Introduction to Operational Amplifiers (M. LATINA) p.

1

Differential amplifiers
A differential (or difference) amplifier is a circuit
used for amplifying a voltage difference between
two input signals while rejecting signals that are
common to both inputs.

DC Analysis:

Loop 1:
V
BE
V
E
= 0
V
E
= V
BE
= 0.7V
and I
E1
= I
E2

since both currents combine in R
E
,
I
E1
= I
E2
= I
RE
/2
Loop 2:
I
RE
R
E
+ V
EE
+ V
E
= 0


I
RE
=

based on approximation I
C
I
E

then I
C1
= I
C2
= I
RE
/2
therefore, V
C1
= V
C2
= V
CC
I
C1
R
C1

Modes of Signal Operation:
Single-ended input input signal is applied to
either input with the other input connected to
ground
Differential or double-ended input two
opposite polarity input signals are applied.
Common-mode input same signal is applied to
both inputs.

Single-ended input:



Introduction to Operational Amplifiers (M. LATINA) p.2

Differential input:


Common-mode input:

Common-mode signal:
signal that drives both inputs of a
differential amplifierequally.
these are interference, static and other
kinds of undesirable signals picked-up by the
circuit.

Common Mode Rejection Ratio(CMRR)
measure of an amplifiers ability to reject
common-mode signals.

Example: A certain differential amplifier has a
differential voltage gain of 2000 and a common-
mode gain of 0.2. Determine the CMRR and
express in dB.

Differential Gain:

v
in(d)
= v
in1
v
in2

From Loop 1:
v
in1
i
e1
r
e
(i
e1
+ i
e2
)R
E
= 0
v
in1
= i
e1
(r
e
+ R
E
) + i
e2
R
E
(1)
v
in2
i
e2
r
e
(i
e1
+ i
e2
)R
E
= 0
v
in2
= i
e2
(r
e
+ R
E
) + i
e1
R
E
(2)
express in terms of the current:

from (2) i
e2
=

substitutei
e2
in equation 1:

v
in1
= i
e1
(r
e
+ R
E
) +R
E






Introduction to Operational Amplifiers (M. LATINA) p.3

which makes

i
e1
=

do the same to compute for i
e2


i
e2
=

at the output side:
v
out(d)
= v
c1
v
c2

= R
C
(i
c1
i
c2
)
= R
C
(i
e1
i
e2
)

= R
C






Simplify to obtain

A
v(d)
= =

*true for balanced output
(v
out(d)
= v
c1
v
c2
)

A
v(d)
= =

*true for unbalanced output
(v
c1
or v
c2
only)

Common-mode gain:

for common-mode, emitter currents i
e1
= i
e2

since the two transistors are matched, only one-
half of the circuit may be considered:

Example: For the circuit shown, calculate:
(a) I
CQ
and V
CEQ

(b) A
v(d)
and A
cm

(c) CMRR
Solution:

V
E
= 0.7V

I
RE
= = = 1.378mA

I
E
= I
RE
/2 = 0.689mA = I
CQ

V
CQ
= V
CC
I
CQ
R
C
= 9.726V
V
CEQ
= V
CQ
V
EQ
= 9.726 (0.7) = 10.426V
r
e
= 25mV/I
E
= 36.28O

A
v(d)
= = 90.95

A
cm
= = 0.2

CMRR = 90.95/0.2 455










V
EE
+V
E
2 0.7
R
E
8.2k

Introduction to Operational Amplifiers (M. LATINA) p.4

The operational Amplifier(Op-amp)
The operational amplifier is a direct coupled high
gain amplifier and is used to perform a wide variety
of linear as well as non-linear functions. This circuit
was originally used for carrying out mathematical
operations such as summation, differentiation, and
integration on input signals. Now, operational
amplifiers are used for functions other than
mathematical operations such as dc as well as ac
amplification, rectification, waveform generation,
filtration, non-linear waveshaping, etc.

