LIGHTNING AND LIGHTNING OVER VOLTAGES IN POWER SYSTEMS

Prof.G.R.Nagabhusliana
1.0The Phenomenon of Lightning
Lightning has been one of the nature's most spectacular and awesome phenomenon. The physics
of the phenomenon of lightning has evoked very considerable interest from a long time. owever!
the currently accepted theory of is bound to be of great interest as it acts as a window to peep in
at the machinations of nature and the purpose behind. This chapter will therefore! be devoted to a
brief study of the physics of lightning "lements of the mechanism by which lightning over voltages
are created on transmission lines will also be briefly! discussed.
1.1 Origin of lightning:
The phenomenon of lightning is now generally! accepted to be means of keeping in balance the
'global electrical system#. The global electric system consists mainly of the lower ionosphere $that
layer of atmosphere lying in the height range of %& to '% (m) and the earth surface forming a
capacitor with the air between them acting as an imperfect dielectric. The lower ionosphere and
the earth surface are! relatively speaking! highly conductive. *t is estimated that the potential
difference between these capacitor terminals is more or less steady at about +&& k, the earth
being negative and the ionosphere positive. The charge density at earth's surface is around -. - .
-&
/0
c1m
2
. The current transfer between the earth's surface and the ionosphere is around -%&& 3 in
fair weather. The current density at the earth's surface is estimated at + . -&
/-2
3mps1m
2
. These
figures are! average values and have been arrived at using measurements of air conductivity and
potential gradients. The steady electric field at the earth's surface is about +,1cm. *t is easy to
infer from the potential difference and current values that the resistance' of the bulk of the
atmosphere between the lower ionosphere and earth is 2&& ohms.
The steady leakage of this global capacitor would load to a fall in the potential difference between
the plates. Lightning is nature's device of restoring the potential difference of the global capacitor.
4n the average! therefore! the lightning must cause a charge retransfer to maintain the potential
difference at about +&& k,. 5easurements have shown that active lightning involves on the
average a charge of 2& 6 over -& sec! which means a current of 23. Therefore! to balance the
leakage of -%&&3! there must be out '&& to 7&& active thunderstorms every instant. 8ata indicate
that about 2&&& thunder storms arc in e.istence continually. *n few of the above! it must be
appreciated that a lightning discharge must transfer to earth negative charges. This is mentioned
hero to emphasise that the idea that a cloud. e.isting between the plates of a capacitor! must be
charged as per the laws! of induction is wrong. Thus the lower and of the cloud will be negatively
charged which is also the polarity of the earth surface. The lightning current could therefore be
negative in polarity.
*f! however ! events were to take place which increases the potential difference between the earth
and ionosphere then thunder/storms actively may be e.pected to result in $a) lower end of the
cloud be positively.! charged and $b)) the lightning current being positive.
Positive lightning currents have also been measured but are relatively rare.
1.2. Mechanism of charge generating in thunder clouds:
There have been many theories to e.plain the generation and separation of charges in thunder
clouds. 3mongst the earlier ones those due to 6. T.R. 9ilson
2
and :'impson
+
were the most
plausible. owever! the theory proposed by 5ason
;
has received most credence recently.
Reynolds at al
%
have proposed a slightly different mechanism which is also appears to be
considerably involved in the actual generation and separation of charged particles in thunder
clouds! the last two will be discussed here in some detail.
Thunder clouds develop in a region - and 2 km above ground and may e.tend to about -2 to -;
kin above grounds. The lateral dimensions could e.tend to several kilometers. The thunder cloud
formation is aided by air currents and moisture. <urther a rather specific temperature! range is
also re=uired.
The air current. controlled by the temperature gradient! moves upwards carrying moisture water
droplets. The temperature reaches & to about ; (m. 3bove ground and reaches about %&
&
6 at -2
km above ground. owever. the water particles do not free>e as soon as they reach regions of &
&
6. This is because water droplets can free>e above /;&
&
6 only on particles which act as solid
sites on which the crystalline ice patters can develop and grow. :uch solid sites are also known as
'nuclei'. The larger the number of nuclei present! the higher the temperature $relative to ;&
o
6) at
which ice crystals can grow. The water droplets in thunder clouds have been found to have
enough nuclei to have an effective free>ing temperature in the range of /+% to /;&
&
6. Thus the
water droplets in a thunder cloud drawn up in air current get super cooled and free>ing occurs!
over a range of heights and temperatures. 9hen such free>ing the crystals grow in time to such
masses that! he buoyancy is overcome by gravitational forces and large ?hailstones' start moving
downwards. Thus the thunder cloud comprises of super cooled water droplets mobs upwards and
large hailstones moving downwards.
Mason's Theory
When the upward moving super cooled droplets impact on a much cooler hailstone, it
freezes partially, that is to say, the outer layer freezes forming a shell containing water
inside. When the process of cooling extends to the warmer water in the core, it expands
there by splintering and spraying the frozen ice shell. The splinters being fne in size are
carried upwards thus taking a net positive charge, to the upper regions with it an equivalent
negative charge thus making the lower regions of the cloud negatively charged. ason
explained why the splinters of the ice shall carry only positive charges as follows! Water
being, ionic has concentration of "# and $"%ions. The ion density depend heavily on
temperature. Thus if we have a slab whose upper and lower faces are at temperature &'
and &(, &') &( there, will be a higher concentration of ions in the lower region. however,
since "
#
ions being lighter, di*use much faster all over the volume. Thus the lower portion,
i.e. the waist portion will have a net negative charge density and consequently the upper
portion, i.e. the cooler region will have a net positive charge density. +ow going back to the
freezing of water droplets, it must be appreciated that the outer shall coming into contact
with the hailstone will be cooler ,relative to its core- and therefore acquires a net positive
charge. When the shell splinters, the splinters carry away with them the net positive
charge.
Theory of Reynolds at al:
Reynolds at. 3l! based on results of e.perimental investigations said that hail pellet gets charged
negatively when impinged by warmer ice crystals. 9hen the temperature conditions reversed! the
charging polarity also reverses. owever. the e.tent of charging and conse=uently the rate of
charge generation was found incompatible with practical observations relating to thunder clouds.
*t is! however! beyond doubt! that this phenomenon is also occurring in thunder clouds.
Rate of Charging of Thunder Clouds:
(
5ason
;
considered thunder cloud as originally consisting of a uniform mi.ture of positive and
negative ions. The two charges separates this vertically. *f denotes a factor dependent on the
conductivity of the medium! there would be a resistive leakage due to the electric field built up
and this must also be taken into account. Therefore! if p is the volume charge density! and " is the
electric field intensity! the rate of growth of the field " is given by!
dE @" = pv ///////////////// $-)
d t
where , is the ,elocitv of separation
solving for "! we get " A

