Chapter1

APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING

A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
The present course-book is aimed at introducing students of English to the principles,
methods and procedures regulating the domain of English language teaching
methodology. Commonly designated by various acronymic names such as ELT (English
Language Teaching, TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language, TE!L (Teaching
English as a !econd Language or TE!"L (Teaching English to !peakers of "ther
Languages, the domain is concerned #ith the theory and practice of teaching English to
non-native speakers. $ddressing students at the stage of initial ELT teacher-training, this
course of lectures proposes to ac%uaint students #ith the current methods and procedures
#hich represent the stock in trade of contemporary language teaching.
Learning foreign languages is a long-standing human endeavour and has been a
cornerstone of any system of education throughout history. !tarting from the early
&iddle-$ges, foreign language study #as mainly concerned #ith offering a classical
education, #ith an emphasis on 'reek and Latin. Later on, kno#ledge of modern
languages came to be regarded as e%ually important for an accomplished education. !o,
in the course of time, any ne# concept or system of education has recognised the
importance of foreign language learning and has contributed to the development of a
time-honoured tradition in the pedagogy of language learning and teaching. This tradition
of language pedagogy has gro#n and often changed #ith the times, according to ne#
trends or systems of thought in the study of linguistics, language learning psychology and
pedagogy.
The ma(or teaching approaches to language teaching and learning have al#ays
been based on certain assumptions about language (linguistic theory and concepts about
#ays of learning a language (psycho-linguistics and pedagogy. )o#adays, the specific
domain of linguistics concerned #ith language learning and teaching is circumscribed to
$pplied Linguistics or !econd Language $c%uisition (also kno#n as !L$, #hich
underlie most of the contemporary teaching approaches and methodologies. The teaching
approache an! "etho! presented belo# closely illustrate the changes and evolutions
in linguistic and pedagogical assumptions about language learning.
GRA##AR TRANSLATION
This is the oldest method used in language teaching. *t #as largely used for the study of
both classical and modern languages ever since the &iddle-$ges. *t remained popular
throughout the +,
th
and early -.
th
century, being regarded as a standard method until as
late as the +,/.s.
Theoretica$ approach0 The assumption about language underlying the grammar
translation method #as that language #as a finite body1system of kno#ledge to be learnt.
Ai"0 The main goal informing this concept of language learning #as gaining a
theoretical kno#ledge of a finite linguistic system, #hich re%uited a certain mental
discipline and helped develop the intellect.
#etho!0 Teaching and learning dealt primarily #ith the #ritten form of the language,
#ith a focus on mastering the grammatical and le2ical system. Learning activities #ere
based on prescriptive grammar, #hich emphasised rote learning, i.e. the memorisation of
grammar rules and #ord lists, as #ell as the analysis of parts of speech and syntactical
patterns.
Proce!%re0 3ritten grammar practice consisted in translation e2ercises from and into
the target language. Classroom procedure #as accuracy-oriented, re%uiring the learning
and application of rules. The teaching #as of a deductive kind, based on prescribing rules
to be follo#ed in order to produce grammatically accurate sentences or te2ts. The main
procedure #as the study and translation of classical te2ts or outlandish sentences, #ith
reading and translation as the central linguistic skills. The target language #as not used in
class interaction. $s the mother tongue #as the customary medium of instruction, neither
the teacher nor the students #ere supposed to speak the language studied. The teaching
aims of the grammar translation method concerned the ability to read literature and gain
kno#ledge of the culture of the target language via literary te2ts and to translate te2ts
through the accurate application of rules. Teaching materials consisted in classical literary
te2ts.
Teacher&$earner ro$e an! interaction' The teacher has a dominant role in the
classroom as the sole kno#er and source of kno#ledge, the model to imitate and
controller of the class, #hile students only relate their learning to the teacher and the te2t.
THE AUDIO(LINGUAL APPROACH&AUDIO(LINGUALIS#
4egarded as an informed, modern-day alternative to the classical methods of grammar
translation, the audio-lingual approach #as derived from the theoretical tenets of
behaviourism, a psychological trend #hich largely influenced language pedagogy starting
#ith the +,5.s.
Theoretica$ approach0 6ehaviourists held that linguistic behaviour #as based on
automatic speech habits ac%uired through a process involving three interconnected steps0
!timulus -7 4esponse -7 4einforcement. The formation of such linguistic automatisms
#as the result of systematic e2posure to this process of conditioning refle2es of correct
language use. The approach #as largely influenced by the studies in behaviourist
psychology of F. 6. !kinner.
Ai"0 The approach aimed at establishing, developing and reinforcing the set of speech
habits necessary for accurate oral e2pression. 8ractice focused on spoken language for
actual use.
#etho!0 The main assumption underlying this method is that speech habits can be
conditioned by means of sustained oral drilling consisting of conversational or structural
pattern drills. The emphasis on correct form entailed the use of recorded materials #ith
structural and syntactical patterns of 9isolated:, de-conte2tualised form and meaning, in
#hich irregularities tended to be ignored.
Proce!%re0 Teaching and learning #as organised according to a strict se%uence of skill
training ; listening -7 speaking -7 reading -7 #riting and based on controlled drill-#ork.
Language lab classes consisted of listening to and repeating after recorded dialogues,
used both for structural presentation and drilling. The practice of structural patterns #as
graded so as to progressively follo# a structure-based syllabus. Errors #ere not regarded
as part of learning, so they #ere to be avoided through immediate correction and through
repetitive pattern drilling, #hich often led to over-learning. *n contrast #ith the grammar
translation method, there is almost e2clusive emphasis on the spoken language and,
obviously, on phonetic practice for correct pronunciation. The concern for accurate
structural patterning also precluded a preoccupation #ith vocabulary building, #hich
tended to remain limited. *nductive teaching involved learning by doing, based on the use
of the target language. The teaching materials are simple dialogue drills on #ritten
support or on tape recordings.
Teacher&$earner ro$e an! interaction0 <espite the limitation of teacher talking time
(TTT via intensive learner drilling, the teacher still occupies a centre-stage position in
his1her role as kno#er and fountain of all kno#ledge. !tudents #orked e2clusively #ith
the teacher, therefore they depend on the teacher to organise their learning, in #hich their
role remains limited. The approach, though highly popular for a #hile, declined in
popularity to#ard the end of the =.s, #hen its validity began to be %uestions by such
linguists as )oam Chomsky.
THE COGNITIVE CODE APPROACH
The cognitive approach developed round Chomsky:s theory of 9language universals: and
their role in first language ac%uisition. Chomsky contradicts the tenets of behaviourism
that linguistic abilities are no more than learnt habits, arguing that people often produce
language strings they have never heard before.
Theoretica$ approach0 >is theory upholds the idea that our production of language is
rule-governed and creative at the same time, being based on our application of a
grammatical code (deep structure to generate an infinite number of sentences (surface
structure. This rule-based creativity is rooted in the kno#ledge of a limited system of
rules, a kind of linguistic matri2 or language universals #hich, once understood, enable
us to produce original sentences.
Ai"0 Learning means the conscious ac%uisition of language as a coherent and
meaningful system. The students should be a#are of these aims and #ork actively
to#ards an understanding and control of the structure of the language.
#etho!0 Language learning is seen as a cognitive process, the emphasis is on studying
the rules governing the creation of meaning. "n the basis or their innate ability to learn
languages, learners should be engaged in e2ploring language and forming hypotheses
about its functioning. The cognition of the system constitutes a learner:s linguistic
competence. *n their performance or productive application of the rules, students are
likely to make errors, #hich are regarded as fundamental to their ad(ustments of their
internalisation of the rule system.
Proce!%re0 Classroom practice is centred on comprehension activities and the study of
structural meaning. 'rammar is taught both deductively and inductively, #ith an
emphasis on guided discovery techni%ues, #hich engage students in the formulation and
statement of rules. Errors are regarded as inevitable and instrumental in the development
of an internal grammar #hich students can rely on for generating meaning through
structure. 8ractice activities presuppose a much #ider use of a variety of materials, meant
to keep students mentally engaged in #orking #ith the target language.
Teacher&$earner ro$e an! interaction' 3hile the teacher still holds a prominent role as
a guide to kno#ledge, students are taught to be responsible for their o#n learning and to
monitor their cognitive process. 'iven the more liberal attitude to#ards learner errors, the
teacher encourages peer correction and interaction during language activities.


THE CO##UNICATIVE APPROACH
The communicative approach or communicative language teaching (CLT gained
prominence in the ?.s and early @.s, as language theorists started %uestioning the validity
of Chomsky:s model of linguistic competence and focus on structure study and practice.
Theoretica$ approach0 $pplied linguists such as >enry 3iddo#son dre# attention to the
limitations of structure-focused syllabi and de-conte2tualised structure practice,
advocating the need for adapting language teaching to communicational situations and
for developing communicative abilities and skills. The $merican linguist <el >ymes
developed the concept of communicative competence as the main aim of language
teaching. Language learning is supposed to mean not only the mastery of the
grammatical, le2ical and phonological system, but also the learning of social rules
governing conte2tualised communication. *n other #ords, language should be appropriate
to the social conte2t. The rules of appropriacy are also con(oined #ith rules of social
interaction. The approach focuses on activities concerned #ith language as discourse,
language in action rather than as isolated specimens.
Ai"0 The rationale behind communicative language teaching is modifying classroom
procedures so as to promote realistic and socially conte2tualised communication rather
than artificial language practice. <eveloping communicative competence is bound up
#ith creating realistic communicative conte2ts and developing strategies of
communication through student-student interaction.
#etho!0 The methodological frame#ork CLT relates to the theory of second language
ac%uisition advanced by !tephen Arashen, #ho argues that students ac%uire language
#hen they focus on meaning rather than on form. 3hat distinguishes ac%uisition from
learning is the notion that learners can al#ays encounter and absorb ne# language in real
communicative conte2ts. The underlying principle is the balance bet#een the study of
language areas (grammar and vocabulary and skills development, as #ell as the practice
of language functions.
Proce!%re0 $s the focus is on communicative functions in real life-interaction, learning
is organised on the basis of notional1functional syllabus rather than structure-based
programmes. Lessons are se%uenced not in terms of grammatical content but rather on
topic based areas of communication and self-e2pression. The teaching has a #ider scope,
#hich envisages the students: needs, regarded as all-important. Language learning is part
of the #ider frame#ork of language education, meant to train students in learning
strategies and thus encourage learner autonomy and independence.
Language and skills practice is based on the use of authentic materials (samples of
real discourse and different reading1listening te2t types and authentic tasks (replicating
real communication situations. *n communicative teaching, there is a greater emphasis
on fluency-building activities and skills practice relevant to the students: needs and
concern. <uring fluency-oriented activities, errors are regarded as less important, since
the focus is on communicative efficiency. Errors are used to gauge the need for remedial
#ork or re-teaching. The use of interactive communicative activities is aimed at creating
and developing a clear sense of conte2t and communicative purpose, #hich leads to
informed choices about relevant content and appropriate language (structure and le2is.
The key distinctive principles and features of communicative teaching are the follo#ing0
Ta)(*ae! $earning' The simulation of communicative conte2ts is realised by
means of tasks #hich re%uire students to e2change information or opinions and
interact in a realistic #ay. *n order to complete their task #ith the information
they need, the students have to ask and ans#er %uestions, to speak and listen to
each other. *n other #ords, the task provides them #ith a purpose for
communication.
Co""%nicati+e ta)' !o as to promote meaningful communication, the tasks
have to replicate real-life conte2ts of purposeful communication, #ith a focus on
language functions0 en%uiring, inviting, refusing, giving directions, asking for and
giving personal information, etc. These conte2ts can be simulated through such
interactive activities as in,or"ation gap (students have to e2change information
so as to carry out a common task, ro$e(p$a-, inter+ie., pro*$e"(o$+ing,
priorit- ran)ing, !ic%ion an! !e*ate, %r+e-, ga"e.
Ta) inter(!epen!enc-' The underlying principle of communicative activities
such as info-gap is that students #ill be unable to complete the task #ithout
sharing information bet#een themselves, #hich means they depend on each other
and have to cooperate on the task.
Pair(.or) an! gro%p(.or)' "rganising communicative tasks re%uires a
different kind of class organisation, layout and seating arrangements. &ost
communicative tasks re%uire students to #ork in pairs or small groups of three or
four, #hich creates the proper conditions for #orking together on a task.
Co$$a*orati+e $earning' Task-based learning creates the premises for cooperation
among students, #ho have to #ork together to achieve a certain outcome. This
allo#s for #orking and learning collaboratively, #hich helps promote a positive,
purposeful and productive class atmosphere and the proper conditions for learning
to take place. Communicative learning has also inspired the a,,ecti+e(h%"anitic
approach, #hich attaches great importance to a motivating and friendly class
atmosphere and to building a good rapport bet#een teacher and students.
Teacher&$earner ro$e an! interaction' *n contrast #ith the approaches #hich preceded
it, communicative language teaching radically redefines and changes the roles of both
teacher and students. To begin #ith the traditional teacher-centred classroom is replaced
by a $earner(centre! c$aroo"/ #ith the students occupying the centre-stage of
classroom activity and acting not as passive recipients, but as active agents fully engaged
in their o#n learning. *n this conte2t, the teacher relin%uishes the age-old dominant
position as sole source of language and class controller, assuming more fle2ible and
motivational roles as c$a organier1intigator o, $ang%age
acti+it-1"oti+ator1in,or"ant to the $earner1pro+i!er o, reo%rce&g%i!e ,or the
t%!ent0 o.n $earning. $s for the students, they are encouraged to take responsibility
for their o#n learning, to study independently and act as autonomous learners, less
dependent on the teacher in organising their learning.
BBB
The present course-book in ELT methodology is dra#s largely upon the communicative
approach, being focused on illustrating the principles and general methodology
underlying communicative teaching and language learning practice. "f course, as the
methodologist 8hillip 8ro#se contends, one of the most #idespread myths in the field of
language teaching and learning is the myth of the ideal methodology. >e #arns that no
methodology should be adopted uncritically, as the teacher should constantly test and
refine his1her methods in terms of #hat #orks best in a particular educational culture,
teaching situation and kind of learners or learner needs. >o#ever, since communicative
teaching comes closest to training the kind of communicative competence and skills
necessary in the contemporary conte2t of globalisation, this approach imposes itself as an
informed choice. *n an increasingly globalised #orld of education and #ork, training our
students for efficient, meaningful communication and cross-cultural understanding
constitutes a goal #orth pursuing.



