Whew...

Lots of questions.

Lets start with a few basics.

kw per square foot is not a good way to think about it, and therein lies the problem with solar panels.

A typical 6"x6" cell puts about Volt, and about 7 Amps DC Power.
Watts = Volts x Amps
So one gets about 0.5 Volts * 7 Amps = about a maximum of 3.5 Watts from the cell.

If you put 4 of the cells together, you get about 14 watts per square foot, or about 0.014 kw per square
foot (with 1000 watts per kilowatt). This is more or less the maximum power you might expect to get
with noon-time sun during the summer. You will get a lot less with morning or evening sun.

Solar panels are made up of multiple solar cells. If the cells are wired in parallel, one increases the
amps. If the cells are wired in series, one increases the volts.

The Open Circuit Voltage and Short Circuit Amps that the cell puts out are more or less theoretical
maximums. You find that the greater the power draw, the lower the volts that the cell puts out. Thus,
there is a tradeoff between Amps and Volts. Most panels now have a "Peak Power" rating.

A typical 12V Car battery actually is about 12.6V when fully charged. But, it is generally charged at about
14V.

So...

Older solar panels were often rated to put out 12V, but actually had a peak output of about 18-20V.

More modern (consumer grade) panels usually have power ratings of about 30-50V. Usually one uses a
charge controller to isolate the system or batteries, and the charge controller can automatically adjust
to the "Peak Power" output of the panel.

I have some panels that are about 3' wide, 4.5' tall, with an output of about 200W, maximum voltage of
68V, and Maximum Power Point (MPPT) of about 56V.

AC vs DC.
If you are just running lights and such from a solar panel, then it is easy enough to set up a DC system,
and use DC light bulbs. No inverter to turn on and off, and no inverter loss.
However, as most of the appliances in the USA require 110V/220V AC current, one can also attach an
AC/DC inverter to provide the correct voltage. And, of course, people typically choose 60 HZ for USA
and 50 HZ for Europe.

You can run the system entirely "off grid" meaning that one has to generate 100% of one's own power
needs, and setup one's own batteries for backup power. Or, one can run the system "on grid",
essentially using the power company's system as a super-battery. One sends the surplus power to the
grid, and can take extra power from the grid as needed. No batteries are required, although some
systems use them for backup power.

Traditionally the inverters have been centralized, but some companies such as Enphase have an option
of connecting mini-inverters directly to each panel, in effect converting the DC panels to AC panels.

Here is a good picture of the construction of a solar cell/panel. The top most layers listed are actually
part of the panel, and outside of the cells.

http://www.specmat.com/Overview%20of%20Solar%20Cells.htm

Most cells are silicon cells with a layer of pure silicon covered by a layer of silicon "doped" with Arsenic
or Phosphorous, then with electrodes attached.

There are also variations such as cells sprayed onto ordinary glass, or flexible cells. Boeing & Emcore
make what they term as a "triple junction" cell that absorbs a wider bandwidth of energy, and thus has
higher efficiency ratings than the typical household cells. These high efficiency triple junction cells are
used in space applications where space & weight is a premium, as well as in commercial concentrated
light solar panels.

Heat vs Electricity.
A typical solar panel is only about 10 to 20% efficient at converting sunlight to electricity. An appliance
such as a hot water heater will also have efficiency losses. For hot water, it is much cheaper, and more
efficient to heat the water directly (or with an antifreeze heat exchange medium) than to generate
electricity, then using the electricity to heat the water. Likewise, solar panels can be devised to heat air
directly, again with efficiency gains over electric solar panels and electric heating. However... at least in
Oregon, peak power needs are also during the winter when the sun is most scarce.
What is MPPT?
MPPT or Maximum Power Point Tracking is algorithm that included in charge controllers
used for extracting maximum available power from PV module under certain conditions. The
voltage at which PV module can produce maximum power is called maximum power point (or
peak power voltage). Maximum power varies with solar radiation, ambient temperature and solar
cell temperature.
Typical PV module produces power with maximum power voltage of around 17 V when
measured at a cell temperature of 25C, it can drop to around 15 V on a very hot day and it can
also rise to 18 V on a very cold day.

How MPPT works?
The major principle of MPPT is to extract the maximum available power from PV module by
making them operate at the most efficient voltage (maximum power point). That is to say:
MPPT checks output of PV module, compares it to battery voltage then fixes what is the best
power that PV module can produce to charge the battery and converts it to the best voltage to
get maximum current into battery. It can also supply power to a DC load, which is connected
directly to the battery.
MPPT is most effective under these conditions:
Cold weather, cloudy or hazy days: Normally, PV module works better at cold temperatures and
MPPT is utilized to extract maximum power available from them.
When battery is deeply discharged: MPPT can extract more current and charge the battery if the
state of charge in the battery is lowers.