v

-

e
t
////////////// $2)
The time constant for the generation of this field is
-

.The above derivation assumes the

initial condition. " A & at tA & i. e! at t A &! there is no charge separation.
Let Bs A :eparated charge. and Bc! A Generated charge
Then we have
E
Q
A
s
=

////////////////////////// +
and =
Q
Ah
G
///////////////////////////// / //// $; )
where h height of the charged region by substitution in $-) we get
Q
Q h
v e
M
v e
G
G
t t
=

$ ) $ ) - -

where 5 A BG! h A electric moment of the thunder storm the average values observed for thunder
clouds areC
time constant A
-

A2& :
"lectric moment 5 A --& c (m and time for appearance of the first lightning
6lash T A 2& :
The values of v appear to be in the range of -& to 2& m1s. :ubstituting these values we get
Q
v
C C C for v m s
G
= = =
2&&&& 2&&&&
2&
-&&& 2& 1
6alculations using 5ason's theory indicate that the ma.imum charge transfer of + . -&
/+
B e.su.
per cm
2
of contacting surface for a contact period of -1-&& :
The theory of Reynolds et al Dcave a value of % .-&
/0
e.s.u. per crystal impact for differential
temperature of%
&
6.
*t is seen that 5ason's values are much higher. 3lso their computations based on laboratory
e.periments indicate that their theoretical charge generation rate is =uite compatible with the
.
practically observed rate of generation of charge!. This therefore precludes theory of Reynolds at
as. the maEor process leading to generation of charges in thunder clouds.
1.3. Ball Lightning
Fefore going on to characteristics of lightning strokes. it is worth mentioning a freak
phenomenon of nature which is known as the 'Fall Lightning'. *ts main characteristics are as
followsC/
$i) *t is usually spherical in shape but occasionally ring roughnut shapes have also been observed.
The
ball is generally -&/2& cm in diameter but could be around a meter also.
$ii) *ts occurrence is Genera towards the end of an electric storm.
$iii) The colour ranges from black red to orange to blue. The brick red coloured balls have a
longer life compared to the blue coloured ones. The e.tinction may be silent or e.plosive or
simultaneous with a lightning stroke. Life ranges from several seconds to several minutes.
$iv) Fall lightning is often accompanied by humming! fluttering! cracking! hissing or si>>ling
sounds and leaves a small o>one. 3t times dertlike discharges may radiate from the ball.
$v) The ball e.hibits translator motion by rolling or sliding along metallic obEects. :uch as
telephone wires rail tracks or wire fences. The velocity is around 2 m1sec independent of wind
direction. The path is tortuous and it may also appear to bounce.
$vi) <errous obEects are! known to have been magnetised by hall lightning.
$vii) *t possesses sufficient energy to melt caves! boil away several pounds of water! causes
severe burr and set fires / The surface temperature is estimated to be around %&&&
&
6.
(apit>a postulated that the ball lightning comprises of plasma possessing their own fre=uency of
electromagnetic radiation which enables absorption of energy by radiation of the same fre=uency.
<or absorption of e.ternal energy the dimensions of the ball become critical of the absorbed wave
length would be +.G% times the diameter of the ball. 5easurements have shown that the energy
radiated by thunder storms $wave length +% to'& em) are compatible with the observed ball
diameters of -& to 2& cm.
9'atson also formulated a similar theory which differ from that of (apit>a in the theory of initial
formation of the ball.
Fall lightning have also been simulated in laboratories and may have considerable practical
applications.
Normal protective measures are totally useless against ball fights. Fut it is indeed fortunate that
ball lightnings are rare and have limited destructive capabilities. Therefore no special protective!
measures are necessary.
1.. The Lightning !tro"e #$irect !tro"e%
3s detailed in the previous sections! the thunder! cloud has a negative charge concentration
towards the earth. This in turn induces positive charges on the earth surface and specially on tall
earth obEectives like buildings! towers! trees! etc. when the charge concentration roaches levels to
cause the electrified intensity to e.ceed the break/down strength of air! negative charges proceed
towards earth from the cloud forming conducting channels. 4nce the channels proceeds some