Chapter 1
TEACHING GRA##AR
INTRODUCTION
The importance of grammar in foreign language teaching and learning need hardly be
argued for. To begin #ith, grammar provides the only systematic frame#ork for
organiCing the teaching and learning of the language, since a kno#ledge of grammatical
structures and rules provides useful generalisations #hich enable learners to formulate
and generate correct sentences. *t also represents the basis for syllabus and course design,
as it helps teachers and course-book #riters to organiCe content and plan #hat structures
to present at the various stages of language learning. The ruling organiCing principle
should be that of structural comple2ity, that is #e should proceed from simple to more
comple2 structures, progressing according to the learners: age and language level. $s far
as learners are concerned, grammar rules are reliable milestones guiding their learning
and providing them #ith a sense of security.
"f course, in a balanced teaching approach, aimed at both linguistic competence
and proficiency ; such as the communicative approach ; grammar teaching only
represents a means to an end, that is an indispensable starting point, a foundation or
ground#ork to build for language ac%uisition and skills practice, rather than an end in
itself. That is #hy, #hile granting grammar its proper place in our teaching, #e should
not overemphasiCe the importance of grammar #ork and grammatical accuracy.
E2clusive focus on accuracy has its do#nside, too, as it may inhibit the students: progress
to#ards communicative fluency.
"vercorrection may affect the learners: confidence in their performance and
ability for free communication and self-e2pression. *n this case, the teacher runs the risk
of ignoring the student:s preferred style of learning. 3e should not forget that, in our
mother tongue, #e learn to communicate effectively even if our grammar is not entirely
accurate.
$t the same time, devoting too much time to accuracy-based grammar e2ercises
entails an artificial limitation of the e2posure to the language, #hich can only be
monotonous and thus de-motivating, as it deprives the learner of valuable stimulus to use
the language in a variety of conte2ts. *f #e overemphasise the primacy of rules, our
students #ill be psychologically ill-prepared to accommodate the inevitable e2ceptions to
grammatical rules.
PRINCIPLES IN GRA##AR TEACHING
P$anning an! organi2ation
*n devising a grammar syllabus, the teacher or materials #riter should order the structural
items to be taught in terms of the follo#ing principles and criteria0
Co"p$e3it- o, ,or"
This criterion has already been enounced above and is based on the commonsensical idea
that #ith young learners or at beginner level, structural items are ordered according to
their degree of comple2ity. For instance, !imple Tenses are taught before
Continuous18rogressive Tense forms, or the 8ast !imple is presented before the 8resent
8erfect, because they are more comple2 in form.
Teacha*i$it-
The %uestion of teachability derives from the comple2ity of form criterion mentioned
above, but also refers to the comple2ity of meaning. $gain, the problem in %uestion
relates to adapting structural content to the learners: age and level. )eedless to say,
simpler forms, e2pressing basic or everyday meanings and functions are more easily
understood ; and thus more teachable ; than more comple2 structure, such as the
!ub(unctive.
Co""%nicati+e %e,%$ne
$n important %uestion related to the ordering structural items for teaching and learning
purposes should be0 9*s the structure useful1necessary1indispensible for everyday
communicationD: The ans#er to this #ill tell us #hich structures should be given priority
in our grammar course planning.
Linear or c-c$ica$ ,ra"e.or)
This criterion is related to the teaching of a structure in all its aspects (range of meanings
or functions, or to the teaching of structural synonymy, i.e. presenting all the structures
#ith a similar meaning. For e2ample, there are several structures #hose meaning and
communicative function is 9making a suggestion:0 Let:s E infinitive, !hall #e E
infinitiveD, >o#13hat about E ing-formD, 3hy don:t #e E infinitiveD 3e could E verb.
*n a linear frame#ork, all these structures #ill be presented at the same time. "r, if #e
think of structures #ith multiple meanings, such as various tenses, all the meanings #ill
be given from the beginning. $ cyclical approach #ould mean that a particular structure
or function is revised cyclically and taught gradually, focusing on one meaning, form or
function at a time. "ur approach is likely to depend on the learning conte2t, age and level
of students. >o#ever, for the sake of clarity and effectiveness, the golden rule #ould be
to teach one thing at a time.
#eta$ang%age
&etalanguage is the specialised grammatical terminology used to define1describe
language structures. >o# much or ho# little metalanguage #e use in the classroom
depends on the learners: age and previous e2perience of grammar in L + or foreign
language learning. *t goes #ithout saying that #ith (very young learners, using
metalanguage is irrelevant and counterproductive, #hile #ith mature, advanced students,
metalanguage can be used as an aid to organiCing learning, to clarifying and
distinguishing bet#een grammatical categories, meanings and functions. Even in the
latter case, it should be used #ith moderation, as overusing metalanguage and rules can
distract attention from the meaningful practice of language in use.
Staging
The main stages of a grammar lesson or se%uence are0 84E!E)T$T*") ; 84$CT*CE ;
84"<FCT*"). The 84E!E)T$T*") stage comprises activities aimed at
introducing1presenting the ne# structure. The 84$CT*CE stage includes accuracy-
oriented, teacher-controlled e2ercises, focused on the students: correct usage of the ne#
structure. The 84"<FCT*") or F4EE 84$CT*CE stage contains fluency-oriented,
communicative activities, such as pair-#ork or group-#ork tasks, in #hich students use
the ne# structure for free communication so as to accomplish the task or e2press their
o#n ideas and opinions on a given topic.
Reflection task:
At each stage consider
the Teachers role
the students role
control over language
error correction
the aims of each stage
Teaching trateg-
'rammar teaching strategies relate to our approach to presenting1introducing a ne#
structural item or rule. $ccording to ho# directly or indirectly #e present the ne#
grammar structure or rule, presentations can be o+ert&e3p$icit&!e!%cti+e or
co+ert&i"p$icit&in!%cti+e.
Gra""atica$ tr%ct%re an! co""%nicati+e ,%nction
'rammatical structures are linguistic forms conveying a certain meaning, used to fulfil a
communicative function. $ grammar syllabus can be based either on the teaching of
structural items proper or on communicative functions such as Suggesting, Inviting,
Refusing, etc. The aspects to be considered #hen teaching a structure are listed and
defined belo#0
4or"0 the actual #ords (#ritten or sounds (spoken used to e2press something in
language, as opposed to meaning or use. Form is often synonymous #ith structure.
#eaning0 The conventional or literal meaning of a particular form0 for e2ample, that past
tense form means past time. The purpose of traditional grammar books is to e2plain form
and meaning.
Uage0 4efers to e2amples of the generally accepted #ay of using the language in
conte2t, especially in order to sho# the differences bet#een %uasi-synonymous
structures, #hich are related in terms of meaning but are used in different #ays and
conte2ts.
Ue0 The #ay in #hich a speaker uses a particular language form to communicate on a
particular occasion. The use of a form may be described in terms of its function or
communicative purpose.
4%nction0 The function of a structure is the communicative purpose of that structure on a
particular occasion ; #hat the speaker is trying to do through language. For e2ample,
9>ave you read this bookD: is present perfect interrogative in form but the speaker may be
using it to make a suggestion, to suggest that the listener read the book ; suggesting is the
function of the structure here. The use of a form can often be e2pressed in terms of
functions.
Reflection task: Grammatical structure or function? What are the differences? Provide
eam!les" Should #e teach $oth? Wh%?
Attit%!e to error
Considering #hat #e kno# about ho# language learning takes place, #e should treat
errors as steps to learning or partial learning rather than frustrating indications of non-
learning. *n this light, errors provide information about the learners: progress and our
teaching priorities, as they signal areas that need re-teaching or remedial teaching.
!tudents should be made a#are of the areas of difficulty in English grammar and
fre%uently provided #ith opportunities of self-correction, peer-correction and error
correction e2ercises in general.

PRESENTATION STAGE
$ good grammar presentation is supposed to introduce the ne# structure in a conte2t
#hich clearly illustrates its meaning (and communicative function. >ere is a checklist
for effective, memorable presentations0
Preentation
need to conte2tualiCe the ne# language in a it%ation
need to have +i%a$ for ma2imum impact (blackboard dra#ings, realia (i.e.
real ob(ects, pictures, actions1mime
need to use language #hich is appropriate ,or the t%!ent0 age an! $e+e$
need to make sure there is no ne. +oca*%$ar-, #hich can be distracting ; if
necessary, #e can pre-teach any ne# le2ical items
need to be generati+e, i.e. able to generate many e2amples of the structure
need to be hort ; no longer than 5 minutes
$s already stated above, grammar presentations can be o+ert&e3p$icit&!e!%cti+e or
co+ert&i"p$icit&in!%cti+e5 "ther terms used for these t#o approaches are giving and
guiding. Giving describes the process #hereby the meaning of a structure is 9transmitted:
to the students in an overt #ay, and they are relatively passive recipients of ne# content.
Guiding describes the process #hereby students are involved in #orking out the meaning
for themselves or in deriving a rule from conte2tualised instances of the use of a
particular language item.
De!%cti+e preentation first formulate the rule and then give the e2ample.
The presentation starts from the form to the meaning and use of the structure. !uch a
presentation #ould go as follo#s0 the Present Perfect &ontinuous 'have(has $een )
Present Partici!le* is used to e!ress an activit%(state #hich starts in the !ast and last u!
to($e%ond the moment of s!eaking" +"g"0 She has $een $aking cakes for t#o hours"
In!%cti+e preentation introduce the structure in a conte2t or situation #hich
clearly illustrates its meaning and function. The teacher uses guiding %uestions,
prompting students to comment on the meaning of the ne# structure and infer the rule by
themselves.
De"ontration0 picture of a boy #aiting at the bus stop
Sit%ation0 This is Tom" Where is he? What is he doing? When did he arrive at the $us
sto!? ,e arrived at the $us sto! at -.".." What time is it no#? Its --".."
$t this point, the students are likely to have inferred the "eaning of the structure (i.e. an
activity or state #hich starts in the past and lasts till the moment of speech. The form of
the target tr%ct%re (i.e. the structure to be taught is then presented by the teacher in
both spoken and #ritten form in an e2ample sentence, called #AR6ER SENTENCE
(#S, #hich normally comes at the end of the presentation.
#S0 Tom ha *een .aiting at the bus stop for an hour.
The #AR6ER SENTENCE is also used after the presentation, for the repetition
practice meant to reinforce the form of the structure in terms of pronunciation1#ord
order1contractions.
G%i!e! !ico+er- presentations combine elements of the deductive and inductive
strategies. !tudents are elicited to formulate the meaning of a structure or a grammatical
rule, #hich they are helped to reach by means of relevant guiding %uestions.
E.g.0
Teacher0 9*n the dialogue on the board, both the verbs underlined refer to the
future. >o#ever, there is a difference in meaning bet#een the t#o future forms.
Think of the moment #hen the decision #as made:0
$0 3hy do you #ant the corkscre#D
60 *:m going to open that bottle of #ine * bought yesterday.
$0 3e drank it last night.
60 "h. Then *:ll open a beer.
Reflection task:
/eductive or inductive? Which is $etter? Wh%?
&an #e use $oth of them?
What are the advantages(disadvantages in either case?
To sum up, the presentation of a ne# language structure has to cover the follo#ing
aspects0
84E!E)T$T*") G &E$)*)', F"4&(!, 84")F)C*$T*"), FF)CT*") (!"C*$L
C")TEHT C"&&F)*C$T*"). For e2ample, the "eaning of the 8resent 8erfect
!imple in the %uestion 9>ave you read this bookD: is asking if an action has been
performed at any time up to the moment of speaking, #hile its ,%nction can be to suggest
that the sub(ect read the respective book.
15 PRESENTATION TECHNI7UES
Sit%ation
This has already been illustrated above. The situation and conte2t chosen should be
relevant to everyday life, and, as already stated, appropriate for the students: age, level,
interests and life e2perience. First and foremost, it should provide a meaningful conte2t
that #ill make the meaning (and function of the structure clear and easily understandable
to the students.
Task:
What situation can %ou think of to introduce the follo#ing language items?
going to0 used to0 -
st
1 2
rd
&onditionals0 counts 3 uncounts0 offers 3 acce!tances0
invitations 3 refusals
Co"pare an! contrat
This techni%ue #as illustrated above in the guided discovery presentation based on
comparing and contrasting the meaning of t#o future forms ; the going to E *nfinitive vs.
the Future !imple. *t is very useful in teaching tenses #ith the same time reference, but
#ith certain differences in meaning and use ; past time forms, future time formsI aspect ;
simple and continuous1progressive forms, conditionals, unreal past forms, sub(unctives,
etc. *t lends itself to guided discovery presentations, in #hich the students are involved in
the compare and contrast e2ercise. >ere are some e2amples of structures #hose meaning
can be illustrated by comparison and contrast0
* remembered locking the door. 1 * remembered to lock the door.
!he lived in London for +. years. 1 !he has lived in London for +. years.
!he didn:t need to cook the meet. 1 !he needn:t have cooked the meat.
They have been picking apples for several hours. They have picked ten basketfuls.
Storie
Even a briefly outlined situation may be a story in itself, but sometimes #e can make up a
very short story to introduce a structure. >ere is a story introducing the J
rd
Conditional0
4esterda% afternoon, 5ar% #ent to the li$rar% to $orro# $ooks for an essa% she had
to #rite for her histor% class" She consulted the catalogue and found a ver% good
$ook on the su$6ect, $ut #hen she asked for it, the li$rarian told her that someone
else had lend the $ook half an hour $efore" 5ar% thought:
MS: If I had come a little earlier, I would have got the $ook"
!tories add an element of fun and make memorable presentations, especially if they are
accompanied by visuals0 flashcards, dra#ings, pictures, cartoon strips, etc.
E3a"p$e gi+ing a "o!e$ entence or "o!e$ !ia$og%e
"f course, these are an essential part of any presentation. The model sentence1dialogue
can come to the end, as &arker !entences, but they may also be given at the beginning,
as support for an inductive1guided discovery presentation.
Ti"e($ine
Time-lines represent a very effective #ay of illustrating meaning visually in the case of
tene, apect/ the e8%ence o, tene. E.g.0

