Research Methods for

Business Management
(MOD001105)

Module Leader: Dr Noah Karley
Email: Noah.Karley@anglia.ac.uk
Room LAB322 Ext. 5739
Lecture 3
Understanding Research
Philosophy
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Teaching Objectives
By the end of this lecture/seminar you should be able to:
Define the key terms ontology, epistemology and axiology
and explain their relevance to business research.
Explain the relevance for business research of philosophical
perspectives such as positivism, realism, pragmatism and
interpretivism.
Understand the main research paradigms which are
significant for business research.
State your own epistemological, ontological and axiological
positions.
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Influences on business research
Source: Bryman and Bell 2011 Figure 1.2
Epistemology, Ontology and Axiology (values) are branches of philosophy
Introduction
At every stage in our research we make
assumptions.
These include assumptions about human
knowledge, the nature of the realities you
encounter in your research, and what is important
or of value.
These assumptions shape your your research
questions, the methods you use and how you
interpret your findings
Therefore it is important to be able to recognise
and articulate what the philosophical choices and
commitments underpinning your research choices
are


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Philosophical considerations
Question
What is the nature of
reality? (ontology)
Something that is
external to the social
world

Something that exists in
the socially negotiated
meanings that people
give to it

What is considered
acceptable knowledge?
(epistemology)
Knowledge based on
observable phenomena

Law like generalisations
Knowledge about
subjective meanings

Details of specific cases
What is the role of
values in research?
(axiology)
Research should be
value-free
Research is shaped by
values
Source: based on Saunders et al. 2012 Table 4.1
Ontological considerations
Social ontology: the nature of social entities

What kind of objects exist in the social world?

Are social entities organisations, management
- external to social actors or constructed by
them?
Source: Based on Tom Owens, Bryman and Bell 2011 - Powerpoints
Ontology: Objectivism
Objectivism is an ontological position that asserts that
social phenomena and their meanings have an
existence that is independent of social actors.

It implies that social phenomena and the categories
that we use in everyday discourse have an independent
existence that is separate from social actors.
Source: Bryman and Bell 2011 Key concept 1.13 Page 21
Ontology - Objectivism

An example of this may be management itself.

You may argue that management is an objective entity
and therefore adopt an objectivist stance to study
management in a specific organisation.

In order to substantiate your view you would say that
the managers in the organisation have job descriptions
which prescribe their duties, there are operating
procedures to which they are supposed to adhere, they
are part of a formal structure which locates them in a
hierarchy with people reporting to them and they in turn
report to more senior managers.
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Ontology: Objectivism
Objectivism emphasises the structural aspects of
management and assumes that management is similar
in all organisations.

Insofar as management does differ in organisations it is a
function of the different objective aspects of
management e.g. different job descriptions, processes,
hierarchical relations.

Within the same organisation there is an assumption
that management is the same thing

And that if anyone else studied management in the
same organisation they would arrive at the same findings


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Ontology - Subjectivism / constructionism

Subjectivism asserts that social entities like management,
culture, organisations - are created through the perceptions
and actions of social actors.
Social entities have a reality that is experienced and
performed, enacted
As social interactions between actors are a continual
process, social entities are dynamic they are in a constant
state of revision
Social entities are also multiple they are different for
different people
Subjectivism is often associated with the term
constructionism, or social constructionism.
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Constructionism
Social phenomena and their meanings are
continually being generated by social actors
Social phenomena and categories are produced
through social interaction
Social phenomena and categories are in a constant
state of revision
Researchers' own accounts of the social world are
constructions we are also participating in the
construction of social reality through our research
Epistemological considerations
What is (or should be) considered acceptable knowledge?

Can the social world be studied scientifically?

Is it appropriate to apply the methods of the natural
sciences to social science research?

Positivism and interpretivism are two contrasting
epistemological positions
Source: Based on Tom Owens, Bryman and Bell 2011 - Powerpoints
Epistemology: Positivism
If your research reflects the philosophy of positivism
you will probably adopt the philosophical stance of
the natural scientist.

Social entities and phenomena can be studied in the
same way that scientists study non-living things and
non-humans

If you are a positivist, it is likely that you will prefer
collecting data about an observable reality and search
for regularities and causal relationships in your data to
create law-like generalisations like those produced by
scientists.
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Epistemology: Realism
Realism is a branch of epistemology which is similar to
positivism in that it assumes a scientific approach to the
development of knowledge.