distance! the field at the tip subsides and the travel is hindered till charge is fed into the channel to
/
create a field strength that can further cause conducts! channels by breakdown. Thus the initiation
of strokes takes place in 'stepsH
and the initial channel is therefore known as a 'steeped leader'. *t is necessary that successive steps
are in the same line or director. There could also be branches which do not culminate in a stroke
to ground as it may not find a timely path for furtherance. :imultaneous with the stepped leader
from the cloud! streamers also start from the earth or earth obEects. These carry positive charges
upwards. The initial stroke is complete when the stepped leader from the cloud meets a streamer
from earth. Through the conducting channel established by the leader stroke described now!
positive charges induced on the earth flow to the cloud and neutralises the negative charge in the
cloud. This portion of lightning is known as the 'Return :troke'. *t is very bright! carries high
currents and the channel temperature may be several tons of thousands of degrees. The
neutralisation caused by the return stroke may not be complete. 3lso the charging processes in
the thunder cloud may be still active so that there is no scope for further strokes to occur. *f the
time elapsed is not much! the second stroke from cloud to around would take the path of the first.
:ince the first path would still be somewhat ionised! this stroke take place in a very short time and
hence is known as a 8art :troke. *n practice as many as ;& strokes have been known to occur m
=uick succession in the same channel.
1.&. The 'nduced Lightning:
The direct stroke described in -.; could occur to tall b buildings! transmission towers! trots or
oven ground if there is only a vase e.pansion of open ground beneath the thunder cloud. This
direct stroke is of importance of ", systems because of tall towers. owever! for the bulk of
the transmission system! the I*nduced LightningJ is of greater importance. The induced lightning
occurs the following wayC
9hen the thunder storm generates negative charge as its ground and! the earth obEects develop
induced positive charges. The earth obEects include transmission towers and lines. Normally one
would e.pect the transmission line to be unaffected because it is insulated by string insulators.
owever! because of the high gradients involved the positive charges leak from the tower along
with the insulator surface to the transmission line. This process takes =uite a long time! of the
order of tens of minutes. 9hen the thunder cloud discharges to some obEect $other than the line )
the transmission fine is suddenly left with a huge concentration of positive charge which cannot
leak away suddenly. Transmission line and the ground act now as a capacitor and over/voltages
occur on the line due to these induced charges. ence the name of '*nduced Lightning :troke'.
1.( The Bac")*lash o+er:
9hen a lightning directly strikes a tower! the tower has to carry huge transient currents. *f the
tower footing resistance is considerable than the potential of the tower would arise steeply with
respect to the line sand conse=uently the insulator string would flashover. This is known as a
Fack/<lash over.
2.0. Lightning and transmission System.
*n the previous section the physics of lightning was discussed in detail and the basic principles of
how it causes over/voltages in transmission systems was discussed in detail. *n this section the
latter topic / lightning over/voltages on transmission fines will be discussed and methods of
reducing the magnitudes of over/voltages will be considered.
2.1 Mathematical Model to Re,resent Lightning:
0
"lectrically speaking! :trong can be represented as a current source of value *o and source
impedance Ks. 9hen lightning strikes any obEect the voltage stresses generated depend on *o! K:
and the surge impedance of that obEect. *f this is designated K! then the voltage! , across the
obEect may be determined from the e=uivalent circuit of <igure/-.
The value of Ks the surge impedance of the lightning channel is not known with great! accuracy
but various estimates lie in the range of -&&& to +&!&&&. The surge impedance of the obEect strict
is generally much lower than Ks. :ome value of K are as followsC +&& to ;&&& for towers and to