!he left * arrived
8astKKKK2KKKKKKKK2KKKKKKKKKKKK)o#KKKKKKKKKKKKFuture
+..J. +../5
!he ha! $e,t #hen * arri+e!"
off
8astKKKKLLLL LLLLLLKHKKKKKKKKK)o#KKKKKKKKKKKKKKFuture
* .a rea!ing #hen the lights .ent o%t.
he gave up
8astK222222222MNKKKKKKKKKKKKKK)o#KKKKKKKKKKKKKFuture
>e %e! to smoke.
Concept 8%etion
Concept %uestions are meant to clarify the meaning of a structure. They are a useful tool
for checking the students: understanding of the meaning and use of the structure. To
create concept %uestions, #e reduce the conceptual description of the target tr%ct%re to
--J simple statements #hich essentially describe its "eaning. 3e then turn these
statements into Oes1)o13h-%uestions for the students to ans#er.
+"g.0 * ha+e $i+e! here for three years. (8resent 8erfect
This "ean0
* started living here three years ago.
* still live here.
The concept 8%etion are0
T0 3hen did you start living hereD
!!0 J years ago
T0 <o you still live hereD
!!0 Oes, * do.
* ha+e ha! my overcoat c$eane!. (Causative 8assive form
This "ean0
!omeone (the cleaner:s has cleaned my overcoat.
* haven:t.
The concept 8%etion are0
T0 >ave you cleaned it yourselfD
!!0 )o.
T0 >as someone cleaned it for youD
!!0 Oes.
This suitcase is too hea+- to carr-. (too E ad(. E infinitive ; implied passive meaning
Concept %uestions0
T0 *s it heavyD
!!0 Oes.
T0 Can you carry itD 1 Can it be carriedD
!!0 )o.
T0 3hy notD
!!0 6ecause it is heavy.
Pict%re&,$ahcar!&*$ac)*oar! !ra.ing&tic) ,ig%re&cartoon trip&pict%re(
tor-
These techni%ues involve the use of visual teaching aids, #hich help make presentations
memorable, generative and entertaining at the same time. They are particularly suitable
for young learners and not only. They also provide visual cues or prompts for substitution
drills at the practice stage.
!he can play football.
>e can ride a bicycle.
>e #orks at the To#er of London.
6ob is a postman. >e delivers the mail at ,... every morning.
Ta*$e&chart on the *$ac)*oar!
>o# "%ch bread
sugar
milk
butter


do #e
needD
#antD
haveD
>o# "an- eggs
tomatoes
oranges
bread loaves
cartons of cereal
have to buyD
Rea$ia 9rea$ o*:ect;
The term realia refers to real ob(ects #e can use in presenting ne# structures, i.e.
classroom ob(ects, the students: belongings, stationary, toys, etc.
+"g"0
This red pencil is $onger than the black pencil. The green one is the $onget of all.
Tom:s satchel is hea+ier than 6ob:s. This flo#er pot is the $arget and this one is the
"a$$et.
#i"e an! !e"ontration
This techni%ue lends itself to easily demonstrable classroom actions. *t can be used to
present such structures as the 8resent Continuous, the 8resent 8erfect E (ust, &anner
$dverbs, etc.
Gra""atica$ r%$e an! tate"ent
This is a rather deductive techni%ue, though %uite useful #ith some#hat more comple2
grammar points like verbs follo#ed by the 'erund or the *nfinitive. 'iving students the
rules governing Perb Complementation #ould make a more effective and time-saving
presentation.
Gra""ar e3p$anation
This is a deductive techni%ue #hich can save time #hen time is at a premium. !o it is up
to the teacher to decide #hen and ho# to use it. The e2planation has to be clear and
concise, giving the necessary information about the meaning, form and function of the
structure.
Task: +!lain the grammar of 7used to
Tran$ation
There are situations in #hich the recourse to the mother tongue in presenting structures
can be illuminating, especially in conte2ts #here L+ interference (differences from
structures in the mother tongue #hich can create confusions. Translation, usually also
involving a compare and contrast approach bet#een the t#o languages, is useful in
highlighting and disambiguating such areas. 4omanian learners, for e2ample, should be
#arned that the 8resent the 8resent 8erfect and the 8resent Continuous, #hen used #ith
for and since, correspond to the present tense in their mother tongue. The 4omanian
QimperfectR can be rendered in English through both the 8ast !imple (#hen #e refer to
habitual actions in the past and the 8ast Continuous (for activity in progress at a time in
the past.
Finally, here is a list of criteria and %uestions teachers should consider in gauging
the effectiveness of grammar presentations, to be asked both before and after the
presentation0
Chec)$it ,or gra""ar preentation0
The target tr%ct%re. To be presented in both speech and #riting, both form and
meaning.
E3a"p$e. Enough e2amples of the structure in a meaningful conte2t.
Chec)ing %n!ertan!ing0 concept %uestions, clarification of the meaning.
Ter"ino$og-. Fse the grammar-book name of the structure1or other grammatical
terminologyD 3hich #ould be1#as more usefulD 3hyD
Lang%age. E2plain the structure in the target language1the students: mother
tongue1in a combination of the t#oD 3hich #ould be1#as more effectiveD
E3p$anation. *nformation given at the right level0 concise, accurate not too
detailed. $ny comparisons #ith the students: mother tongueD 3ould this be1#as
this usefulD
R%$e. 'ive e2plicit ruleD 3hy13hy notD E2plained by the teacher or elicited
from the studentsD 3hich #ould be1#as the best #ay to do itD
De$i+er-. !peak and #rite clearly at an appropriate speed

15 PRACTICE STAGE
The aims of this stage are to allo# the students to practice the ne# language. The practice
e2ercises are graded from very controlled, accuracy-oriented drills to less and less
controlled activities, #hich gradually increase the students: control over the language to
the level at #hich they can use the target structure freely and independently so as to
engage in fluency-oriented communication activities. $ccording to the control over
language allo#ed students at each sub-stage of the practice, #hich serves the aims of
gradual progression from accuracy to fluency in using ne# language items, the practice
stage is comprised of three main sections0 controlled, semi-controlled and free-
practice1production.
15 15 Contro$$e! practice
The first sub-stage aims for practice under controlled conditions, in #hich the students
are asked to repeat e2amples of the structure correctly via a variety of oral drills. The
teacher, #ho has full control over the language practised, focuses on accuracy and uses
immediate correction. The predominant type of interaction is Teacher ;7 !tudents. The
typical drill activities are0
Repetition !ri$$
The aim of repetition is to reinforce the structure in terms of pronunciation and #ord-
order. The drills should replay the #S (&arker !entence from the presentation, e.g.0
He0 *een $i+ing in the "o%ntain ,or t.o "onth. The marker sentence is repeated
first #ith the #hole class ; chora$ repetition ; then by individual students ; in!i+i!%a$
repetition. "ne useful repetition techni%ue is *ac)(chaining, in #hich the students are
helped #ith difficult areas by repeating one item at a time, starting from the end of the
sentence, and adding a ne# item each time until the #hole sentence is reconstructed.
4epetition drills should be done at a ,at pace ; speed is important since drills are
inherently boring. To maintain interest, the teacher should also be %npre!icta*$e in
selecting individual speakers.
$n interesting and entertaining alternative to classical repetition drills are <a22 Chant, a
concept developed by Carolyn 'raham, a musician, teacher and teacher trainer #ho
adapted structural drill practice to short, repetitive, structure1function-bound poems to be
chanted on (aCC rhythms (see 'raham0 +,?@, +,?,, +,@=, +,,J, -..., -..=. These
poem-like, (aCC-beat chants make for a highly en(oyable #ay of practising structures and
functions #hich alleviates the inherent boring effect of repetition drills. $lternatively,
these chants can also be used as e2amples for the presentation stage.
S%*tit%tion !ri$$
!ubstitution drills consist of graded variations on the marker sentence. The students are
asked to generate ne# sentences #ith the target structure by substituting various items in
the marker sentence. !ubstitution drills can be done chorally or individually. There are
several types0
Si"p$e %*tit%tion (vary + item in the &!0
!he:s
They:ve
Tom:s
&y sister:s

*een
living in the mountains
camping in the forest
drinking fresh #ater
#atching the bears ,or
t#o months
ten #eeks
almost a month
a fortnight
&y friends
&ary and 6ob have
*:ve
3e:ve
sleeping in a tent
looking at the stars
climbing the mountain
cooking on an open fire
fishing trout
#ashing in the river
several days
nearly a year
Progrei+e %*tit%tion (gradually generating a ne# sentence by varying + item
each time0
&!0 He0 *een $i+ing in the "o%ntain ,or t.o "onth
T0 They
!!0 They:ve been living in the mountains for t#o months
T0 !leeping in a tent
!!0 They:ve been sleeping in a tent for t#o months
T0 $lmost half a year
!!0 They:ve been sleeping in a tent for almost half a year
Retate"ent %*tit%tion
E.g.0 Let:s E verb
T0 Oou #ant to play football.
!!0 Let:s play football.
The substitution of one item for another is based on c%e or pro"pt offered by the
teacher. 3e can use +er*a$ pro"pt (#ord1phrase spoken by the teacher or #ritten on
the blackboard or prompt cards or +i%a$ pro"pt (dra#ing, picture, mime and gesture,
#ords on.
Further e2amples
Sing$e(.or! pro"pt
E.g.0 Let:s E verb
T0 Cinema
!!0 Let:s go to the cinema.
T0 8iCCa
!!0 Let:s eat a piCCa.