MPPT solar charge controller
A MPPT solar charge controller is the charge controller
embedded with MPPT algorithm to maximize the amount
of current going into the battery from PV module.
MPPT is DC to DC converter which operates by taking DC
input from PV module, changing it to AC and converting it
back to a different DC voltage and current to exactly match
the PV module to the battery.


Examples of DC to DC converter are
Boost converter is power converter which DC input voltage is less than DC output voltage. That
means PV input voltage is less than the battery voltage in system.
Buck converter is power converter which DC input voltage is greater than DC output voltage. That
means PV input voltage is greater than the battery voltage in system.
MPPT algorithm can be applied to both of them depending on system design. Normally, for
battery system voltage is equal or less than 48 V, buck converter is useful. On the other hand,
if battery system voltage is greater than 48 V, boost converter should be chosen.
MPPT solar charge controllers are useful for off-grid solar power systems such as stand-
alone solar power system, solar home system and solar water pump system, etc.

Main features of MPPT solar charge controller
In any applications which PV module is energy source, MPPT solar charge controller is used to
correct for detecting the variations in the current-voltage characteristics of solar cell and shown by
I-V curve.
MPPT solar charge controller is necessary for any solar power systems need to extract maximum
power from PV module; it forces PV module to operate at voltage close to maximum power point
to draw maximum available power.
MPPT solar charge controller allows users to use PV module with a higher voltage output than
operating voltage of battery system.
For example, if PV module has to be placed far away from charge controller and battery, its wire
size must be very large to reduce voltage drop. With a MPPT solar charge controller, users can
wire PV module for 24 or 48 V (depending on charge controller and PV modules) and bring power
into 12 or 24 V battery system. This means it reduces the wire size needed while retaining full
output of PV module.
MPPT solar charge controller reduces complexity of system while output of system is high
efficiency. Additionally, it can be applied to use with more energy sources. Since PV output power
is used to control DC-DC converter directly.
MPPT solar charge controller can be applied to other renewable energy sources such as small
water turbines, wind-power turbines, etc.


How to choose MPPT solar charge controller for PV module
Table 1 Specifications of PV modules separated by manufacturers
PV Manufactures Model Wp Vpm Ipm Isc Voc
SHARP
[View Specifications]
NE-78T1 78 17.1 4.57 5.08 21.4
ND-130T1 130 17.4 7.48 8.09 22
Kaneka
[View Specifications]
GPA 64 68 0.94 1.17 92
SANYO
[ View
Specifications]
HIP-180B2 190 54 3.33 3.15 66.4
Bangkok Solar
[View Specifications]
BS 40 40 44.8 0.9 1.16 62.2
Standard Test Condition: Irradiance = 1000 W/m
2
, Cell temperature = 25C, Air mass = 1.5

Standard Test Condition: Irradiance = 1000 W/m
2
, Cell temperature = 25C, Air mass = 1.5

How to set system configuration of MPPT solar charge controller



Figure 3 General configuration of the MPPT solar charge controller



SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER
WITH MPPT AND
DC LOAD TIMER 10A
Advance microprocessor control
Buck regulator wide input range


Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)
Solar charge controller with DC load control
Reverse polarities protection of PV and battery
Battery overcharge and overdischarge protection
Temperature compensation (-3 to -
7mV/Cell/Celsius)
Lighting surge protection (TVSS)
3-step charging to provide quick and safe charging
for battery
Automatic cooling fan (outside enclosure)
7 modes timer control (ON/OFF DC load) selectable


Table 2 Specifications of the SOLARCON SPT-series MPPT solar charge controller

click to enlarge

How to choose MPPT solar charge controller for PV module and battery
Steps to consider for choosing MPPT solar charge controller
SPT-XXYY (XX is nominal battery voltage, YY is maximum charge current)
Find out what is nominal battery voltage that charge controller will charge and select XX
Find out what is Wp of PV module and
Select the suitable charge current (CC) = (Wp) / XX
Find out YY by multiply CC by safety factor (NEC requirement) = (CC) x 1.2
Select SOLARCON SPT-series model that covers YY
Check that Vpm
(system)
is in range that SPT-XXYY can handle (MPPT voltage range)
If PV modules are in series, need to check that Vpm
(system)
= Vpm
(module)
x Module in series
If PV modules are in parallel, need to check that Vpm
(system)
= Vpm
(module)

Check that Voc
(system)
is not more than SPT-XXYY range (Maximum open circuit voltage)
If PV modules are in series, need to check that Voc
(system)
= Voc
(module)
x Module in series
If PV modules are in parallel, need to check that Voc
(system)
= Voc
(module)