Block diagram of an op-amp

Input stage-this stage provides most of the voltage
gain and also establishes the input resistance of the
OPAMP.
Intermediate stage -another differential amplifier
which is driven by the output of the first stage.
Level shifting circuit-used to shift the dc level at the
output downward to zero with respect to ground.
Output stage -increases the output voltage swing and
raise the current supplying capability of the OPAMP,
also provides low output resistance.

Symbols and Terminals
The standard operational amplifier symbol is shown
below. It has two input terminals, the inverting input (-)
and the non-inverting input (+), and one output
terminal. The typical op-amp operates with two dc
supply voltages, one positive and the other negative.

The ideal op-amp characteristics:

- An ideal op-amp draws no currents at the
input I
1
=I
2
=0, thus its impedance is infinite.
Any source can drive it and there is no
loading on the driver stage.
- The gain of an ideal op-amp is infinite,
hence the differential input v
d
=v
1
-v
2
is
essentially zero for the finite output voltage
Vo.
- The output voltage Vo is independent of the
current drawn from the output terminals.
Thus, its output impedance is zero and
hence output can drive an infinite number
of other circuits.
- Infinite bandwidth - amplifies signals from
0 to a Hertz without attenuation.






Introduction to Operational Amplifiers (M. LATINA) p.5

The practical op-amp:

1. Very high voltage gain (~10
5
)
2. Very high input impedance (~2MW)
3. Very low output impedance (~75W)
4. Wide bandwidth (0 1MHz)
5. Very high differential gain (~80dB)
6. Large CMRR (~80dB)

Op-amp Parameters:
Input Bias Current (I
BIAS
)
The input bias current is the dc current required by
the inputs of the amplifier to properly operate the
first stage. By definition, the input bias current is
the average of input currents and is calculated as
follows:


Input Offset Current (I
OS
)
Ideally, the two input bias currents are equal, and
thus their difference is zero. In a practical op-amp,
however, the bias currents are not exactly equal.

The input offset current, I
os
, is the difference of the
input bias currents expressed as an absolute value.



Input Offset Voltage (V
OS
)
It is desired that the dc voltage at the output is
zero with no input voltage. But because of the
unequal amount of current drawn by the input
transistors of the first differential amplifier due to
unbalance in the circuit, the output voltage will not
become zero. Input offset voltage is the voltage
required between the inputs to force the
differential output to zero volts. Typical values are
in the range of 2mV or less.


The error created by I
OS
is amplified by the gain AV
of the op-amp and appears in the op-amp as:


Input Offset Voltage Drift with Temperature
The input offset voltage drift is a parameter related
to V
OS
that specifies how much change occurs in
the input offset voltage for each degree change in
temperature.
V
OS(NEW)
= V
OS
+ (voltage drift)(temp
2
-temp
1
)
OS 1 2
I I I =
Introduction to Operational Amplifiers (M. LATINA) p.6

Input Impedance
Differential input impedance is the total resistance
between the inverting and the non-inverting
inputs. It is measured by determining the change in
bias current for a given change in differential input
voltage.

Common-mode input impedance is the resistance
between each input and ground and is measured
by determining the change in bias current for a
given change in common-mode input voltage.

Output Impedance
The output impedance is the resistance viewed
from the output terminal of the op-amp.


Input Voltage Range
All op-amps have limitations on the range of
voltages over which they will operate. The input
voltage range is the range of input voltages which,
when applied to both inputs will not cause clipping
or other output distortion.

Maximum Output Voltage Swing (V
O(pp)
)
The output voltage of an op-amp cannot be higher
than the positive dc power supply voltage (+V
DC
),
and cannot be lower than the negative dc power
supply voltage(-V
DC
). V
O(pp)
also varies with the load
connected and increases directly with load
resistance.