Pict%re pro"pt
E.g.0 Can E verb
T0 !!0 >e can ride a bike.
Pro"pt&ta*$e&chart on the *$ac)*oar!
>o# many are thereD Mdesks1ro#s1children1chairs1#indo#s1books1pictures1flo#erpotsN

s#im speak
French
skate
$nna v v P
&aria H v H
&ike P H v
Lucy P v H
Oou D D D
E.g.0 &aria can speak French, but she can:t s#im or skate.
4ree %*tit%tion
>ere students make up their o#n sentences, e.g.0 Let:s go fishing.
7%etion An.er !ri$$ = S%*tit%tion 9*ae! on the Preentation;
This S1$ drill is based on the situation used in the 8resentation. E.g.0
$0 3hat:s he been doing for the last t#o monthsD
60 >e:s been Mliving in the mountainsN.
The substitutions are those used in the initial simple substitution drill. They can be
introduced by pict%re&.or! pro"pt0 camping in the forest1drinking fresh
#ater1#atching the bears1sleeping in a tent1gaCing at the stars1climbing the
mountain1cooking on an open fire1fishing trout1#ashing in the river, etc. The teacher
should model the interaction and then put the students into pairs to practise #ith the
substitutions. The use of pair #ork changes the pattern of interaction to !-7!.
7%etion an! An.er !ri$$ 9*ae! on pict%re&.or! pro"pt;
The drill is done in pairs. The teacher provides picture1#ord prompts of activities E a
time period0
picking apples1several hours doing chores1three hours
cleaning #indo#s1about half an hour #riting an essay1t#o days
#aiting for the bus1ten minutes studying French1t#o semesters
$0 >o# long has he been #aiting for the busD
60 >e:s been #aiting for the bus for ten minutes.
4in! o"eone .ho
This activity is a more challenging kind of %uestion and ans#er drill. !tudents are given a
list of actions1activities related to routines, habits, past e2perience, etc. They have to go
about the class asking their peers Oes1)o-%uestions based on the prompts on the list and
involving the target structure, e.g. <o you (ever...D >ave you (ever....D The aim of the
game is to get the most positive ans#ers. *f they get a positive ans#er, they ask for the
person:s signature ne2t to the respective %uestion. The #inner of the game is the one #ho
gets the most positive ans#ers in the shortest time. E.g. 8ind someone #ho0
- goes to bed earlier than +. pm
- has a full breakfast on #eekdays
- goes (ogging every morning
- reads English books
#o!e$ !ia$og%e
<ialogues provide more meaningful practice as they replicate more closely the real-life
conversational patterns used in everyday communication. >ere is one model for the
8resent 8erfect Continuous0
$nn0 >i &ary. >o#:s it goingD
Lucy0 )ot too bad. 3hat have you been doing latelyD
$nn0 3ell, not much, really. *:ve been cramming for e2ams. 3hat about youD
&arry0 "h, *:ve been reading War and Peace.
!ubstitution cues0 #orking as a #aitress1going to the gym1teaching myself French1#riting
a play, etc. $lternatively, students can provide their o#n e2amples.
Dia$og%e chain&S)e$eton !ia$og%e
This is slightly more comple2, as students create their dialogues by follo#ing a 9dialogue
map: or 9script instructions: for the interlocutors to flesh out.
A >
'reet 6 4eply. $sk about recent activities
$ns#er. $sk 6 about recent activities 4eply. !uggest meeting for a drink this
evening
$gree. !uggest a time and place agree #ith place but suggest another time.
'ive
a reason
$gree. !ay goodbye 4eply
Creati+e gra""ar practice "o!e$ poe"
This is a concept developed by 'Tnter 'erngross and >erbert 8uchta, in #hich grammar
practice activities based on substitution provide a springboard for verbal creativity and
activating 9the right side of the brain: ('erngross and 8uchta, +,,J. The students are
sho#n a model poem focused on a particular recurrent grammar structure. !ometimes
they have to #ork on the model itself ; putting (umbled #ords in order, for e2ample, but
usually they have to reflect on the poem:s topic and ideas, and ho# these are relate to
themselves. Fsing the skeleton of the original, structure -based poem, they create their
o#n, personalised version, by substituting the #ords or phrases in the model #ith their
o#n. >ere:s the frame of a Senoria$ Poe" for practising the -
nd
Conditional, by
referring to a person they like1love0
*f he1she #ere a colour, he1she #ould be ........
*f he1she #ere a sight, he1she #ould be a1the........
*f he1she #ere a sound, he1she #ould be a1the........
*f he1she #ere a smell, he1she #ould be a1the........
*f he1she #ere a taste, he1she #ould be a1the........
*f he1she #ere music, he1she #ould be a1the........
*f he1she #ere food, he1she #ould be a1the........
The value of the above e2ercise resides in #hat $drian <off calls "eaning,%$ practice,
i.e. practice #hich re%uires personaliCation and adds some personal meaning to the
activity (<off +,@@.
6elo# is a list of other types of drills used at the controlled practice stage, mainly
variations on !ubstitution or Suestion and $ns#er drills, #hich also involve such
operations as transformation, replacement, restatement, completion, e2pansion,
contraction of items, etc.
Tran,or"ation Dri$$
Language learners are re%uired to change sentences from negative to positive, from
positive to interrogative, or from simple present tense to simple past tense, depending on
the instructions from the teacher.
E.g.0
T0 The book is ne#.
!!0 *s the book ne#D
Rep$ace"ent Dri$$
Language learners replace a noun #ith a pronoun. *t is the same drill as substitution drill
but it involves #ith a replacement.
E.g.0
T0 * like the book
!tudent0 * like it
Repone Dri$$
Language learners respond to somebody:s sentence. *n this drill this ans#ers are
patterned after the %uestions. This drill may involve Q#h-R %uestions or Qyes1noR
%uestions.
E.g.0
T0 $lice is at school.
T0 3here is $liceD
!!0 $t school.
C%e! Repone Dri$$
*n this drill language learners are provided #ith a cue before or after the %uestions.
E.g.0
T0 3hat did the man buyD ($ book
!!0 The man bought a book.
Re:oin!er Dri$$
*t is similar to the cued response drill, but in this drill language learners are given
instructions of ho# to respond in terms of style1register.
E.g.0
T0 come to my house (be polite
!!0 3ould you like to come to my houseD
Retate"ent !ri$$
Language learners rephrase an utterance and address it to somebody else, according to the
content of the utterance.
E.g.0
T0 $sk your friend #hat he has for breakfast
!!0 3hat do you have for breakfastD
Co"p$etion Dri$$
Language learners are told to supply a missing #ord in a sentence or statement.
E.g0
T0 * bring my cakes and you bringU.
!!0 * bring my cakes and you bring %our cakes.
E3panion Dri$$
Language learners build up a statement by adding a #ord or phrase.
E.g.0
T0 &athematics
!!0 3e study mathematics
T0 everyday
!!0 3e study mathematics every day.
Contraction Dri$$
Language learners replace a phrase or clause #ith a single #ord or shorter e2pressions.
E.g.0
T0 * didn:t mean to hurt the dog
!!0 * didn:t mean it.
Integration Dri$$
Language learners combine t#o separate statements.
E.g.0
T0 * kno# that lady. !he is #earing a blue shirt
!!0 * kno# the lady #earing a blue shirt.
Para$$e$ .riting
This e2ercise offers controlled #riting practice based on a model te2t. !tudents have to
re#rite the te2t by making certain structural changes, e.g. change the sub(ect from I to
he(she so as to use the 8resent !imple form for the J
rd
person singular (hurries, goes,
tries, put 8resent Tense verbs into the 8ast !imple or simply personalise the te2t content
by #riting about themselves.
15 15 Se"i(contro$$e! practice
This stage consists in structural practice based on a #ide range of e2ercises, commonly
found in most grammar books. These e2ercises are less teacher-controlled, but do not
offer complete student control over language, as students have to use the structure
correctly in a given sentence or te2t, #ithout actually producing language themselves.
They have the advantage of also being suitable for individual independent study, in class
or at home, orally or in #riting, for reinforcement or consolidation purposes. The most
common semi-controlled e2ercises are0
>rac)ete! +er*&a!:ecti+e
This is one of the most fre%uently used e2ercise type, e2tremely useful for tense practice,
ad(ective comparison forms, etc. !tudents operate #ith such categories as Tense, $spect,
Poice, *nfinitive1'erund complementation, !ub(unctives, having to choose bet#een t#o
alternative forms ; !imple18rogressive tense forms, 'erunds1*nfinitives, etc, #hich
al#ays involves a compare and contrast approach.
D%a$&#%$tip$e choice
This e2ercise offers t#o or four items to choose from0 verb forms, prepositions,
singular1plural nouns, modal verbs, time adverbs, etc.
Gap(,i$$
These consist in sentences or te2ts containing gap or blank spaces to be filled in. *t is
used for practice #ith verbs, prepositions, determiners, adverbial modifiers, etc.
C$o2e paage
$ cloCe is a te2t from #hich every 5
th
or ?
th
#ord has been removed so that the students
#ill fill in the blanks. $ grammar cloCe devised in this #ay is a good #ay of testing
general grammar (and vocabulary kno#ledge. $lternatively, teachers can tailor a cloCe
for practice in a specific structure, by removing only the items related to the target
structure (infinives1gerunds, prepositions.
Tr%e&4a$e tate"ent
These can be organiCed as pairs of statements or sentences (a, b to choose from, referring
to the meaning or use of a structure (tenses, modal verbs.
#atching ite"
The items to be matched are arranged in t#o columns, in random order. They can be verb
tenses E adverbs, main E subordinate clauses, verbs E gerund1infinitive complements, etc.
Error correction
!tudents are re%uired to discriminate bet#een correct and incorrect forms, and make
corrections #here necessary. These e2ercises have an important formative value, as
thinking of and evaluating structural accuracy helps in developing the students: ability for
self-correction.
6elo# are illustrated t#o game-like activities based on error correction, #hich, by
adding an element of fun and even e2citement, can render dull correction e2ercises more
en(oyable.
Gra""ar a%ction
The students #ork in pairs or groups. They are told they are going to participate in a
sentence auction, for #hich each pair1group have V+,.... !ome of the sentences are
correct, #hile others #ill contain grammar mistakes. "f course, the students are supposed
to bid for correct sentences. The #inning pair1group has the largest number of correct
sentences at the end of the activity.
Gra""ar ga"*$e
This is a variation on the game above, but instead of buying correct sentences, the
students #ill bet on their o#n correction of sentences containing mistakes. Each group (J
or / students is given +,... and a list of incorrect sentences #ith mistakes in grammar,
#ord order, etc. These can be taken from the students: mistakes in their #ritten #ork.
$ccording to the degree of difficulty, each sentence #ill be assigned different odds. *n
their groups, students discuss the corrections they think necessary. The teacher calls out
one sentence at a time and asks students to place their bets on their corrected versions. "n
the board, the teacher dra#s t#o columns headed 9et and Total, #riting each group:s
stakes and earnings. The #inning team #ill have the largest sum at the end of the activity
(see 'ates, +,,/.
<%"*$e! .or! or!ering
These e2ercises are particularly focused on #ord order, but they can also raise a#areness
of such issues as cohesion, linking #ords, emphasis1fronting, inversion.

Re.rite&Rephrae entence
6eside target structure practice, these e2ercises also raise a#areness about meanings,
functions, polysemous structural or syntactic forms, as they re%uire reformulating a
sentence in such a #ay that its meaning remains unchanged. *n order to rephrase a given
sentence, students are provided #ith cues #hich can be either a different beginning or a
#ord to be included in the ne# sentence.
Dictog$o&Gra""ar !ictation
The teacher reads a short te2t at a reasonable, normal speech speed and students listen
first, to get a general idea of the content and grammar of the te2t. For the second reading,
the students are re%uired to take as many and as detailed notes as they can of #hat they
hear ; sentence chunks, key phrases1#ords. *n groups of three or four, the students are
re%uired to put their notes together and try to reconstruct the original te2t as accurately as
possible. *t can also be done as a competition, in #hich the #inning team ends up #ith a
te2t #hich is the closest to the original and the most grammatically accurate.

PRODUCTION&4REE PRACTICE STAGE
3ith ,ree practice or pro!%ction acti+itie, the focus shifts from accuracy to fluency.
These activities are aimed at allo#ing students to practise the ne# language in
meaningful communicative conte2ts, #hich replicate real life communication. $t this
stage, control over language is transferred to the students, since they #ork #ith or
pro!%ce language as they engage in communicative tasks re%uiring !-7! interaction and
are provided #ith opportunities for free self-e2pression. $ graphic representation of the
staging in a grammar lesson ; in terms of activity se%uencing, teacher roles, control over
language and activity aims ; could look as follo#s0
Staging
8resentation Controlled practice !emi-controlled practice Free
practice
1 1 1
8resentation 8ractice
8roduction

Teacher ro$e
T as presenter T giving T organising activities
so that
of ne# language !! chance to practise language !! can use language
meaningfully

Teacher-centred Learner-centred
Contro$ o+er $ang%age
T -7 ! ! -7 !
T. control over language 7 !! control over
language
*mmediate correction <elayed correction
Ai"
$CCF4$CO
FLFE)CO
1
T ss ss
ssss s T s
ssss ss ss ss
s
s s