Examples of MPPT solar charge controller selection and calculation


How to Design Solar PV System

What is solar PV system?
Solar photovoltaic system or Solar power system is one of renewable energy system which
uses PV modules to convert sunlight into electricity. The electricity generated can be either
stored or used directly, fed back into grid line or combined with one or more other electricity
generators or more renewable energy source. Solar PV system is very reliable and clean
source of electricity that can suit a wide range of applications such as residence, industry,
agriculture, livestock, etc.
Major system components
Solar PV system includes different components that should be selected according to your
system type, site location and applications. The major components for solar PV system are
solar charge controller, inverter, battery bank, auxiliary energy sources and loads (appliances).
PV module converts sunlight into DC electricity.
Solar charge controller regulates the voltage and current coming from the PV panels
going to
battery and prevents battery overcharging and prolongs the battery life.
Inverter converts DC output of PV panels or wind turbine into a clean AC current for
AC
appliances or fed back into grid line.
Battery stores energy for supplying to electrical appliances when there is a demand.
Load is electrical appliances that connected to solar PV system such as lights, radio, TV,
computer,
refrigerator, etc.
Auxiliary energy sources - is diesel generator or other renewable energy sources.
Solar PV system sizing
1. Determine power consumption demands
The first step in designing a solar PV system is to find out the total power and energy consumption
of all loads that need to be supplied by the solar PV system as follows:
1.1 Calculate total Watt-hours per day for each appliance used.
Add the Watt-hours needed for all appliances together to get the total Watt-hours per
day which
must be delivered to the appliances.

1.2 Calculate total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules.
Multiply the total appliances Watt-hours per day times 1.3 (the energy lost in the
system) to get
the total Watt-hours per day which must be provided by the panels.
2. Size the PV modules
Different size of PV modules will produce different amount of power. To find out the sizing of PV
module, the total peak watt produced needs. The peak watt (Wp) produced depends on size of the PV
module and climate of site location. We have to consider panel generation factor which is different
in each site location. For Thailand, the panel generation factor is 3.43. To determine the sizing of PV
modules, calculate as follows:
2.1 Calculate the total Watt-peak rating needed for PV modules
Divide the total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules (from item 1.2) by
3.43 to get
the total Watt-peak rating needed for the PV panels needed to operate the appliances.
2.2 Calculate the number of PV panels for the system
Divide the answer obtained in item 2.1 by the rated output Watt-peak of the PV
modules available
to you. Increase any fractional part of result to the next highest full number and that
will be the
number of PV modules required.
Result of the calculation is the minimum number of PV panels. If more PV modules are installed, the
system will perform better and battery life will be improved. If fewer PV modules are used, the
system may not work at all during cloudy periods and battery life will be shortened.
3. Inverter sizing
An inverter is used in the system where AC power output is needed. The input rating of the inverter
should never be lower than the total watt of appliances. The inverter must have the same nominal
voltage as your battery.
For stand-alone systems, the inverter must be large enough to handle the total amount of Watts
you will be using at one time. The inverter size should be 25-30% bigger than total Watts of
appliances. In case of appliance type is motor or compressor then inverter size should be minimum 3
times the capacity of those appliances and must be added to the inverter capacity to handle surge
current during starting.
For grid tie systems or grid connected systems, the input rating of the inverter should be same as
PV array rating to allow for safe and efficient operation.

4. Battery sizing
The battery type recommended for using in solar PV system is deep cycle battery. Deep cycle
battery is specifically designed for to be discharged to low energy level and rapid recharged or cycle
charged and discharged day after day for years. The battery should be large enough to store sufficient
energy to operate the appliances at night and cloudy days. To find out the size of battery, calculate as
follows:
4.1 Calculate total Watt-hours per day used by appliances.
4.2 Divide the total Watt-hours per day used by 0.85 for battery loss.
4.3 Divide the answer obtained in item 4.2 by 0.6 for depth of discharge.
4.4 Divide the answer obtained in item 4.3 by the nominal battery voltage.
4.5 Multiply the answer obtained in item 4.4 with days of autonomy (the number of days
that you
need the system to operate when there is no power produced by PV panels) to get the
required
Ampere-hour capacity of deep-cycle battery.
Battery Capacity (Ah) = Total Watt-hours per day used by appliances x Days of autonomy
(0.85 x 0.6 x nominal battery voltage)
5. Solar charge controller sizing
The solar charge controller is typically rated against Amperage and Voltage capacities. Select the
solar charge controller to match the voltage of PV array and batteries and then identify which type of
solar charge controller is right for your application. Make sure that solar charge controller has enough
capacity to handle the current from PV array.
For the series charge controller type, the sizing of controller depends on the total PV input current
which is delivered to the controller and also depends on PV panel configuration (series or parallel
configuration).
According to standard practice, the sizing of solar charge controller is to take the short circuit
current (Isc) of the PV array, and multiply it by 1.3
Solar charge controller rating = Total short circuit current of PV array x 1.3
Remark: For MPPT charge controller sizing will be different. (See Basics of MPPT Charge
Controller)
Example: A house has the following electrical appliance usage:
One 18 Watt fluorescent lamp with electronic ballast used 4 hours per day.
One 60 Watt fan used for 2 hours per day.
One 75 Watt refrigerator that runs 24 hours per day with compressor run 12 hours and off 12
hours.
The system will be powered by 12 Vdc, 110 Wp PV module.
1. Determine power consumption demands
Total appliance use = (18 W x 4 hours) + (60 W x 2 hours) + (75 W x 24 x 0.5 hours)
= 1,092 Wh/day
Total PV panels energy needed = 1,092 x 1.3
= 1,419.6 Wh/day.

