity
Endemism species unique to a single place. Conservation of endemic species is very
important as they are the most vulnerable to extinction.
Measuring Species diversity:
1. Count number of different species in an area species richness. The higher the
number of different species, the greater the species richness. However, this gives no
indication of the abundance of each individual species.
2. Count the number of different species AND the number of individuals in each species.
Then use a biodiversity index e.g. Simpsons Index of Diversity to calculate the
species diversity. This way takes into account abundance of each species.
Samples can be taken to make estimates on whole habitat based on the sample.
1. Choose a random area within habitat to sample random reduces bias in results.
2. Sampling techniques:
o Plants use a quadrat (a frame placed on ground)
o Flying insects sweepnet
o Ground insects pitfall trap
o Aquatic animals net
o Then count the number of species in the sample that youve got.
3. Repeat, and take as many samples as possible, as it will give a better indication of the
whole habitat.
4. Use results to estimate total number of individuals or total number of different species
(species richness)
5. When sampling different habitats and comparing, the same sampling technique should
be used.
Measuring Genetic Diversity:
o Individuals of the same species are different because they have different alleles
o Genetic diversity is the variety of alleles in the gene pool of a species (or population).
Gene pools are the complete set of alleles in a species or population
o The greater the variety of alleles, the greater the genetic diversity.
o You can measure genetic diversity by looking at:
Phenotypes observable characteristic of an organism:
o Because different alleles code for slightly different versions of the same
characteristics, by looking at the different phenotypes in a population of a species,
you can get an idea of the diversity of alleles.
o The larger the number of different observable phenotypes, the greater the genetic
diversity
Genotype:
o Analyzing an organisms DNA.
o Different alleles have different orders of base pairs in DNA
o You can measure the number of different alleles a species has for one characteristic to
see how genetically diverse the species is. The larger the number of different alleles
the greater the genetic diversity.

Conservation of biodiversity:
o If a species becomes extinct, or there is a loss in genetic diversity, this causes an
overall reduction in global biodiversity
o There are many endangered species in the world at risk of extinction because of a low
population or a threatened habitat.
o Conservation involves the protection and management of endangered species
o Zoos and seedbanks help to conserve endangered species and genetic diversity.
Seedbanks:
o Store of lots of seeds from many different species of plants
o Conserve biodiversity by storing seeds of endangered plants
o If the plants become extinct in the wild, the seeds can be used to grow new plants
o They also help to conserve genetic diversity. For some plants they store a range of
seeds from plants with different characteristics, hence different alleles. E.g. for tall
and short sunflowers.
o The seeds must be stored in cool, dry conditions in order for them to be stored for a
long time
o The seeds must be tested for viability (ability to grow into a plant). The seeds are
planted, grown, and new seeds are harvested and returned to storage.
Advantages:
o Cheaper to store seeds than fully grown plants
o More seeds can be stored than grown plants, because they take up less space
o Less labour is required to look after seeds than plants
o Can be stored anywhere, as long as it is cool and dry, whereas plants would need
conditions for their original habitat
o Seeds are less likely to be damaged by disease, natural disaster, or vandalism
Disadvantages:
o Testing for viability can be expensive and time consuming
o Can be difficult to collect seeds
o Expensive to store all seeds and regularly test for viability.
Zoos:
Have captive breeding programmes to help endangered species:
1. Involves breeding animals in controlled environments
2. Endangered or extinct species in the wild can be bred together in zoos to help
increase their numbers e.g. pandas are bred in captivity because in the wild their
numbers are very low.
3. However, some animals can have problems breeding outside their natural habitat,
which can be hard to recreate in a zoo. Many people also think it is cruel to keep
animals in captivity even if it is done to prevent extinction.

Reintroduction of plants and animals to the wild:
o Can contribute to restoring habitats that have been lost, e.g. due to deforestation
o However, reintroducing organisms can bring new diseases to habitats, and
reintroduced animals may not behave as they would if they were raised in the wild
e.g. problems finding food or communicating with wild members of their species.
Education and scientific research:
o Educating people about endangered species and reduced biodiversity raises public
awareness and interest in conservation of biodiversity.
o Zoos allow people to get close to organisms
o Seedbanks provide training and set up local seedbanks all around the world e.g. the
millennium seed bank project aims to conserve seeds in their original country.
o Scientists can study how plant species can be successfully grown from seeds, which is
useful for reintroducing them to the wild.
o Research in zoos increases knowledge about the behaviour, physiology and nutritional
needs of animals which can contribute to conservation efforts in the wild.
o Zoos can carry out research that may not be possible in the wild e.g. nutritional and
reproductive studies
o However animals in captivity may act differently to those in the wild.