"f course, communicative activities for free oral practice commonly presuppose
pair .or) an! gro%p .or). *n order to motivate students to #ork together in
pairs1groups, the activities have to be ta)(*ae! ; if students kno# #hat they have to
achieve, they #ill have a p%rpoe to #ork to#ards, i.e. solving the task. "f course,
communicative grammar activities must have a gra""ar ,oc% ; a structure1function
they have learnt1revised recently. "f course, task-based communicative activities re%uire
careful preparation on the part of the teacher, #ho has to plan the activity #ell in
advance, to organise the class and provide the students #ith the necessary materials, such
as handouts or visuals. 6asically, the most common communicative activities are of t#o
types ; In,or"ation Gap and Ro$e P$a- ; but the range is in fact much #ider. The most
productive communicative grammar activities for free oral practice are described belo#.
15 IN4OR#ATION GAP ACTIVITIES 9In,o(gap;
Fsually suitable for pair #ork, but also in group #ork, these activities are based on an
information gap, i.e. the students have different information #hich they have to share in
order to fulfil the given task. *n other #ords, the need to e2change information provides
the need to communicate, usually by means of %uestion and ans#er patterns of
interaction. *n an information gap activity, each student #orking in a pair ($ and 6 is
given a handout containing information his1her partner does not have. The task varies
depending on the grammar focus of the activity. &ost often, they have to e2change
information in order to reach a decision, an agreement, a conclusion, a certain result
(filling in a chart or to create something (a map, a dra#ing, a description, an
ob(ect1handicraft item. $s they are not supposed to see each other:s information, the best
seating arrangement for the pair is face-to-face. >ere are a fe# e2amples of tasks0
Agreeing on a co""on p$an&action5
For instance, in an activity focused on the use of the 8resent Continuous for Future plans
they are asked to agree on a time to meet, based on handouts containing different diary
pages #ith scheduled activities, or, in a freer variation, based on their o#n plans for the
ne2t day1the #eekend1the holidays, etc.
Achie+ing a re%$t0
Pict%re .ith !i,,erence
The students are given %uite similar pictures containing a number of differences
(number1colour of ob(ects, different people1animals1furniture1street1position in space.
They are told there are +. differences, for e2ample. To fulfil the task, they take turns to
ask and ans#er %uestions, paying attention to and recording the differences they identify.
*t is useful for practising %uestions such as0 *s1$re there...D13here is1areD E prepositions
of placeI 3hat is the girl doingD1*s the boy sittingD ; )o, he is standing.
Chart co"p$etion
The students are given charts #ith different missing information. To complete them, they
have to ask their partners, #ho have the information they need.
#ap co"p$etion
The students are given handouts #ith the map of a street, village, to#n, Coo, store, etc.
Each student has elements the other has not, so they have to ask and ans#er %uestions in
order to complete their maps #ith the missing items put in the right place. The activity is
useful for prepositions of place, giving instructions. $nother task can be giving their
partners: directions to their home.
Dra.ing intr%ction
The students are given handouts #ith different shapes1ob(ects1places1people1animals. The
task re%uires that each of them dra#s the picture on their partner:s handout, listening to
each other:s descriptions and instructions. 3ithout handouts, the task can be that each of
them describes his1her room so that their partner can dra# a plan of the room. The
grammar focus is again prepositions of place, spatial directions.
There are also other types of communicative activities and games roughly based
on the information gap principle0
G%eing ga"e' 1? 7
This is a popular game. *t can be played either in pairs or #ith the #hole class. *n a pair,
the partners take turns as 9kno#er: and 9guesser:. Each thinks of an activity, person, (ob,
animal, country, continent, place, etc. They try to guess #hat the other is thinking of by
asking relevant Oes1)o %uestions (up to -. focused on structures and topics fit to the
conte2t. 3ith the #hole class, one student is the kno#er, ans#ering the %uestions asked
by his peers.
#i"e&Chara!e
This is another type of entertaining guessing game, also used for amusement at social get-
togethers. The kno#er has to mime the concept he1she has in mind, nodding or shaking
his head in response to the others: %uestions.
7%etionnaire&S%r+e-
!tudents are asked to collect data about their classmates by devising a %uestionnaire on
various topics0 hobbies, pastimes, sports, holidays, eating1reading habits, likes1dislikes,
etc.
They have to go around the class asking %uestions and recording ans#ers on their report
sheet. $t the end the students process the data collected and present their findings, under
the form of pie-charts, stack columns, graphs or diagrams.
Inter+ie.
The students intervie# each other on a given topic0 future plans1career1holidays, past
e2periences, family, relationships, friends, study or pastime preferences, etc. $t the end
each student produces an oral or #ritten account of the intervie#. *t can be used for
practising tenses and reported speech. The intervie#ers1intervie#ees can act as
themselves or play the role of other people (family members, friends ; an e2ercise in
empathyW, of celebrities or even animalsW This really appeals to their empathic
imagination.
7%i22e
*t can be organiCed in pairs or groups. Each student or group devises a %uiC based on a
structure and topic studied in class (#ildlife, geographical1historical1cultural
facts1films1books1music, etc. *t can be conducted orally or in #riting. *t is more
challenging if organised as a competition bet#een t#o1three teams, in #hich the #inning
team has the most correct ans#ers.
@5 15 ROLE PLAA
The principles of role play activities are by and large the same as those for *nfo-gap
activities. The task involves achieving a social and transactional goal, as indicated in the
Ro$e Car! allocated to students #orking in pairs or groups, #hich provide the
information gap re%uired for a meaningful e2change of information. >o#ever, there is a
stronger focus on functions0 persuasion, invitations, refusals, agreeing, disagreeing, etc.
*n designing a role play, #e should think of a conte2t or situation presenting a potential
conflict of interest, opinions or ideas. $t the same time role plays should reflect clear
social role0 teacher, parent, policeman, driver, ecologist, salesperson, customer, public
figure, artist, etc.
Ro$e car! are essential in defining profile and goal of the person the student has
to impersonate #hile interacting #ith the others.
E2ample0 Four roommates are discussing ideas for an evening out. They have to agree on
something to do together, even if they have rather different interests and tastes.
Ro$e car! 1' Oou are !am. Oou like eating out and prefer fast-food restaurants. For a
change, ho#ever, you #ould try something more e2otic. Oou like musicals.
Ro$e car! 1' Oou are $nnie. Oou like Chinese food, and #ould like to take the V5 eat-as-
much-as you-#ant offer at 5r Wu. Oou also like going to the theatre and prefer comedies.
Ro$e car! @' Oou are Lucy. Oou like *talian food and #ould like to have some lasagne at
5ama 5ia. Oou like going to the cinema and prefer romantic comedies.
Ro$e car! B0 Oou are Xohnny. Oou:re fond of cooking curry and #ould prefer to cook a
meal for the others. Oou like dancing, especially Latino dances.
Agon- co$%"n&Agon- a%nt&%nc$e
This popular magaCine column in #hich the columnist ; called an agony aunt1uncle ;
offers advice to readers re%uesting advice on a problem can be adapted for role play
focused on the function of asking for and giving advice. *t #orks better in pairs rather
than groups. Each student receives a role card containing a problem (relationships,
school, #ork, career, health, etc. Every student complains about his problem and
receives advice from his partner. $lternatively, both the problem and the advice can be
e2pressed in #riting, #ith each student receiving a problem card to respond to in #riting.
For this version, the role play can be dropped in favour of a self-e2pression e2ercise,
#here the students can #rite their o#n problems on unsigned pieces of paper, #hich the
teacher distributes around the class, asking students to offer advice on the problem in
%uestion. $s students may be sensitive about this self-revealing conte2t, anonymity is
obligatory. $ll the pieces of paper #ill be gathered on the teacher:s desk, so the students
can collect their 9advice letter: at the end of the lesson.
Letter(.riting
4ole plays can also consist of #riting activities. !tudents can be asked to #rite various
types of letters (invitation, re%uest, advice, complaint, application, etc. from the
perspective of a certain role. "f course, the #riting activity #ill be based on a given
conte2t, specifying the #riter:s purpose, audience and the appropriate style
(formal1informal. The task #ill also include cues about content, such as issues to
complain about in a letter of complaint. &ore imaginative activities can include #riting
letters or diary entries from the perspective of a character in a story, a person they kno#
#ell or a famous person.
@5 @5 4REE DISCUSSION&DE>ATE ACTIVITIES
Pro*$e" o$+ing
This activity can be done either as a role play, #ith students in the group assuming a
given role in a given conte2t, or, for a more realistic conte2t, the students can discuss
issues from their o#n perspective, acting as themselves. The activity consists in asking
the students to discuss and agree on possible solutions to a certain problem. $ real or
imaginary problem is presented by the teacher, orally or on a fact-file handout. This can
be in connection #ith a real problem ; solutions for cleaning a polluted area1reducing
pollution in their area1publicising an event or product1repairing a malfunctioning machine
or vehicle1converting or finding a use for an old building in to#n1refurbishing the school
building1raising funds for a cause1protecting an endangered species1community1area, etc.
$lternatively, the problems can be brain-teasers or puCCles to #ork out, or more
imaginative problems like being on a space mission and having to deal #ith a technical
problem.
The e2ample belo# is %uite a popular riddle aimed at testing strategic and logical
thinking, called 9Who o.n the 2e*raD:
The students are given the follo#ing cues, and asked to #ork out the ans#ers for
t#o %uestions0 + 3ho drinks #aterD and - 3ho o#ns the CebraD The activity can be
used for practising "o!a$ +er* 9"a-&"ight&co%$!&"%t&can0t&co%$!n0t = in,initi+e;
and such functions as e2pressing poi*i$it-/ poiti+e or negati+e !e!%ction&certaint-/
prepoition o, p$ace, etc.
+. There are five houses in a ro#, each of a different colour and inhabited by people of
different nationalities, #ith different pets, drinks, and flo#ers.
-. The English person lives in the red house.
J. The !paniard o#ns the dog.
/. Coffee is drunk in the green house.
5. The Fkrainian drinks tea.
=. The green house is immediately to the right (your right of the ivory house.
?. The geranium gro#er o#ns snails.
@. 4oses are in front of the yello# house.
,. &ilk is drunk in the middle house.
+.. The )or#egian lives in the first house on the left.
++. The person #ho gro#s marigolds lives in the house ne2t to the person #ith the fo2.
+-. 4oses are gro#n at the house ne2t to the house #here the horse is kept.
+J. The person #ho gro#s lilies drinks orange (uice.
+/. The Xapanese person gro#s gardenias.
+5. The )or#egian lives ne2t to the blue house.
Chooing can!i!ate
The students are given a list of candidates for a competition, (ob, manager, as #ell as
relevant information about them. The candidates: profiles should include details about
their background, %ualities, abilities and skills, e2perience, interests, commitment or
leadership potential. The group has to discuss their suitability and reach a decision about
the most suitable candidate. The functions practiced can be agreeing, disagreeing,
suggesting, persuading, arguing one:s opinion, e2pressing ability, possibility,
positive1negative deduction (using modal verbs.
De*ate
The students are introduced to a controversial issue in the real #orld, relevant for their
age, level and interests. They have to discuss the respective issue, from various
perspectives, arguing their standpoints, giving arguments and e2amples. $ debate can be
organised in groups or #ith the #hole class. 8ossible topics can be0
$re books losing ground in the era of digital revolutionsD
3ill teachers be replaced by computersD
3ho should take care of the elderlyD
@5 B5 PERSONALISATION ACTIVITIES 9ora$&.ritten;
$ll methodologists agree on the fact that the perona$iation of the content learnt
promotes better retention ; a truism in language learning and learning in general (see Fr
+,@@. $s this makes more sense on a personal and real-life plane, such activities ac%uire
a deeper meaning for the learner, promoting #hat $drian <off calls 9"eaning,%$
practice: (<off +,@@, -@. *rrespective of the organisation of free practice activities ;
individually, pairs, groups, #hole class ; opportunities for self-e2pression #ill promote
better learning and aid retention. 6y having students share their personal e2perience,
feelings, tastes and interests #ith their peers, #e enhance a good rapport bet#een
students and a cooperative atmosphere.
4ree ora$ co""%nication e3changing perona$ in,or"ation&opinion
!tudents share information about issues relevant to their everyday life0 their plans for the
#eekend1holidaysI travel e2periencesI childhood memoriesI favourite
pastimes1food1books1film1music starsI opinions on topics of general human interest, etc.
They can e2tend the discussion to their family and friends. They can do this in pairs,
groups or in a #hole class discussion.
Sentence *%i$!ing&co"p$etion
Even if this only consists in structure practice at sentence rather than discourse level,
#riting sentences to say true things about oneself involve personalisation and provide
useful preparation for more comple2 opportunities for self-e2pression. !tudents can make
sentences orally or in #riting. "ne variation #ould be to continue incomplete sentences
#ith a given beginning, e.g. *f * had only si2 months to live, * #ould...To make the task
more challenging and likely to trigger further discussion, the teacher can ask the students
to complete the sentences from their partner:s point of vie#.
Co"poition/ arg%"entati+e an! re,$ecti+e ea-
These are %uite comple2 activities for free grammar practice, #hose scope e2tends
beyond the use of a particular grammar structure. Oet, the teacher may try to adapt the
task for a specific grammar area ; talking about habitual actions in the past, speculating
about hypothetical situations, etc. 'iving students opportunities to e2press their ideas in
#riting helps them practise the language learnt in a meaningful conte2t promoting
personalisation and self-e2pression, #hich furthers consolidation, retention and a sense of
personal achievement.
"verall, #e should try to make grammar practice more meaningful and realistic
by offering ample opportunities for practice at discourse rather than at discrete (sentence
level, and by providing students #ith conte2ts encouraging real communication and self-
e2pression. "ne should al#ays bear in mind that grammar teaching and learning is not an
end in itself, but a means to an end, #hich is communicative fluency.
Chapter @
TEACHING VOCA>ULARA
THEORETICAL >AC6GROUND TO VOCA>ULARA AC7UISITION
$s in the case of our mother tongue, in foreign language learning #e recogniCe and
understand more #ords than #e actually use, #hich means that our pai+e&recepti+e
+oca*%$ar- #ill al#ays e2ceed our acti+e&pro!%cti+e +oca*%$ar-.
>o#ever, e2panding our active vocabulary in a foreign language re%uires more
controlled e2posure to and #ork on ne# vocabulary than is the case in our mother
tongue, to #hich #e are e2posed in everyday life. This is because learning and using ne#
#ords re%uires time and repeated opportunity for use. $ctual use is preceded by an
inc%*ation perio!, during #hich the learner hears or sees the #ord in different conte2ts
before beginning to use it in free e2pression and communication.
$t beginner level #e should %uickly provide students #ith a 9basic vocabulary
kit: ; a limited active vocabulary from #hich students can build their vocabulary at a
natural, unforced speed. *n order to enrich their vocabulary, students should be
encouraged to read #idely outside the classroom, an en(oyable activity #hich helps them
pick up ne# #ords in a natural and meaningful #ay.
&oreover, they #ill be #ell-advised to invest in a good monolingual dictionary,
#hich provides collocation patterns and full-sentence e2amples of the #ord in various
conte2ts. Finally, they should be accustomed to store1keep record of ne# vocabulary by
means of various types of data-bases ; #ord cards, vocabulary notebook, semantic field
files, topic-based #ord-sets1#ord-#ebs, idioms, collocations or phrasal verbs portfolios.
Prioritiing&p$anning +oca*%$ar- teaching practica$ criteria
!electing ne# or essential vocabulary to teach for active production should be based on
the follo#ing criteria0
4re8%enc-
<eciding #hat ne# #ords or le2ical area to teach depends on ho# often the #ord or
le2ical area is used in everyday communication.
Range
3ords #ith a #ide range of meanings, i.e. #hich are used in a number of different
conte2ts, #ill be taught sooner.
Ue,%$ne
The selection of vocabulary to teach is often dictated by the students:
study1professional1social communication needs in their everyday life and activities ; as in
the case of $cademic English or E!8 teaching (English for !pecific 8urposes.
4a"i$iarit- (of the concept1referent
This refers to cases #hen, although a #ord may not occur so fre%uently in everyday
communication, it refers to a familiar ob(ect fre%uently used in everyday life, such as a
toothbrush or comb. Thus, familiarity #ith the ob(ect can be a reason to teach the #ord.
PRACTICAL LINGUISTIC CONSIDERATIONS
$ny $e3ica$ ite" is defined by a number of characteristics #hich should be taken into
consideration in teaching vocabulary.
#eaning an! conte3t
&eaning and conte2t are inseparable le2ical categories, insofar as, more often than not,
the meaning of a #ord is given by the conte2t it occurs in, and even if every #ord has a
core or main meaning, it can ac%uire other meanings if used in different conte2ts. *n
connection #ith meaning and conte2t of a le2ical item, the features #e should consider
highlighting are the follo#ing0
Di+erit- o, "eaning&"%$tip$e "eaning 9po$-e"-/ ho"on-"-;
*n the case of #ords #ith multiple meanings, it is generally advisable that #e should
teach one meaning at a time, according to the conte2t at hand. >o#ever, #ith more
advanced levels, #e can introduce the various meanings of a #ord from the outset. For
e2ample, #e can give e2amples illustrating the meanings of the #ord crane0
a birdI -. a type of construction e%uipmentI J. to strain1stick out one:s neck.
Range o, "eaning
This refers to the number of different conte2ts in #hich the #ord is used. For e2ample,
the verbs make, do, go or get appear in a #ide range of conte2ts, in #hich their meaning
may vary according to the collocations (#ord combinations they take.
Deri+ati+e&root
The derivatives of a #ord (root are the ne# #ords #hich have undergone derivation by
means of pre-fi2ation or suffi2ation, thus forming a .or!(,a"i$-, e.g. #ork: #orker,
#orking, #orka$le, over#ork, over#orked.
Co$$ocation
The collocations of a le2ical item are the various #ord combinations or associated forms
it occurs in. There are different types of collocations0 Perb E )oun18reposition, Perb E
*nfinive1'erund, $d(ective E )oun18reposition, Perb E $dverb. Phraa$ +er* or i!io"
are fi2ed collocations in #hich #ords lose their literal meaning, ac%uiring a
figurative1metaphoric meaning, such as in do someone in or live from hand to mouth.
Connotation
$part from their denotative meaning (strictly literal, many #ords also have a connotative
meaning (implying emotion, attitude, (udgement. The connotation of a #ord can be
positive or negative. Thus, the denotative #ord for an under#eight person can be thin, but
scra#n% and skinn% have a negative connotation, #hile slim, slender, slight or svelte have
a positive connotation.
L1 inter,erence
This refers to disambiguating the meaning of #ords resembling #ords in our mother
tongue #hich mean something else ; #ords commonly kno#n as false
cognates/friends. For e2ample, speakers of 4omanian or French tend to use li$rar%
instead of $ooksho!, licence instead of university degree, etc. $mbiguities may also arise
#ith L+ homonyms #hich are e2pressed in English by different #ords, e.g. canal and
channel for the 4omanian canal.
Sene re$ation
There are #ords #ith interrelated meanings ; similarities1differences in meaning.
$ccording to the kind of sense relations shared #ith other #ords, le2ical items can be0
S-non-"0 cheerful G (oyful
Anton-" (opposites0 beautiful Y ugly
Ite" of a $e3ica$ et (group of #ords #ith the same topic, function or form, e.g.
#ords on the topic kitchen1holidays1crime
H-pon-", i.e. items of a e"antic ,ie$! (a set of #ords #ith close meaning,
referring to a certain notion or class such as colours, animals, parts of the body,
furniture.
*tems on a c$ine, i.e. a graded se%uence of #ords arranged #ithin a slope to sho#
degrees of intensity, #hose meanings go across a continuum meaning0
E.g.0 blue ecstatic
lo# elated
depressed delighted
miserable cheerful
sorro#ful Y glad
Wor! gra""ar
This concerns the grammatical features of the #ord, such as0
8art of speech
*rregularities of form (irregular verbs or noun plurals
8refi2es and suffi2es used for #ord-derivation
3hat it is follo#ed by (prepositions, 'erund1*nfinitive
Countable1Fncountable nouns
<erivatives, compounds
4or"
Pron%nciation
!ounds (short1long vo#els, diphthongs
!tress (stressed1#eak syllables
!hifting stress0 for such pairs as increae (verb and increase (noun
Spe$$ing
!ound vs. spelling, e.g. the different sound of ea in $reak and s!eak
$bbreviations, e.g. advertisement, advert, ad
Dia$ect
There are many #ords specific to 6ritish or $merican English, to other varieties of
English (!cottish, *rish or even to 6ritish or $merican regional dialects. <ialectal use
should be tacked in the presentation and by vocabulary e2ercises focused on dialectal
differences.
Regiter
This refers to the specialised use of a #ord #ithin a specific field of activity (commercial,
medical, political. There are specialised professional areas even called (ournalese,
legalese, etc.
St-$e
!tyle refers to the specific social or professional conte2ts in #hich a #ord occurs. Thus,
#e distinguish bet#een everyday or familiar style ; co$$o8%ia$&in,or"a$&po)en ; and
formal or #ritten style. For instance, the verb $u% (neutral style is rendered by get in
informal style and by !urchase in formal1#ritten style. $ccording to the emotional or
moral stance involved, #e can also have pe(orative or derogatory, as opposed to a neutral
style, e.g. the #ords versifier or !oetaster, used for a lesser !oet.