2. Size the PV panel
2.1 Total Wp of PV panel capacity
needed
= 1,419.6 / 3.4
= 413.9 Wp
2.2 Number of PV panels needed = 413.9 / 110
= 3.76 modules

Actual requirement = 4 modules
So this system should be powered by at least 4 modules of 110 Wp PV module.
3. Inverter sizing
Total Watt of all appliances = 18 + 60 + 75 = 153 W
For safety, the inverter should be considered 25-30% bigger size.
The inverter size should be about 190 W or greater.
4. Battery sizing
Total appliances use = (18 W x 4 hours) + (60 W x 2 hours) + (75 W x 12 hours)
Nominal battery voltage = 12 V
Days of autonomy = 3 days
Battery capacity = [(18 W x 4 hours) + (60 W x 2 hours) + (75 W x 12 hours)] x 3
(0.85 x 0.6 x 12)
Total Ampere-hours required 535.29 Ah
So the battery should be rated 12 V 600 Ah for 3 day autonomy.
5. Solar charge controller sizing
PV module specification
Pm = 110 Wp
Vm = 16.7 Vdc
Im = 6.6 A
Voc = 20.7 A
Isc = 7.5 A
Solar charge controller rating = (4 strings x 7.5 A) x 1.3 = 39 A
So the solar charge controller should be rated 40 A at 12 V or greater.
Basics of Solar Cell

Solar energy is the ultimate source of energy, which is naturally replenished in a short period
of time, for this reason it is called "renewable energy" or "sustainable energy" source. To take
advantages of solar energy, the variety of technologies is used to covert solar energy to heat
and electricity. The use of solar energy involves 'energy conservation' because it is the way to
use energy source that comes from the nature and uses it more wisely and efficiently. That
way includes Solar Cell, which is described as follows:
What is Solar Cell?
Solar Cell or Photovoltaic (PV) cell is a device that is made up of
semiconductor materials such as silicon, gallium arsenide and cadmium
telluride, etc. that converts sunlight directly into electricity. When solar cells
absorb sunlight, free electrons and holes are created at positive/negative
junctions. If the positive and negative junctions of solar cell are connected to
DC electrical equipment, current is delivered to operate the electrical
equipment.

Solar cell types
There are three major cell types that classified by its manufacturing technology and the
semiconductor.

Single Crystalline Silicon
PV Module
Polycrystalline Silicon
PV Module
Amorphous Silicon
PV Module

1. Crystalline Silicon PV Module: Two types of crystalline silicon (c-Si) are used to produce PV
module; single crystalline silicon or known as monocrystalline silicon and multi-crystalline silicon,
also called polycrystalline silicon. The polycrystalline silicon PV module has lower conversion
efficiency than single crystalline silicon PV module but both of them have high conversion
efficiencies that average about 10-12%.
2. Amorphous Silicon PV Module: Amorphous silicon (a-Si) PV module or thin-film silicon PV module
absorbs light more effectively than crystalline silicon PV module, so it can be made thinner. It suits
for any applications that high efficiency is not required and low cost is important. The typical
efficiency of amorphous silicon PV module is around 6%.
3. Hybrid Silicon PV Module: A combination of single crystalline silicon surrounded by thin layers of
amorphous silicon provides excellent sensitivity to lower light levels or indirect light. The Hybrid
silicon PV module has highest level of conversion efficiency about 17%.
Solar cell structure
The most semiconductor material currently use for solar cell production is silicon, which has
some advantages as; it can be easily found in nature, does not pollute, does not harm the
environment and it can be easily melted, handled and formed into monocrystalline silicon
form, etc. The commonly solar cell is configured as a large-area p-n junction made from
silicon.
How solar cell works?





When sunlight strikes solar cell surface, the cell creates charge carrier as electrons and holes.
The internal field produced by junction separates some of positive charges (holes) from
negative charges (electrons). Holes are swept into positive or p-layer and electrons are swept
into negative or n-layer. When a circuit is made, free electrons have to pass through the load to
recombine with positive holes; current can be produced from the cells under illumination.
The individual solar cells are connected together to make a module (called 'solar module' or
'PV module') to increase current and the modules are connected in an array (called 'solar array'
or 'PV array'). Depending on current or voltage requirement, solar arrays are connected in a
variety of ways:
If the solar arrays are connected in parallel, the output current will increase.
If the solar arrays are connected in series, the output voltage will increase.
Solar PV system
Solar cells produce direct current (DC), therefore they are only used for DC equipments. If
alternating current (AC) is needed for AC equipments or backup energy is needed, solar
photovoltaic systems require other components in addition to solar modules. These
components are specially designed to integrate into solar PV system, that is to say they are
renewable energy products or energy conservation products and one or more of components
may be included depending on type of application. The components of solar photovoltaic
system are