%&& for footing resistance in case of proper grounding. Therefore. the stroke current would not
be significantly! different from what would obtain if K is >ero. <rom <ig. - the! lights voltage! ,
would be
V I Z
Z
Z Z
I Z
I
Z Z
S
S
O
O
S
= =
+
=
+
.
1 -
////////// $-)
The value lo is subEect to great variation and it can be estimated only probabilistically. <ig..2 gives
the probability distribution of lightning stroke magnitudes from three sources $'/0).
<or prartical calculations we may assume K1K: L L - and write e=uation $-) as:
, A lo K /////////////////// $2)
*n a transmission fine! the value of K! can be radically! different for different stroke locations. The
important aspects arc discussed in what followsC
2.2 -nshielded Line..
9hen lightning directly strikes an unshielded line it divides into two e=ual travelling waves which
travel in opposite directions from the point of strike. *f Ko is the surge impedance of the line! the
effective surge! impedance due to current dividing into two paths
would be K412
Therefore! the lightning voltage would be
V
I Z
O O
=
2
////////////////// $+)
3s an e.ample! consider a. stroke current of -& k3
Ko A ;&&& and therefore! V KV =
-& ;&&
2
A 2&&& (,
This is high enough to cause flashover of an insulator string of -% discs used on a 22& k, line. *t
is! therefore! essential that transmission! lines be provided with shield wires. :hield wires are
conductors strung above line conductors and grounded at each tower.
2.3. $esign Consideration for !hield .ires:
*n the early days of usage of shield wires it was found effective to enclose the obEects to be
shielded in volume with the semi/conical angle of +&
&
from the shield wire. The semi conical
angle sub/tended at the shield wire and within which all the obEects to be shielded are enclosed is
called the shielding angle B:!. This is illustrated in <ig. +$a) and $b).
1
3s mentioned above B:, A +&
&
was found efficacious. $-&). owever! when the heights of
transmission towers e.ceeded +&m. shielding failure occurred i.e. lightning struck the live lines
rather than the grounded shield wire. This led to detailed investigations and culminated in the
concept of striking distance $rs) $- -).
6onsider a lightning channel approaching. The new concept us that till the leader head
approaches the target to a distance rs! the point to which the strike takes place is undecided.
9hen it approaches to the distance rs! the. field target becomes e=ual to the mean break/down
gradient for the air in its vicinity. Thus rs also depends on the surface structure of the target.
<urther rs! also depends on the charge in the leader.
Let rs! be the striking. distance for ground and rs! for the conductor.
9e may therefore write
r k r
sg sg x
= .
where (sg is a factor relating the striking distance for phase conductors and ground.
9hitehead --! -2 deduced the relation
rs A G.' lo &.7 .....M.. $;)
where lo is in (3 and rs in metres.!
The ground conductors i.e. shield wires must therefore be located that they come within striking
distance! before a phase conductor. <or low values of *o! from e=uation $;)! it may be seen that rs
becomes vN small. Fut at low currents! the. transmission fine maN be able to positiveh!
withstand the over voltage. Thus there is a critical value! of rs which can be arrived at as followsC/
$i) determine the critical flashover voltage of the line insulation.
$ii) substitute the critical flashover voltage , in e=uation $+) and thereby obtain the critical value
of the current *o and
$iii) substitute the critical value of *o obtained from step $2) in e=uation $;) and compute rs.
The value of ksg must be obtained from field e.perience.
*n step $2)! the e=uation $+) for unshielded line is used. This is Eustifiable as when the hang strikes
the ground wire at midspan! it divides into two channels as for an unshielded line. This is! in fact
the worst case and therefore deserved first attention.
2.. Lightning stro"e to a to/er to,:
*f the line is shielded! the lightning after striking a tower takes three paths to ground through the
tower struck and in opposite directions on the ground wire. Thus the presence of the ground wire
reduces the tower top potential ,T also. *n what follows lo is considered to be the current
entering the tower alone. The instantaneous tower top potential ,ti is given by