PRESENTING VOCA>ULARA
Conte2t is essential in presenting and practising vocabulary, as it is the conte2t that
defines and clarifies semantic meaning. $ccordingly, a le2ical item #ill al#ays be
presented in conte2t, at sentence or te2t level. $t all levels, it is essential that the ne#
#ords should be clearly spoken and #ritten on the board, then repeated in chorus.
Vi%a$
3ith young learners, visual materials are e2tremely useful, as associating the concept
#ith an image aids understanding and retention. These can be pictures, book illustrations,
cut-outs, flashcards, board dra#ings, stick figures, stickers, emoticons, etc.
Rea$ia
4ealia can be used to teach #ords such as classroom furniture, school things, stationary,
toys, clothes, etc.
#i"e
&ime is effective #ith #ords describing everyday actions1activities, body posture and
movement, #ays of #alking1laughing.
#o!e$ entence
These are the most common presentation techni%ue. $ good model provides a clear
illustration of the meaning of the ne# #ord, e.g. * have to go to the *%tcher0, as * need
some pork meat for !unday lunch.
Dia$og%e
<ialogues are effective in illustrating #ord meaning through conversational e2change.
E.g.0
$0 3hat:s your father:s (obD
60 3ell, he lost his (ob last month. >e #as "a!e re!%n!ant and no# he:s still
%ne"p$o-e!.
E3p$anation
$n e2planation of the meaning in L- can be offered to clarify the meaning of a #ord, e.g.
*f a person is %ne"p$o-e!, it means he1she is out of #ork1does not have a (ob.
Stor-
$ very short story outline can be used to present ne# le2ical items. E.g.0 Last year he #as
%ne"p$o-e!, so he started to look at the (ob +acancie in the paper and app$- for (obs.
7%etion
$fter introducing the #ord market, the teacher can ask students %uestions using the ne#
#ord. E.g.0 $ "ar)et is a place #here you can buy fresh food. 3hat do they sell thereD
<oes your mother go to the marketD 3hat does she mother buy thereD 3hat else do they
sell thereD !o you ever go to the market yourselfD <o you live near the marketD
S-non-"/ anton-"
!ometimes the handiest and %uickest #ay to illustrate the meaning of a #ord is by
providing a synonym or antonym. E.g.0 ludicrous G ridiculousI ugly Y beautiful
C$ine
Clines (illustrated above are an effective #ay of graphically illustrating the place of a
#ord on a slope sho#ing degrees of intensity related to a particular meaning, e.g. the
place of h%ge on the scale of bigness.
Tran$ation
$lthough translation has been someho# demoted in favour of techni%ues based on the
use of the target language in illustrating le2ical meaning, it can be, beside conte2tualised
e2planations in L-, a %uite effective #ay of clarifying meaning, especially in the case of
idiomatic e2pressions, #hen it #ould be interesting to make correlations #ith idioms
#ith the same meaning in the mother tongue.
Te3t g%eing "eaning ,ro" conte3t
3hen #orking #ith te2ts based on thematic vocabulary, #e can either pre-teach or post-
teach ne# #ords. *f the ne# #ords #ould get in the #ay of the students: understanding of
the te2t or may cause difficulty in solving reading comprehension or ensuing
communicative tasks, the teacher should pre-teach more difficult #ords. >o#ever, it is
#orth training students to guess meaning from conte2t, #ithout being daunted by
unkno#n #ords ; an essential ability of a fluent reader. Thus, after a reading activity #e
can post-teach vocabulary as a follo#-up, by means of inductive techni%ues and e2ercises
such as0
Co"prehenion 8%etion focused on meaning of vocabulary, e.g.0 +.3hat does
set a$out in line +. meanD -. Find a synonym for a!!arition in paragraph -.
#%$tip$e(choice ite" e.g.0 The #ord !re!osterous in paragraph J means0 a
ridiculousI b sophisticatedI c absurd.
#atching .or! an! !e,inition. The #ords are listed in a column and their
definitions1e2planations are given in an opposite column, in (umbled order. The
students are asked to match the #ords #ith their corresponding definitions.
S-non-"&anton-" earch. The students are given a number of #ords they
already kno#, for #hich they have to find synonyms1antonyms in the te2t, e.g.0 *n
paragraph J, find #ords meaning curious, stimulus, am$itiousI find opposites for
$oring, ver% little, meanness.
Dictionar- .or)
!tudents should be trained as early as possible to look up #ords in the dictionary, as this
encourages learner independence and develops good study skills. That is #hy #e should
organiCe dictionary #ork sessions in class, preferably after reading a te2t ; in the absence
of class dictionaries #e can provide handouts of a page #ith the entries in %uestion. The
tasks can be to look up the meaning of a #ord in the te2tI make a list of do(make ) noun
combinationsI ask each other for the definitions of #ords highlighted in the te2t, if they
have different dictionary pages (info-gap pair-#ork e2ercise.
VOCA>ULARA PRACTICE ACTIVITIES
The principles in organising vocabulary practice are %uite similar to the ones underlying
grammar practice. $fter the presentation, the students practise the ne# vocabulary
through various types of semi-controlled, accuracy-oriented e2ercises. There should also
be a free practice stage, at #hich students are involved in communicative, fluency-
oriented activities involving the ne# #ords.
SE#I(CONTROLLED ECERCISES
Tr%e&,a$e !e,inition o, .or!&i!io"
These consist in pairs of definitions (a, b for a #ord1idiom, in #hich one is false.
!tudents may be encouraged to #rite their o#n definitions for their peers to choose from
; one #ill be the dictionary definition, the other #ill be created by the students. $ game
#ith true and false idiom definitions, played in teams1groups is called QCall my bluffR
#atching .or! an! !e,inition
The #ords and their (umbled definitions are listed under t#o opposite columns. The
students have to match the #ords #ith the correct definitions. $nother variant #ould be
to distribute #ord and definition cards among the students, #ho have to mill around and
read aloud the items on their cards until they find their 9partner: i.e. their corresponding
#ord1definition.
Wor!(g%eing ga"e
"ne student stands #ith his back to the board. The teacher #rites a #ord only the class
can see. They have to help their classmate guess the #ord on the board by offering
definitions and e2planations of its meaning. *t can also be played as a competition
bet#een t#o teams, #ith the #inning team guessing the most #ords ; also kno#n as a
tea" !e,ining ga"e.
D%a$&#%$tip$e choice
This e2ercise offers t#o1three1four le2ical items to choose from.
Gap(,i$$
'ap-filling e2ercises are commonly used to check learning after presentation, and also
very useful as a testing device. The #ords to be used can be given in a separate list, in
random order.
Voca*%$ar- c$o2e
$ vocabulary cloCe is an effective #ay of practising1testing vocabulary, collocations and
appropriacy at te2t1discourse level.
Error correction
!tudents are re%uired to discriminate bet#een correct and incorrect #ord use or
collocations and make corrections #here necessary. !uch e2ercises are useful in that they
get the students thinking about conte2tual appropriacy, collocation and synonymy.
Re.rite&Rephrae entence
These e2ercises raise a#areness about #ords1phrases #ith similar meaning or function.
They usually involve re#riting the sentence by including a #ord given in the margin ;
also called )e- .or! tran,or"ation.
Wor! ,or"ation
This is a #ord derivation e2ercise, consisting of a te2t #ith numbered blank spaces. "n
the left hand margin, ne2t to each line containing a blank, a cue root-#ord is given, #hich
re%uires a prefi2 or1and a suffi2 so as to fit the given conte2t.
Le3ica$ et&Wor!("ap&Wor! ,ie$! co"p$etion
$ le2ical set can be made more visually effective by means of a #ord-map1mind-
map1#ord-#eb based on a le2ical set. This is not only an e2cellent #ay of systematising,
revising and storing kno#n vocabulary, but also a #ay of involving students in e2ploring
ne# vocabulary #ith the help of the dictionary. 3ord maps also encourage students to
learn #ords associated by topic. >ere is a map for students to complete, by adding ne#
clusters such as appliances, utensils, activities, etc.
Sca$e an! c$ine
!tudents are given cards #ith gradable items to be stuck on a cline dra#n on the board.
$fter arranging the items and discussing issues of meaning, connotation or style, they
may use the #ords or phrases in a freer speaking activity, telling each other of
e2periences or situations related to the respective vocabulary area.