1. Solar Module is the essential component of any solar PV system that converts sunlight directly
into DC electricity.
2. Solar Charge Controller regulates voltage and current from solar arrays, charges the battery,
prevents battery from overcharging and also performs controlled over discharges.
3. Battery stores current electricity that produces from solar arrays for using when sunlight is not
visible, nighttime or other purposes.
4. Inverter is a critical component of any solar PV system that converts DC power output of solar
arrays into AC for AC appliances.
5. Lightning protection prevents electrical equipments from damages caused by lightning or
induction of high voltage surge. It is required for the large size and critical solar PV systems, which
include the efficient grounding.
Solar cell advantages
Solar cell or PV cell produces clean with non-polluting energy source of electricity that is
environmental-friendly. Since it uses no fuel other than sunlight, gives off no waste, no
burning, and no moving part when it operates. It reduces collection of gases such as carbon
monoxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrocarbon and nitrogen, etc., which generated from fuel, coal and
fossil fuel burning power plants. All decrease the impacts of energy on the environment like
greenhouse effect, global warming, acid rain and air pollution, etc. It is easy to install and
transportable. With the modular characteristic, it can be constructed any sizes as required.
Moreover, it requires minimal maintenance and has long life span (more than 30 years) and
stable efficiency.
Solar cell applications

Home Indoor and outdoor lighting system, electrical equipment, electric
gate opener, security system, ventilator, water pump, water filter and
emergency light, etc.


Lighting system Bus stop lighting, telephone booth lighting, billboard lighting, parking
lot lighting, indoor and outdoor lighting and street lighting, etc.


Water pumping Consumption, public utility, livestock watering, agriculture, gardening
and farming, mining and irrigation, etc.


Battery charging system Emergency power system, battery charging center for rural village and
power supply for household use and lighting in remote area, etc.


Agriculture Water pumping, agricultural products fumigator, thrashing machines
and water sprayer, etc.


Cattle Water pumping, oxygen filling system for fish-farming and insect
trapped lighting, etc.


Health center Refrigerator and cool box for keeping medicines and vaccines and
medical equipment, etc.


Communication Air navigational aid, air warning light, lighthouse, beacon navigation
aid, illuminated road sign, railway crossing sign, street lighting and
emergency telephone, etc.


Telecommunication Microwave repeater station, telecommunication equipment, portable
communication equipment (e.g. communication radio for service and
military exercise) and weather monitoring station, etc.


Remote area Hill, island, forest and remote area that the utility grids are not
available, etc.

Space Satellite, international space station and spacecraft, etc.





Advantage of Solar Power

The increasing demand of electricity, the high price of oil and the growing concerns for our environment are some of several
factors that forcing us to enhance the uses of alternative energy sources. Among a variety of renewable energy sources, solar
energy is a sustainable alternative option that can be utilized in various ways and can be used for many applications.

Solar power is produced by collecting sunlight and converting into electricity, heat and lighting. This is done by using solar
panels to convert sunlight into electricity, and using solar thermal collectors to absorb solar energy for heating water.
Advantages of solar power
The energy and heat from the sun is free and unlimited.
Solar power is non-polluting. Solar power usage does not emit any greenhouse gases or harmful waste.
Solar power is perfect and saving for power generation in remote areas or where the cost of expansion utility grid is high.
Solar power is versatile. It can be used for low-power purpose as well as larger ones - from hand-held calculators, watches,
and solar powered garden lights to water heaters, cars, buildings and satellites.
Solar power system requires very little maintenance and last for many years.

Applications of solar energy
Daylighting
The oldest solar application is daylighting. Daylighting system collects and distributes sunlight to provide effective
internal illumination inside buildings. Daylighting design implies careful selection of window types, sizes and orientation
may be considered as well. There are also other architectural features such as light shelves and even active sun tracking
system which combine with fiber optics or mirrors to provide light to interior of large buildings.



Solar Thermal
Solar thermal technologies can be used for water heating in homes or commercial and space heating or space cooling for
buildings. Solar water heating systems use different type of collectors to gather and store the solar energy for heating
water used in residential, commercial and industrial applications. For space heating and cooling in warm temperature
region, the thermal mass materials is needed to keep building cool by absorbing solar energy during a day and radiate
stored heat to cooler atmosphere at night. However they can be used in cold temperature areas to maintain warmth as well.


Solar Electric Power Generation
Solar energy can be directly converted to electricity by photovoltaic cells. Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems provide
electricity to home or business for lighting, TV, fan, computer, stereo, refrigerator, water pump or livestock feeders,
without connection to utility grid. They are also used to power watches, calculators and sign lights.