V
I Z
Z
Z
!
O

S
=
+ -
......................... $%)
This wave travels down the tower and meets the tower footing resistance Kf the reflection from
which affect ,t!. 3s this travel time is generally very small the tower top potential ,T should! for
all practical purposes! be computed by using
V
I Z
Z Z
Z
Z Z
Z Z

O
S
f
f
= =
1
////////////////// $G)
2
9here K is the effective impedance with KT and Kf in parallel. *n fact! the value of KT itself varies
along the height of a tower. Nevertheless! it is possible to have value which gives very reasonable
results.
<or towers which can be appro.imated to a cone of height h and base radius r $e.ample C
conventional double circuit towers)
Z I "
h
r
ohms

=
+
+&-
-
2
2
2
---------------------- $')
The value of the tower surge impedance lies in the rather close range of -&& to -2% B
4n the other hand the natural tower footing resistance can vary over a very wide range from a
few ohms to -%&& or even higher values depending upon the nature of the soil! .9 the type of
grounding. 3s the! tower top potential is directly influenced by the value of Kf the
tower footing resistance! it becomes necessary to obtain a low a value as possible. <or Kf Two
methods of reducing Kf are in practice! the use of driven rods and1or counterpoises.
2.& $ri+en Rods:
3 number of rods of about -% mm $%17#) diameter are driven into ground and connected to the
tower logs. The material of the rod could be galvanised iron! copper weld or copper bearing
steel. Osually rods of about 2.% to +.& m $7 to -& ft) length are driven and deeper penetrations
are obtained bv Eointing 2.% to +.& m sections by pressed fit couplings. Rods have been driven to
as great a depth as ;% m $- %& ft) to reach high conductivity layers of soil.
The resistance characteristics of driven rods are influenced by several parameters. The most
important are $-) moisture content and temperature of the soil $2) depth to which the rods are
driven $+) the number of rods driven in parallel in a given area and $;) rod $or tube) diameter.
*f the moisture content in the soil is more than 2&P $by weight the resisting! is practically
independent of the actual content and is about % to G cm. owever! below 2&P moisture
content soil resistivity increases drastically. <or e.ample! the resistivities are 2& cm and -&&
cm at about -%P and -2.%P moisture content respectively. <urther. these values are valid for
water with sufficient mineral electrolyte content. River beds though rich in moisture content may
present high soil resistivities due to water being pure.
The soil resistivity has a negative temperature coefficient of resistance but is substantially constant
above +&
&
6! it starts increasing =uite drastically.
The effect of depth of a driven rod $tube) shown in <ig.;. The resistance may be seen to be an
inverse function of depth but depths of more than 2.% to + m $7 to -& ft) may not be much useful.
The effect of a number of rods over the resistance may be studied in a number of interesting ways
$see for e.ample the compilation by Lewis) . Two interesting methods of resentation are given in
<igures % and G respectively. <ig. % shows the theoretical ratio of the resistance of many rods in
multiple spaced various resistances apart to the resistance of the same number of rods in multiple
spaced an infinite distance apart . <or e.ample! -& rods spaced % ft apart will have +.- times the
resistance of -& rods spaced an infinite distance apart.
<ig. G would help in arriving it an efficient method of covering an area with ground rods . This
figure gives the ratio of resistance of the same area. <or e.ample! -& rods in area of 2&&& s=uares
3
feet $-'%##) would have a resistance of &.-% times the resistance of a single rod. 2% rods would!
bring down the ratio to about &.--. and increase would not reduce the ratio perceptibly.
*n general! the resistance of driven rods to impulse currents lies in the range of +; to 7&P of the
resistance to power fre=uency currents the lower being the percentage for higher impulse
currents.
2.( Counter,oises