4REE PRACTICE ACTIVITIES
The communicative activities aimed at practising vocabulary are similar to the ones used
for free grammar practice. "ral practice activities may consist in0
Sentence *%i$!ing
!tudents create sentences of their o#n using the ne# vocabulary. $n important principle
in consolidating vocabulary use is perona$iation, i.e. students should be encouraged to
use the #ords in statements about themselves. 8ersonalisation does not only promote
self-e2pression and real communication, but it also aids retention.
Dia$og%e&inter+ie.&e3changing in,or"ation
The activity involves students #orking in pairs, asking each other %uestions and
e2changing personal information on a given vocabulary topic, e.g. travel and holidays,
food, clothes, music, etc. This can be a one-off activity or part of a class survey including
topic vocabulary.
In,or"ation gap
The tasks based on information gap should involve the target vocabulary. !tudents have
to ask and ans#er %uestions in order to complete their task, e.g. finding a certain number
of differences in t#o pictures of the same room, the map of a place at t#o different points
in time, etc.
Cro.or! p%22$e
Cross#ords can be used as a support for an info-gap activity. "ne group of students are
given handouts #ith a half-completed cross#ord ($, and the other group get the other
completed half (6. !tudent $ also has a list of the missing #ords in 6, and 6 students
have the missing #ords in $. The principle is that students help each other complete their
puCCle, by offering the definition of the #ord needed. 6efore students are put into pairs
$6, all the $16 students are put together to discuss the possible definitions and
e2planations of the #ords they have to help their partners #ith. 8roviding a dictionary for
students to look up #ords or check definitions #ould be a good idea. They should also be
instructed to asks such %uestions as 93hat:s 5 across1do#nD:
Ro$e(p$a-
!tudents are assigned roles and provided #ith role-cards. For instance, for practising
vocabulary related to clothes and fashion, the role-play can be about buying clothes in a
shop, #ith students playing a customer and a shop assistant.
Pro*$e" o$+ing
The students are asked to discuss solutions to a given problem, e.g. cleaning a certain
polluted area, finding a use for a disaffected building in to#n, etc.
Gro%p or c$a !ic%ion or !e*ate
Especially for higher levels, free discussions can be organiCed around a certain theme0
(obs, pollution or unemployment.
#i"e torie
&iming can be used to illustrate a series of actions or activities. The students #atch the
teacher or each other perform a mime and then describe, orally or in #riting, the scenes
and actions they have #atched. !hort mimes such as having a $ath or tid%ing a room can
be very productive for multi-#ord verbs1phrasal verbs0 turn on(off, hang u!, tid% u!, take
out, !ut a#a% ('airns and 4edman, +5/.
Pict%re car! narrati+e
!tudents are given a set of cards #ith dra#ings1pictures of vocabulary items they have
learnt (one set per group. *n their groups, students have to construct a narrative including
all the items on their cards. $ student #ill read out the story composed by his1her group
and the other groups might be asked to guess #hat key items each group has got.

Pict%re tor- co"poition
The students are given a picture story, i.e. a series of pictures representing a se%uence of
events and actions, on the basis of #hich the students #ill flesh out a story. The narrative
composition activity proper #ill be preceded by a lead-in session, during #hich the
teacher can introduce the topic and pre-teach or revise certain items or ask the students to
discuss, suggest and pool together relevant vocabulary. The vocabulary discussion may
include activities involving the prediction, selection, distribution, choice, rephrasing or
brainstorming of vocabulary, according to the degree of challenge the teacher #ants to
create.
Pict%re !ictation
This is an information gap e2ercise in #hich one of the students is given a relatively
simple dra#ing or picture representing a street map, a room layout, a person:s face, an
ob(ect, etc. "ne student describes the picture #hile the other tries to dra# a close version
of the picture described. The activity may be used #ith vocabulary relating to places and
buildings, furniture, colours, physical appearance, clothes, animals, etc.
7%i2
This may consist of %uestions eliciting either standard or personalised ans#ers, or a
combination of both on various everyday topics such as food, health, education, politics,
public events, sports, entertainment. The %uestions (and ans#ers #ill be based on the
relevant vocabulary area.
Writing ta)
3riting tasks are particularly useful for consolidation purposes, since #riting is an aid to
memory. !tudents can practice vocabulary through a range of #ritten tasks and te2t types,
such as letters #ith different functions and topics (invitations, refusals, advice, complaint,
(ob applications, letters to the editor, etc. or topic-based1#ord-prompt-based
compositions (narrative, descriptive, articles, essays (argumentative, reflective, focused
on a particular vocabulary area.
The main principle in organiCing free practice activities is creating a balance
bet#een oral and #ritten communication.
COLLOCATION PRACTICE ACTIVITIES
"ur students: ability to speak and #rite English both accurately and fluently is related to
a large e2tent to their mastery of vocabulary, especially of collocation. &ost language
mistakes arise from the #rong association bet#een #ords, i.e. collocation, #hich is one
of the most difficult areas of language learning at all levels.
3hile native speakers collocate naturally and automatically, non-native speakers
have to learn and practice #ord association systematically before they are able to sense
#hat sounds right and #hat does not. 3hat they need is a#areness-raising e2ercises,
#hich set them thinking about correct collocations #hen they do reading or listening
activities or #hen they look up #ords in the dictionary, intensive classroom practice and
e2tensive reading (outside the classroom. *n other #ords, they need sustained e3po%re
to co$$ocation.
Errors of collocation are sometimes caused by interference from their o#n
language (L- interference, #hen students collocate according to the rules of their mother
tongue, e.g. make a !hoto, give an eam, !ut a :uestion. Ano#ing a #ord in a foreign
language means kno#ing ho# and #hen to use it and #hich #ords it associates #ith.
That is #hy collocation e2posure and practice are at a premium, and the teacher should
give students plenty of opportunities for practice. !ome useful strategies and activities are
suggested belo#.
Uing !ictionarie ,or $earning/ recor!ing an! chec)ing co$$ocation
'ood monolingual dictionaries al#ays provide e2amples of #ord collocations. !tudent
should be #arned to pay attention to #ord combination, and never record #ords in
isolations. They can be asked to look up and take notes of Perb E )oun collocations #ith
fre%uently used verbs such as do, make, get, take, etc. *t is useful to point out to our
students that the lists of 9synonyms: often given in a bilingual dictionary or language
thesaurus should not be taken at face value, since, apart from the inherent differences in
meaning, these synonyms also appear in different conte2ts and collocate #ith particular
#ords. Aeeping record of the vocabulary they learn is useful so long as it focuses on
collocations rather than on isolated items. Thus students should be trained to pay
attention to the most fre%uent collocation patterns0
S%*:ect no%n = +er*0 The earth revolves round the sun.
Ver* = o*:ect no%n0 take a !hoto, light a fire, strike a match
A!:ecti+e = no%n0 light slee!er, heav% smoker, heav% traffic, utter disa!!ointment
A!:ecti+e&pat particip$e E preposition0 fond of, keen on, interested in, delighted
at, concerned a$out
A!+er* = pat particip$e (used attributively0 smartl%($adl%(fashiona$l% dressed,
full% understood, hard;earned, dee!l% hurt
A!+er* = +er*0 sincerel% ho!e, honestl% $elieve, full% understand, a$solutel%
love
Ver* = a!+er*0 en6o% thoroughl%, cr% $itterl%, eat heartil%, #ork hard
Ver* = prepoition0 insist on, o$6ect to, a!!rove of, s%m!athise #ith
Rea!ing ,or co$$ocation
$s reading represents the main form of e2posure to collocation, te2ts used in classroom
reading activities can also be e2ploited for collocation learning or reinforcement, as a
follo#-up e2ercise. !tudents #ill be asked to scan the te2t and take out any ne#
collocations corresponding to the patterns presented above. Thus, reading specifically for
collocation can be an e2tremely productive vocabulary development techni%ue. *n
addition, students should also be encouraged to pay attention to collocations and even
pause to #rite them do#n #hen reading outside the classroom.
#atching ite"
The t#o halves of different collocation patterns are put in t#o separate columns, in
(umbled order. !tudents have to match the corresponding items. E.g.0
+
-
J
/
+. broaden a. a scre#
-. soften b. your hair
J. straighten c. your mind
/. tighten d. the blo#
$ variation can be used particularly for collocations #ith <" and &$AE. The students
are given a list of noun phrases to be put under the right heading. The e2ercise can be also
done as a dictation, #ith students #riting the nouns they hear under the <" or &$AE
headings.
O!! "an o%t
This e2ercise, involving crossing out the #rong items of a number of given choices, is
suggested by 'airns and 4edman (+,,-, J,.



Co$$ocation gap(,i$$
The e2ercise consists of a set of gapped sentences focused on different collocation
patterns.
E.g.0 !he ............ a thick layer of (am on her toast. 1 * think #e are all ....... agreement.
Co$$ocation error correction
!tudents have to correct collocation errors in sentences #here the key element re%uiring a
different collocation is underlined0
E.g.0 The crime #as done last night. 1 The result #as an e2treme disappointment.
!entence *%i$!ing 9,ro" gi+en o%t$ine an! )e- .or!;
The students are re%uired to build a sentence round a given #ord, most commonly a
noun, by supplying sub(ect, verb, ad(ective, preposition and ob(ect #here applicable. The
key #ords used as cues can be nouns #hich are part of verb phrase collocation model
cases.
E.g.0
SU><ECT VER> AD<ECTIVE NOUN PREPOSITION O><ECT
*)PE!T*'$T*")
4E!E$4C>
*)SF*4O

#atching i!io" an! !e,inition
*dioms represent fi2ed collocation patterns formed round a key verb or noun. Teaching
and learning idioms can be organised round topic based vocabulary ; clothes idioms,
parts of the body idioms, etc. The students are given a set of sentences containing idioms
and a list of definitions to be matched.
E.g.0 Oou:re going to fail the e2am if you dont !ull %our socks u!. (make an effort
#atching pair
The e2ercise is focused on symmetrical collocations of the type0 noun A</ noun,
ad6ective A</ ad6ective, !ast !artici!le A</ !ast !artici!le. The students are given the
elements to be paired up in separate lists of (umbled items. E.g.0 sick, head, $its, $od%,
dead, $ed, odds $)< $reakfast, tired, soul, $uried, !ieces, ends, shoulders
Co$$ocation gri!
This is basically another matching e2ercise configured as a table containing a column of
items #ith roughly similar meanings but different collocations and a ro# of items they
can collocate #ith. The students have to decide on the associative possibilities of each
item by marking the intersection point bet#een items as a positive collocation match
(4udska et al., in 'airns and 4edman +,,-, J@.
#oman man child dog bird flo#er #eather vie# village
beautiful E E E E E E E E
lovely E E E E E E
pretty E E E E E E
charming E E E E
attractive E E E
good-looking E E E
handsome E E