What is Electricity?
Any appliances that we use in our daily lives
such as household appliances, office
equipments and industrial equipments,
almost all of those things take electricity.
Therefore, we should understand electricity.
The first question that we will find out the
answer is "where does electricity come




News

01/05/2014
Leonics is now one of
HOMER prefer partner
program



from?"
All matters are made up of atoms. Then ask the next question, "What are atoms?"
Atoms are the smallest part of an element. They are composed of nucleus and electrons, electrons
surround nucleus. Elements are identified by the number of electrons in orbit around nucleus of
atoms and by the number of protons in nucleus.


Nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons, and the number of protons and neutrons are balanced.
Neutrons have no electric charge, protons have positive charges (+) and electrons have negative
charges (-). A positive charge of proton equals a negative charge of electron.

Electrons are bound in their orbit by attraction of protons, but electrons in the outer band can
become free of their orbit by some external forces. These are referred to as free electrons, which
move from one atom to the next, electron flows are produced. These are the basis of electricity.
Materials that allow many electrons to move freely are called conductors and materials that allow
few free electrons to move are called insulators.

All matters are made up of atoms that have electric charges. Therefore, they have electric charges.
For the matter that has a balanced the number of protons and electrons, positive charge force and
negative charge force are balanced. It is called neutral state of an atom. (The number of protons and
electrons remains equal.)

"Static electricity" represents a situation that all things are made up of electric charges. For example,
the rubbing of material against another can cause the static electricity. Free electrons of one material
move forcefully till they are freed of their orbits around nucleus and move to another. Electrons of
one material decrease, it presents positive charges. At the same time, electrons of another increase,
it has negative charges.
20/12/2013
Leonics sponsors KMUUT
Team in Solar Decathlon
Europe 2014 competition

20/11/2013
Seminar on "Solar PV
Rooftop in Thailand" The
Big Change for all and
Sustainability Energy

10-12/10/2013
Leonics participated in
"Bangkok Electric &
Electronics 2013"

07/09/2013
Practical seminars on the
rooftop solar power
system




In general, charge producing of the matter means the matter has electric charges. It has
positive and negative charges, which is expressed in coulomb.

Current, Voltage and Resistance

What is Current?
An electrical phenomenon is caused by
flow of free electrons from one atom to
another. The characteristics of current
electricity are opposite to those of static
electricity.
Wires are made up of conductors such as
copper or aluminum. Atoms of metal are
made up of free electrons, which freely
move from one atom to the next. If an
electron is added in wire, a free electron
is attracted to a proton to be neutral.
Forcing electrons out of their orbits can
cause a lack of electrons. Electrons,
which continuously move in wire, are
called Electric Current.







For solid conductors, electric current refers to
directional negative-to-positive electrons from one
atom to the next. Liquid conductors and gas
conductors, electric current refers to electrons and
protons flow in the opposite direction.
Current is flow of electrons, but current and electron
flow in the opposite direction. Current flows from
positive to negative and electron flows from negative to
positive.

Current is determined by the number of electrons passing through a cross-section of a conductor in
one second. Current is measured in amperes, which is abbreviated "amps". The symbol for amps is a
letter "A".
A current of one amp means that current pass through a cross-section of two conductors, which are
placed in parallel 1 meter apart with 2x10
-7
Newton per meter force occur in each conductor. It can
also mean charges of one coulomb (or 6.24x10
18
electrons) passing through a cross-section of a
conductor in one second.

What is voltage?
Electric current is flow of electrons in a
conductor. The force required to make
current flow through a conductor is
called voltage and potential is the other
term of voltage. For example, the first
element has more positive charges, so it
has higher potential. On the other hand,
the second element has charges that are
more negative so it has lower potential.
The difference between two points is
called potential difference.
Electromotive force means the force which
makes current continuously flows through a
conductor. This force can be generated from
power generator, battery, flashlight battery
and fuel cell, etc.
Volt, abbreviated "V", is the unit of
measurement used interchangeably for
voltage, potential, and electromotive force.
One volt means a force which makes current
of one amp move through a resistance of
one ohm.





What is resistance?
Electrons move through a conductor when electric current flows. All materials impede flow of
electric current to some extent. This characteristic is called resistance. Resistance increases
with an increase of length or decrease of cross-section of a material.
The unit of measurement for resistance is ohms and its symbol is the Greek letter omega ().
The resistance of one ohm means a conductor allows a current of one amp to flow with a
voltage of one volt.