Open-Loop Voltage Gain, A
ol

The open-loop voltage gain of an op-amp is the
internal voltage gain of the device and represents
the ratio of output voltage to input voltage when
there are no external components. The open-loop
voltage gain is set entirely by the internal design.
Open-loop voltage gain can range up to 200,000
and is not a well-controlled parameter. Data sheets
often refer to the open-loop voltage gain as the
large-signal voltage gain.

Common-mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
The CMRR is a measure of an op-amps ability to
reject common-mode signals. A good op-amp
should have a very high value of CMRR, this
enables the op-amp to virtually eliminate
interference signals from the output.


( )
CMRR
v d
ol
cm cm
A
A
A A
= =
Introduction to Operational Amplifiers (M. LATINA) p.7

Slew Rate (SR)
The slew rate of an op-amp is the maximum rate of
change of the output voltage in response to a step
input voltage. It is dependent upon the high-
frequency response of the amplifier stages within
the op-amp.

The slew rate is measured using a circuit given
below:

-the output voltage cannot change instantaneously
when a high frequency, large amplitude signal is
applied at the input side.

Example: What is the slew rate for the output
signal shown in response to a step input?

V
out
= +V
max
(V
max
) = +10 (10) = 20V


Bandwidth
Ideally, an op-amp should have infinite bandwidth.
This means the gain of an op-amp must remain the
same for all frequencies from 0 to infinite. Practical
op-amps however decreases its gain at higher
frequencies. The dependence of gain on frequency
is due primarily to the presence of capacitive
component in the equivalent circuit of the op-amp.

Open-loop Configuration:
Since the inherent open-loop gain of a typical op-
amp is very high, usually > 100,000 or more, an
extremely small difference in the two input
voltages drives the op-amp into its saturated
output states.
V
in
A
ol
= (1mV)(100,000) = 100V


Negative Feedback:
Negative feedback is the process whereby a
portion of the output voltage of an amplifier is
returned to the input with a phase angle that
opposes (or subtracts from) the input signal. This
method helps stabilize the gain and reduce
distortion. It can also increase the input resistance.

0.8V/s
Introduction to Operational Amplifiers (M. LATINA) p.8


V
out
= A
OL
(V
in
V
f
)
but V
f
= |V
out

substituting
V
out
= A
OL
(V
in
|V
out
)
V
out
(1 + |) = A
OL
V
in


A
CL
= =

Closed-loop voltage gain (A
CL
) is the voltage gain of
an op-amp with negative feedback.

Advantages of Negative Feedback:
1. Decreased voltage gain
2. Decreased output impedance
3. Increased/decreased input impedance
depending on circuit
4. Decreased distortion
5. Increased bandwidth

Concept of Virtual ground:
When finding the gain, assume there is
infinite impedance at the input (i.e.
between the inverting and non-inverting
inputs). Infinite input impedance implies
zero current at the input.
If there is no current at the input
impedance, there is no voltage drop
between the inverting and non-inverting
inputs. Thus, the voltage at the inverting
input is zero. The zero at the inverting input
is referred to as virtual ground.




The Inverting Amplifier
The inverting amplifier has the output fed back to
the inverting input for gain control. The gain for the
inverting op-amp can be determined by the
equation: V
1
= V
2
= 0







I
1
= I
f




Closed-loop voltage gain (A
CL
) is determined by
external component values.



(I)
f
cl
i
R
A
R
=

V
in

V
f

Introduction to Operational Amplifiers (M. LATINA) p.9

The Non-inverting Amplifier:
The closed loop gain for a non-inverting amplifier
can be determined by the formula below.
V
1
= V
2
= V
in


I
1
+ I
f
= 0











The Voltage Follower:

The voltage-follower amplifier configuration has
all of the output signal fed back to the inverting
input. The voltage gain is 1. This makes it useful as
a buffer amp since it has high input impedance and
low output impedance.