Realism is another philosophical position which relates to
scientific enquiry. The essence of realism is that what we
sense is reality: that objects have an existence
independent of the human mind.

The philosophy of realism is that there is a reality quite
independent of the mind. In this sense, realism is opposed
to idealism, the theory that only the mind and its contents
exist.


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Direct realism and critical realism
Direct realism: Objects exist independently of
our knowledge of them.

Critical realism: What we experience of the real
world are sensations and images of things in
the real world, not the things directly.
Epistemology: Interpretivism
Interpretivism is taken to denote an alternative to the
positivist orthodoxy.

It is predicated upon the view that a research strategy is
required that respects the differences between people
and social entities and the objects of the natural
sciences

It therefore requires the social scientist to grasp the
subjective meaning of social action.

Source: Based on Tom Owens, Bryman and Bell 2011 - Powerpoints
Axiology - values
Axiology is a branch of philosophy that studies judgements
about value.

Choosing one topic rather than another suggests that you
think one of the topics is more important.

Your choice of philosophical approach is a reflection of
your values, as is your choice of data collection techniques.

Researchers demonstrate axiological skill by being able to
articulate their values as a basis for making judgements
about what research they are conducting and how they go
about doing it.
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Influences of personal values on
business research

The personal beliefs or the feelings of researcher affect every
stage of research process, from the choice of research area to
the interpretation of results.

If we recognize that research cannot be value-free, we might
attempt to limit its constraint on objectivity.

Feminist writers (among others) argue for consciously value-laden
research, in which the researcher empathises with the
researched and encourages reciprocity.
Source: Bryman and Bell 2011 p. 30
Pragmatism
Pragmatism asserts that concepts are only relevant
where they support action.
This means that the most important determinant of
your position on each of the continua is the research
question one position may be more appropriate
than another for answering a particular question.
For pragmatists, the importance of the meaning of
an idea (or a research finding) are its practical
consequences.
Pragmatists recognise that there are many different
ways of interpreting the world and undertaking
research, that no single point of view can ever give
the entire picture and that there maybe multiple
realities.
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What is a research paradigm?
Paradigms are a cluster of beliefs and
dictates that influence:
What should be studied
How research should be done
How results should be interpreted

Source: Based on Tom Owens, Bryman and Bell 2011 - Powerpoints
Two Contrasting Research Paradigms
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Objectivism and Interpretivism

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n1DDWVl
gXTI
Sociological paradigms in organisational analysis
Radical humanist
Individuals need
emancipation from the
social arrangement of
organizations

Radical structuralist
Structural power
relationships result in
conflict
Interpretative
Organizations do not
exist apart from the
perceptions of people
working in them study
their experiences
Functionalist
Problem-solving
orientation leading to
rational explanation

Radical
Regulatory
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Source: Based on Tom Owens, Bryman and Bell 2011 Powerpoints; original from
Burrell and Morgan 1982
Summary
Ontology is a branch of philosophy which is concerned with
the nature of social phenomena as entities.

Objectivism is the ontological position which holds that
social entities exist in reality external to social actors
whereas the subjectivist / constructionst view is that social
phenomena are created through the perceptions and
consequent actions of social actors.
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Summary
Epistemology concerns what constitutes acceptable
knowledge in a field of study.

Positivism relates to the philosophical stance of the
natural scientist. This entails working with an observable
social reality and the end product can be law-like
generalisations similar to those in the physical and natural
sciences.
The essence of realism is that objects have an existence
independent of the human mind.
Interpretivism is an epistemology that advocates that it is
necessary for the researcher to understand the subjective
meaning of social action.

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Summary

Axiology is a branch of philosophy that studies
judgements about values.
Pragmatism holds that the most important
determinant of the epistemology, ontology and
axiology adopted is the research question.

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References
Gay, L. R. Mills, G. E. and Airasian. P. W. (2008).
Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis
and Applications. Harlow: Prentice Hall.

Saunders, M. Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2012).
Research Methods for Business Students. Harlow:
Prentice Hall. Chapter 3.
Bryman, A. and Bell, E. (2011) Business Research
methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Chapter
4

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