All materials are difference in allowing electrons flow. Materials that allow many electrons to
flow freely are called conductors such as copper, silver, aluminium, hydrochloric solution,
sulphuric acid and saltwater. In contrast, materials which allow few electrons to flow are
called insulators such as plastic, rubber, glass and dry paper. Another type of materials,
semiconductors have characteristics of both conductors and insulators. They allow electrons
to move while being able to control flow of electrons and examples are carbon, silicon and
germanium, etc.
The resistance of conductor depends on two main factors as the followings:
1. Types of material
2. Temperature of material


How to measure current

The instrument used to measure current is called ampere meter or ammeter.
Steps for current measurement Connect a small light bulb to a dry cell.
Measure current that passes through light bulb by connecting positive
terminal (+) of ammeter to negative terminal (-) of a dry cell (see figure)

Safety instructions for current measurement;
1. Estimate current that required measuring then choose a suitable
ammeter, since each ammeter has different limit of current
measurement.
2. Be sure that the connection to positive terminal (+) and negative
terminal (-) of ammeter are correct.
3. Do not directly connect ammeter terminals to dry cell terminals.
Since it can damage the meter.


How to measure voltage
The instrument used to measure voltage, difference potential or electromotive force is called
voltmeter.
Steps for voltage measurement
Connect a small light bulb to a dry cell. A voltmeter is wired in parallel

with the light bulb to measure voltage across the light bulb. Connect
positive terminal (+) of voltmeter to positive terminal (+) of a dry cell
and connect negative terminal (-) of voltmeter to negative terminal (-)
of a dry cell (see figure).
Safety instructions for measuring voltage;
1. Estimate voltage that required measuring then choose
a suitable voltmeter, since each voltmeter is designed with
the limit of voltage measurement.
2. Be sure that the connecting of positive terminal (+) and negative
terminal (-) of voltmeter are correct.
How to measure resistance
The instrument used to measure resistance is called test meter or multimeter. The multimeter
or test meter is used to make various electrical measurements such as current, voltage and
resistance. It combines the functions of ammeter, voltmeter and ohmmeter.
Steps for resistance measurement
Turn the face dial to a position for required measuring,
resistance, then touch both of terminals of multimeter (see
figure 1) and adjust the meter range to 0 . Touch both of
terminals of meter to a resistance and take the reading (see
figure 2).




How Electricity works?
Electric current is the ability to do work. Electric current can be converted to heat, power and
magnetism, to name a few.
Electric current is classified by its functions and three primary types are:
1. Heat and power
2. Electrochemistry
3. Magnetism

1. Heat and power is used to make heat and power.

For example, current-carrying nichrom wire that nichrom wire has a high resistance and creates
heat. This is applied to be component of electric ovens, toasters, electric irons and light bulbs, etc.


Experiment is made by measuring heat quantity of water by calorimeter. Increase voltage across
wire by the variac and connect ammeter and voltmeter to measure current and voltage.
Set the variac scale to adjust voltage and current value of nichrom wire and current is passed
through periodically and measure heat quantity from nichrom wire. There are any indications of
voltage and current. If voltage, current and time increase, heat quantity will also increase. They are
expressed by the relation as below.


This is called Joule's law. Heat quantity depends on voltage time current and interval of time.
From Ohm's law, V (Voltage) = I (Current) x R (Resistance) therefore


Heat quantity depends on current squared times resistance and interval of time.

When current is passed through nichrom wire in water, current is converted to heat and
temperature rises. Work is done by heat generated in an electrical circuit, which is called Electric
power.

Electric power is measured in Watts-hour (Wh) and heat quantity is measured in calories (Cal).


Work is done by heat generated in an electrical circuit is written in power, which it means that the
rate work is done in a circuit when 1 Amp flows with 1 Volt applied and its unit of measurement is
Watt.

Conclusion

2. Electrochemistry

For example, when current is passed through sodium chloride (NaCl) solution, a chemical reaction
called electrolysis occurs. This is applied to produce electrolysis, galvanizing and battery, etc.

Experiment is made by soaking two platinum
(Pt) plates in molten salt. Connect batteries to
two platinum plates, current is passed through
molten salt and produces chlorine bubbles
around positive plate (+) and hydrogen bubbles
around negative plate (-) since sodium chloride
composes of sodium (Na) and chloride (Cl).
When sodium chloride melts in water, the
elements are separated. Sodium has positive
charges (+), while chlorine has negative charges

(-) and these charges are called ions. The molten
salt has both positive charges, called anodes,
and negative charges called cathodes. The state
of separated elements is called ionization. If salt
is melted by water, solution is available ions,
called electrolyte solution. And if current is
passed through electrolyte solution, a chemical
reaction known as electrolysis occurs.
3. Magnetism

The example of this electric work is a current-carrying wire, magnetic lines of flux occur. This is
applied to produce electric motors, electric transformers and tape recorders, etc.
Understanding meaning of magnetism:
What is magnetism?
The compound formula of magnet is Fe
3
O
4
. All magnets have two
characteristics. First, they attract and hold iron. Secondary, if free to
move like the compass needle, they will assume a north-south position.
Any materials have these characteristics, they are called magnet.


The characteristics of magnet are
Every magnet has two poles, one north pole and one south pole.
Opposite poles attract each other, while like poles repel each other.