Effects of Negative Feedback on Open-loop Gain:


Input impedance of the non-inverting amplifier:
V
in
= V
d
+ V
f

Substituting |V
out
for V
f

V
in
= V
d
+ |V
out

Since V
out
A
ol
V
d

V
in
= V
d
+ A
ol
|V
d

= V
d
(1 + A
ol
|)
Substituting I
in
Z
in
for V
d

V
in
= I
in
Z
in
(1 + A
ol
|)
Where Z
in
is the open-loop impedance
V
in
/I
in
= Z
in
(1 + A
ol
|)
V
in
/I
in
is the overall input impedance of the closed-
loop nonvinerting configuration:
Z
in(NI)
= (1 + A
ol
|)Z
in


Output impedance for the non-inverting amplifier:
V
out
= A
ol
V
d
Z
out
I
out

butV
d
= V
in
V
f

by assuming A
ol
V
d
>>Z
out
I
out

thenV
out
A
ol
(V
in
V
f
)
substituting |V
out
for V
f

V
out
A
ol
(V
in
|V
out
)
V
out
A
ol
V
in
A
ol
|V
out

A
ol
V
in
V
out
+ A
ol
|V
out

( + A
ol
|) V
out

since output impedance Z
out(NI)
= V
out
/I
out

A
ol
V
in
(+A
ol
|) I
out
Z
out(NI)

0
1 1
=

+
f
out
i
R
V V
R
V
( ) 0 = +
out in i f in
V V R R V
in
i
f
in
f i
out
out i f i in
V
R
R
V
R
R R
V
V R R R V
+ =
+
=
= +
) 1 (
) (
(NI)
1
f
cl
i
R
A
R
= +


V
in
V
in

Introduction to Operational Amplifiers (M. LATINA) p.10

dividing both sides by I
out
:
A
ol
V
in
/I
out
(+A
ol
|) Z
out(NI)
A
ol
V
in
/I
out
(+A
ol
|) Z
out(NI)

sinceA
ol
V
in
= V
out
and V
out
/I
out
=Z
out

then
Z
out
= (1+A
ol
|) Z
out(NI)

thus,


Example:What are the input and output
resistances and the gain of the non-inverting
amplifier? Assume the op amp has A
ol
= 100,000,
Z
in
= 2 MO, and Z
out
= 75 O.


| = 1/25 = 0.04



Input impedance for the inverting amplifier:
Recall that negative feedback forces the inverting
input to be near ac ground for the inverting
amplifier. For this reason, the input impedance of
the inverting amplifier is equal to just the input
resistor, R
i
. That is, Z
in(I)
= R
i
.

Output impedance for the inverting amplifier:
The equation for the output impedance of the
inverting amplifier is essentially the same as the
non-inverting amplifier:



Example: What is the input impedance and the
gain of the inverting amplifier? Assume the op-amp
has A
ol
= 100,000, Z
in
= 2 MO, and Z
out
= 75 O.


| = 1/24 = 0.0417



25
8GO
0.019O
24
0.018O
Introduction to Operational Amplifiers (M. LATINA) p.11

Voltage Follower Input and Output impedance:
The voltage-follower is a special case of the non-
inverting amplifier in which A
cl
= 1. The input
impedance is increased by negative feedback and
the output impedance is decreased by negative
feedback. This makes it an ideal circuit for
interfacing a high-resistance source with a low
resistance load.
Z
in(NI)
= (1 + A
ol
B)Z
in


Bias Current Compensation:
Effect of an Input Bias Current
Ideally, if the input voltage is zero, there should be
zero current coming into the inverting input of the
op-amp. However, there is a small bias current, I
1
,
that goes through R
f
.
This current creates a voltage at the output equal
to I
1
R
f
known as the error voltage.