3s already mentioned another method of reducing the tower roofing resistance is by use of
counterpoises. 6ounterpoises are wires buried a few feet under the ground! running
parallel to ground surface and connected well to the towerlege electrically. 6ounterpoises are
found to be more effective than driven rods when soil resistivity is high. *n fact counterpoises can
run underground along the transmission line conductors and1or perpendicular to them and1or at
other angles also. <urther! the counterpoises may run continuously! between towers or may be
discontinuous. <ig. ' shows the effect of length of counterpoise on its surge impedance! *t may be
seen that generally about 7& yards $about '2m) would be ade=uate.
3 travelling wave would see a counterpoise as a variable impedance! starting at its surge
impedance and ending at a value e=ual to the leakage resistance. The transition time depends on
the length of the counterpoises! is a combination of diffusion and travelling waves. <ig. 7 shows
results of a test on a 2&& ft $G& mm) diameter. steel buried -2 inch $!+& cm) below earth surface
and terminated by driven pipes. The effect of length of counterpoise on the leakage resistance is
shown in <ig.0.
<igure -& shows the effect of the number of counterpoises on the effective transient impedance!
the total length being the same. *t may be seen that it is preferable to have larger number of
smaller length counterpoises rather than a single longer counterpoise.
3.0 Summary:
Lightning! apart from being an interesting natural phenomenon poses a great threats to electrical
transmission as a whole by generation of transient over voltages of very magnitude. 3 direct
stroke! to a line would be e.tremely ha>ardous and wherever needed. $,icinity of important
substations of maEor transmission lines in lightning prone area) shield !wires $overhead ground
wires) are used to prevent direct strokes. :trokes to overhead ground wire can also generate
largo potential difference that could cause flashover at mid span or at towers. The tower top
potential can be reduced by reducing the tower footing resistance which can be achieved by use of
driven group rods and1or buried ground wires also called counterpoises.
:ome important design features of overhead ground wires driven ground rods and counterpoises
are discussed.
;. REFERENCES:
-. 5arshall Q.L. / Lightning Protection $Fook)! .Qoyhn 9iley R :ons. -0'+.
2. 9ilson! 6.T.R. / *nvestigations on Lightning discharges and on the electrical field of
thunderstorms. Philosopifical maga>ines Royal :ociety! :eries 3.,ol. 22-! -02&! P.'+.
+. :imson G.6./The mechanism of thunderstorm! Pro Royal :oc :eries 3,ol.--;-02' P.+'G.
;. 5acon F. Q. / 5echanism of flash! "lectronics and Power -0GG.
%. Reynolds et al. Qournal of *nstitutions of "ngineers $London) -0G%
G. Ritchle. 8.Q. Fall Lightning in
4
nature and in the laboratory! Qournal of *nstitution 4f "ngineers $London) flay -0G+.
'. 3*"" 6ommittee Report 3 method for estimating lightning performance of transmission lines.
7. General "lectric 6ompany! ", Transmission line reference book. "dison "lectric institute!
New Sork/ -0G7.
0. Propolansky! "lectra$6*GR")No.22!-0'2p.-70
-&. 9estinghouse "lectric 6orporation Transmission and 8istribution hand book.
--. 3rmstrong .R. and 9hteead! ".R. / <ield and analytical sudies of transmission lines shielding
*""" Trans!. P3: ,ol 7' -0G7. P. G-'.
-2. Frown ".9. and 9hitehead ".R. <ield and analytical studies of transmission line shielding
Q""" Trans.! P3: ,ol.22 -0G0 p.G-'.
-+. 5olcollom F. and Logan (.. "lectrolytic corrosion of *ron in soils Technological
Papers in
the Fureau of :tandards 2%! -0-;.
-;. Towne .5./Lightning 3rrestor grounds!General "lectric Review ,ol.+% P.--+!P.12-% p.27-.
-%. Lewis! 9. 9. The Protection of Transmission :ystems against lightning $book) 8over
Publication *nc. Now Sork -0G%.
-G. Peters :. Ground connections for "lectrical :ystems! Technological Papers of Fureau of
:tandards -&7! -0-&.
-'. "aton! Q.R.Grounding electric circuits effectively! General "lectric Review ,ol/;;! p.+2+!
p.+0'! p.;%-.

'5