Electricity and magnetic field
When magnetic needle is placed near electric wire,
which current is passed through, magnetic needle
turns on the direction of current flow (see figure 1 and
2). Therefore, electric current flow also produces an
associated magnetic force or it is said that electricity is
able to produce magnetic field.


When magnetic needle is placed in wire coil with one
loop (see figure) and current is passed through wire
coil, magnetic needle turns on the direction as shown
in above figure. And the directions of magnetic lines of
flux are shown by the arrows.


When magnetic needle is placed in wire coil with many
loops as shown in right figure, then current is passed
through coil. The direction of magnetic lines of flux
parallels wire coil. The characteristics of magnetic lines
of flux like the characteristics of magnet, but no
magnetic pole.


When a current-carrying wire coil is placed near iron
bar, the iron bar move slightly (see figure 1). If core is
placed in a wire coil, the iron bar is attracted strongly
(see figure 2). Because core is a soft iron, which
conducts magnetic lines of force, when current is
passed through wire coil around core, the core
becomes magnetized with high power that is called
electromagnets. This function is widely applied for
using in industries.



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Basics of Current

Current is classified into two types:
Direct Current (DC): DC is unidirectional flow of
electric charge that means its direction remains
constant.
Examples of DC power source are battery and solar
cell, etc.
Direct Current or DC is suitable for using with DC
appliances not to reverse polarity.




Alternative Current (AC): AC is an electric current
which direction reverses cyclically. The usual
waveform of AC power is sine wave with frequency
50 or 60 Hz.
Examples of AC power sources are utility power
supplies to residences and businesses, audio and radio
signals, etc.


Electrical power consumption
Electrical power consumed by DC electrical appliances can be determined by voltage that they
work on and current that they consumed.
DC power consumption = Voltage (Volts) X Load Current (Amps) = Watts
Electrical power consumed by AC electrical appliances is more complicated than DC
electrical appliances because the direction of current is changed periodically then the value of
voltage and current should be measured in term of RMS (Root Mean Square) to eliminate
changing of current direction.
AC electrical appliances or AC loads are classified into two types as the followings;
Linear load is electrical load consuming AC power both real power and apparent power
with a power factor of 1. Example of linear load is incandescent lamp.
Non-linear load generates harmonic currents in addition to the original AC current and its
power factor is less than 1. Examples of non-linear load are fluorescent lamp, electronic
ballast of fluorescent lamp, PC and TV, etc.
Each type of AC load has different consuming current characteristic and the figures below
show the current characteristic of linear load and non-linear load with same input voltage at
same power rating of load.

Current characteristic of
incandescent lamp,
which power factor = 1
Current characteristic of
a set of PC,
which power factor = 0.52



What are Watt and VA?
Watt is unit of power. Its measures a rate of energy use or production and its symbol is W.
VA or volt-ampere is unit of electrical power consumed by non-linear load. It measures
apparent power.
Example
A Computer is consumed power as a non-linear load then VA should be the measuring unit
that indicates power consumed by PC.
A UPS is used to supply power to PC once the utility power is failed then a UPS should be
declared its power in VA as well.
AC power (Watt) measuring
To measure real AC power of electrical appliances, the measuring equipment called "Power
meter" is requested. This equipment will measure voltage and current at the same time and
make calculation to get power in "Watt".
The following figures show measuring of a PC with 17" monitor power consumption by
using power meter.


AC apparent power (VA) calculating
We can measure the power of the same set of a PC with 17" monitor by measuring voltage
(RMS) and current (RMS) after calculation power by multiply working voltage with
consumed current.


AC apparent power = Voltage (RMS) X Load Current (RMS) = VA
= 229.3 X 1.10 = 252.23 VA
The relation of AC power and AC apparent power
AC power
(Watts)
= AC apparent power X Power factor
= (VA) X Power factor
Power factor (pf) of an AC electrical power system is defined as ratio of real power to the
apparent power and is a number between 0 and 1.
Power factor of linear load equals one (=1) and power factor of non-linear load is less than one
(<1).
From a sample of a PC with 17" monitor, we can calculate power factor by
Watts
132
pf
= VA X pf
= 252.23 X pf
= 132 / 252.23 = 0.523


Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)
Enable the solar panel always work at the Maximum Power Point of the V-A curve. Increase
efficiency of solar panel modules by 10% to 30%.
MPPT Principle
The maximum power point is mainly affected by the ambient temperature and the intensity of
sunshine. The intensity of sunshine being constant, the maximum power decreases with the rise
of temperature. The temperature being constant, when the sunshine intensify, the voltage of PV
module keep unchanged but the current increase substantially thus the maximum output power
increase.
This MPPT solar charge controller can intelligently regulate the working voltage of solar panels,
letting the solar panels always work at Maximum Power Point of V-A curve. Compared with
ordinary solar controller, this MPPT controller can increase the efficiency of PV modules by
about 30%. However, due to many factors, such as the different in solar panel making, the
change of sun illuminance, temperature, etc, the actual available increase rate is 10% - 30%