If we look at the voltage follower circuit shown, it is
easy to see that the output error voltage is I
1
R
s
.
Bias current compensation in a voltage-follower


Bias current compensation in the non-inverting and
inverting configurations


Effect of Input Offset Voltage

The output voltage of an op-amp should be zero
when the differential input is zero. However, there
is always a small output error voltage present
whose value typically ranges from microvolt to
millivolts. This is due to unavoidable imbalances
within the internal op-amp transistors aside from
the bias currents previously discussed.
V
OUT(error)
= A
cl
V
IO

Since A
cl
for the voltage follower is 1,
V
OUT(error)
= V
IO


Introduction to Operational Amplifiers (M. LATINA) p.12

Input Offset Voltage Compensation


Op-amp Frequency Response
- The bandwidth of an AC Amplifier is the
frequency range between the points where the
gain is 3dB less than the midrange gain.
In general, the bandwidth equals the upper
critical frequency (f
CU
) minus the lower critical
frequency (f
CL
).
Since f
CL
for an op-amp is zero, the bandwidth is
simply equal to the upper critical frequency.
BW = fc
(OL)



Unity Gain Bandwidth
In the bode plot of the Open-loop amplifier, the
gain steadily decreases to a point where it is equal
to 1 (0 dB).
The value of the frequency at which this unity
gain occurs is the unity gain bandwidth.

Gain vs. Frequency Limitations
The internal RC circuit of an op-amp limits the gain
at frequencies higher than the cutoff frequency.
The gain of an open-loop op-amp can be
determined at any frequency by the formula
below:


Example: Determine A
ol
at f = 10 Hz if f
c(ol)
= 100 Hz
and A
ol(mid)
= 100,000.


Phase Shift
An RC Network causes a propagation delay from
input to output, thus creating a phase shift
between the input signal and the output signal.
An RC lag (low pass) network such as found in an
op-amp stage causes the output signal voltage to
lag the input.


Phase Shift (u) is expressed as:
u = -tan
-1
(f/f
C
)
The negative sign indicates that the output
lags the input.
The math expression shows that the phase
shift increases with frequency and
Introduction to Operational Amplifiers (M. LATINA) p.13

approaches -90 as f becomes much greater
than f
C
.

Example. Calculate the phase shift for an RC lag
circuit if f = 1000 Hz. Assume f
c
= 100 Hz.
Solution:



For cascaded stages:




Example: A certain op-amp has three internal
amplifier stages with the following gains and
critical frequencies:
Stage 1: A
v1
= 40dB ,f
c1
= 2000Hz
Stage 2: A
v2
= 32dB ,f
c2
= 40kHz
Stage 3: A
v3
= 20dB ,f
c3
= 150kHz
Determine the open-loop midrange gain in decibels
and the total phase lag when f = f
cl
.

Closed-Loop Response:
Op-amps are normally used in a closed-loop
configuration with negative feedback in order to
achieve precise control of the gain and the
bandwidth.
The closed-loop critical frequency of an op-amp is:
f
C(CL)
= f
C(OL)
( 1 + |A
(mid)
)
The bandwidth of a closed loop amplifier is:
BW
(CL)
= BW
(OL)
( 1 + |A
(mid)
)





Introduction to Operational Amplifiers (M. LATINA) p.14

Closed-Loop vs Open-loop Response


Gain-Bandwidth Product
An increase in closed loop gain causes a decrease
in the bandwidth and vice versa, such that product
of gain and bandwidth is constant.
Condition is true as long as the roll-off rate is fixed
at -20dB/decade.
The gain bandwidth product is always equal to
the frequency at which the op-amps open loop
gain is unity (unity gain bandwidth).
A
C
(
OL
) f
OL
= A
C
(
CL
) f
CL
= unity gain bandwidth

Example.Determine the BW of the amplifier below.
The op-amp has open-loop gain of 100dB and a
unity-gain bandwidth of 3MHz.




Positive Feedback
When the signal fed back from output to input is in
phase with the input signal, a positive feedback
condition exists and the amplifier can oscillate.
Oscillation is an unwanted voltage swing on the
output when there is no signal present on the
input.