4in! o"eone .ho
The activity begins #ith a matching e2ercise, #ith t#o separate lists of items to be
matched so as to obtain ad6ective ) noun collocations, e.g. light slee!er, heav% smoker,
close friend.
$fter checking the correct combinations, the students move round the class to find
someone #ho0 is a light slee!er, have a heav% smoker in their family, has a close friend
of a different nationality, has had a serious illness, etc.
7%etionnaire 9make +5 do;
The %uestionnaire should consist of an ans#er sheet #ith %uestions on problematic
collocations, such as make or do combinations. The main %uestion is 9*n your house, #ho
does1makes thingsD The %uestion prompts in the survey chart #ill include items such as
the sho!!ing(the $eds(the cooking(most of the decisions(the ironing(the most mone%(a
mess and the ans#er prompts can be a man(a #oman(either(%ou(%our
mother(father($rother(sister(#ife. !imilar %uestionnaires can be devised in order to revise
relevant vocabulary and collocations on such topics as personality traits, holidays and
travel, leisure activities ('airns and 4edman, +=@.
VOCA>ULARA STORING STRATEGIES
!tudents should be encouraged to keep a record of the vocabulary they learn, a kind of
le2ical database for future reference. "rganising the vocabulary they have learnt is a
valuable aid to retention, as they are more likely to remember the le2ical items by simply
handling them in some kind of #ritten format.
A$pha*etica$ or!ering
The records can take the form of alphabetical organisers ; a special vocabulary notebook,
ring-binder file or envelopes #ith #ord-cards for #ords beginning #ith the same letter.
This may be combined #ith grammatical categorising, #here the section for each letter
can contain sub-categories for verbs, nouns, ad(ective, adverbs, prepositions.
Topic area&Se"antic ,ie$! or!ering
$lternatively, the organisation principle can be topic-based so students can build #ord
banks around a certain topic in a vocabulary notebook1folder or in topic envelopes #ith
inde2-cards (one card per le2ical item and its derivatives or le2ical sets. Learners should
be encouraged to #rite an e2ample sentence to conte2tualise each #ord, to add
derivatives, even translation if they need to, to associate #ords #ith pictures, and, most
importantly, to try to personalise vocabulary by #riting true sentences about themselves
and their #orld.
Vi%a$ ,or"at
!toring #ords by means of visual formats has the advantage of aiding retention through
more logical and easily memorable displays0 le2ical sets1#ord-#ebs, sub(ect or topic
hierarchies1#ord-trees1pyramids, grids1tables on a semantic field or notion, process
chains1cycles1relationship diagrams.
Co$$ocation ,i$e
"ne valuable filing system may be based on the collocations types discussed above0 verb
E noun, verb E preposition, preposition E noun, etc. *t is a very productive storing system
as it helps students #ith the crucial problem of #ord combinations and range of conte2ts.
This filing system can also be combined #ith alphabetical organisation.
Se"antic&gra""atica$ area categoriing
$nother storage system may be based on such semantic areas as i!io" or phraa$
+er*. "f course, idioms may be further subcategorised by topic1field subgroups
(food1parts of the body1sports1idioms or by grammatical subgroups
(verb1noun1ad(ective1adverbial idioms.
*t is the teacher:s task to present these storing systems and alternatives to the
students, and, #hy not, to let them choose their o#n categorising system, as long as they
keep it up. *rrespective of the filing method used, students should be made a#are that
learning ne# #ords is a process #hich re%uires #orking #ith #ords, as #ords #ill stick
to those #ho take good care of them.


Chapter B
DEVELOPING LISTENING S6ILLS
EVERADAA LISTENING' PURPOSE AND TECT TAPES
Listening is the first receptive skill developed by language learners in both their first and
second language. *n the latter case, the level of listening comprehension normally
increases in parallel #ith the students: linguistic competence, but this does not mean that
the listening skill can develop naturally or by itself.
To develop listening proficiency, learners still need intensive and e2tensive
e2posure to authentic listening material, as #ell as relevant classroom training. Fsing
authentic materials provide e2posure to a #ide range of more or less culture-bound
conte2ts and topics, as #ell as to varieties of English (6ritish, $merican, $ustralian or
particular regional accents. This is not only more challenging than listening to the
teacher:s voice, but also helpful in teaching elements of culture and developing cross-
cultural competencies regarding the English speaking #orld.
That is #hy any balanced language programme should include a #ide range of
listening activities on a variety of topics. The materials should be relevant for the
students: age, level and interests. Classroom listening is essential in developing effective
listening strategies and skills, even if students can also train these skills independently,
through e2tensive e2posure outside the classroom, by listening to music, #atching films,
documentaries, etc.
*n any language, listening is an essential part of everyday social or professional
interaction. $longside reading, listening is the main channel through #hich #e get
information and learn about the #orld. 3hatever the medium involved ; face to face
interaction or the mass media ; #e listen to a #ide variety of conte2t-bound discourses
and for different purposes, #hich determine the listening strategies #e use. $ccording to
their conte2t and implicit purpose, the kinds of te2t types #e listen to can be categorised
as follo#s0
Socia$&Perona$
This refers to small talk and social chat, personal conversations, anecdotes, (okes or
stories.
Tranactiona$&in,or"ationa$
This concerns the area of social and professional transactions and interaction involved in0
service encounters (shop, bank, healthcareI transactional conversations in the #orkplace,
in school or in society (instructions, e2planations, directions descriptionsI phone
conversations and messagesI public or professional meetings.
#a "e!ia an! entertain"ent
*f the previous categories involve listening for social and professional communication,
this type of listening is intended for information, pleasure and entertainment. *t includes
TP or radio programmes such as ne#s, #eather forecasts, intervie#s, reports, revie#s,
documentaries, commentaries, talk-sho#s, phone-ins, %uiCCes, games or artistic
productions such as films, plays, sketches, stories, songs, poems.
E!%cationa$&Pro,eiona$&Specia$ie!
The listening conte2ts in this area may consist of lessons, lectures and seminars,
speeches, discussions and debates.
6y and large, the categories above refer to the kind of listening #e do in real life
and in our mother tongue. The listening te2t types that students of English are most likely
to be e2posed to in their real life are those in the area of media and entertainment, #hich
provides them #ith good, meaningful opportunities for independent listening practice.
>o#ever, any balanced general English course should contain te2t types from different
categories, aimed at training them to develop various listening strategies likely to benefit
potential future needs in real life. &oreover, classroom listening is more actively
engaging and productive, as it al#ays entails a communicative response #hich leads to
the integration of skills through speaking, reading or #riting activities.
Effective listening comprehension in the foreign language involves a number of
important sub-skills that are at #ork in decoding oral communication
LISTENING SU>S6ILLS
Hearing
This sub-skill refers to our recognition of the phonological aspect of language. *t involves
the follo#ing abilities0
*dentifying #ords and phrases in the stream of speech, by making sense of sound
and stress patterns despite speech phonological phenomena such as reduced vo#el
sounds, elision, or assimilation
*nterpreting the use of stress and intonation to identify sense groups and #ords
carrying key information and the use of intonation in discourse management (turn-
taking, changing topic
*nterpreting the attitudinal or emotional significance of paralinguistic features
(loudness, speed, tone of voice
Un!ertan!ing
Fnderstanding processing the meaning and information received in terms of0
Fsing kno#ledge of grammar and vocabulary to interpret spoken sentences
8redicting potential meaning from syntactical clues (#ord order and
morphological clues (suffi2es, prefi2es
4etaining longer chunks of language in short term memory
*nterpreting reference and discourse markers to relate parts of discourse
Fsing kno#ledge of the #orld and conte2t to interpret #hat is being said
Repon!ing
Listening to a message usually entails a response on the part of the listener, #hich can
involve0
Follo#ing instructionsI
Completing a task (non-verbal, spoken, #rittenI
8articipating in a conversation0
sho#ing attention and interest (Fh-huh1* see1 *:m sure she is14eallyD Echo
%uestions0 <oes sheD1>ave youD I
asking for clarification (!orryD13ho did you sayD13hat #as that againD1!orry, *
didn:t %uite catch that.I
checking one:s understanding (<oes that mean...D1!o #hat Oou:re saying is...1!o
am * right in saying...D
4eproducing the te2t in speaking (repeating, retelling, summarising or #riting
(notes, dictation, summarising
4eacting to #hat has been said
A*i$itie o, the pro,icient %er
$ proficient listener adapts his strategies to the conte2t and te2t type, but also to his
personal purpose and interests. $part from this, a native speaker or proficient user of a
language has the capacity to use the above sub-skills in operating a number of important
distinctions regarding conte2t and content. *n real life, a proficient listener #ill be able to0
*dentify the t-pe o, !ico%re (story, intervie#, etc.
*dentify the topic of the discourse
<istinguish bet#een the "ain point an! %pporting !etai$ or irrelevancies
*dentify or infer the ro$e o, pea)er an! the re$ationhip bet#een them
*nfer %npo)en "eaning
*nfer attit%!e/ intention/ e"otion
These are also the abilities #hich a listening programme should be aimed at developing.
*n order to achieve these aims, the teacher should employ materials and tasks #hich can
train the students to replicate the listening strategies used in real life listening.
PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES IN TEACHING LISTENING
*n organising a listening activity based on recorded materials, the teacher #ill bear in
mind the follo#ing principles, #hich underlie the strategies and abilities involved in real
life listening0
Acti+ating the t%!ent0 genera$ )no.$e!ge o, the topic
$ proficient listener naturally uses his kno#ledge of the #orld and conte2t to interpret
#hat is being said, as #ell as his previous kno#ledge of the topic in %uestion, making
associations bet#een kno#n and ne# information. That is #hy #e should start by a $ea!(
in acti+it-, #hich means introducing the topic and getting students to thing and talk
about it before the actual listening.
Acti+ating re$e+ant topic +oca*%$ar-
*n order to #arm the students up to the listening activity, #e should also pool together the
vocabulary they already kno# on the respective topic. The activities aimed at re-
familiarising the students #ith topic and vocabulary aid comprehension by alleviating the
impact of any ne# situation involving totally unkno#n information.
Enco%raging t%!ent to pre!ict $i)e$- content an! +oca*%$ar-
8roficient listeners have the natural ability to predict #hat they are going to hear by
e2ploiting their previous kno#ledge of the conte2t, topic, te2t type or speakers involved.
3e should try to replicate this by having students to predict ideas or #ords likely to come
up in the material.
Setting ta) .hich gi+e t%!ent a ene o, reaon an! p%rpoe
*n real life listening, #e al#ays have a reason and a purpose to listen ; #e need the
information to do or learn something or to interact #ith others. *n the classroom, the
purpose can only be replicated by setting a task to be done #hile listening. Even if #e can
generate sufficient interest in and curiosity about topic and content, the task gives them a
clear purpose.
Pro+i!ing g%i!e$ine an! ,oc% ,or $itening
*t is important to direct the students: attention #hile listening so they may have an idea of
#hat to listen for. !etting guiding %uestions and tasks #ill help them focus on particular
items. To this effect, #e should also encourage students to e3p$oit the re!%n!anc- of
spoken English and to g%e "eaning ,ro" conte3t.
Integration o, )i$$
Listening activities do not usually appear as separate from other linguistic skills. They are
normally integrated #ith speaking, reading or #riting activities, so classroom listening
should replicate the integration of skills characteristic of real life interaction.

STAGING IN LISTENING ACTIVITIES
"rganising a classroom listening activity based on recorded materials should comprise
three important stages0 pre($itening, .hi$e $itening and pot($itening. The tasks at
each stage are meant to train the particular sub-skills engaged in effective listening
comprehension.

PRE(LISTENING ACTIVITIES
*n real life, #e hardly ever engage in listening to something #ithout having any idea of
#hat #e are going to hear. *n other #ords, #e never really engage in listening to
something from a completely 9cold state:. 3e are able to make some predictions about
content, topics or ideas, based on our previous kno#ledge of the conte2t, te2t (discourse
type, topic or speakers: background. The pre-listening stage is meant to replicate these
conditions by #arming the listeners up to the topic, activating their relevant general
kno#ledge and encouraging them to make predictions about #hat they #ill hear.
8rediction tasks #ill also arouse interest and curiosity, as the students #ill be eager to
check if their predictions #ere true.
Intro!%cing the topic
The lead-in phase #ill consist in introducing the topic to the students. *t can be
introduced by means of a key #ord #ritten on the board or visual materials ; pictures,
magaCine illustrations, etc. The teacher asks %uestions to get the students talking about
the topic, about any previous e2perience, kno#ledge, attitudes or preferences related to it.
>raintor"ing i!ea a*o%t the topic
The students can #ork in pairs or groups to brainstorm ideas related to the topic, #hich
they can share #ith other pairs and groups until a complete list is put on the board. The
students may be asked to predict #hich ideas or issues are most likely to come up in the
listening te2t.
>raintor"ing +oca*%$ar-
The students are asked to say any #ords related to the topic and a class list is #ritten on
the board. The students are asked to make predictions about #hich #ords are likely to
occur in the te2t.
Raiing 8%etion
Each student #rites do#n #hat he already kno#s about the topic, #hat he does not kno#
and #hat he #ould like to kno# (in %uestion form. The issues and %uestions #ill be
#ritten under three headings0 DI )no.E DI !on0t )no.E DI0! $i)e to )no.E5 The activity is
meant to activate the students: previous kno#ledge, to get them to connect old and ne#
information and formulate e2pectations about learning #hat interests them. *t increases
motivation as it gets students to think of their o#n reasons for listening ; to have their
%uestions ans#ered.

WHILE(LISTENING ACTIVITIES
These are tasks to be resolved #hile the students are listening to the material. To help
students listen effectively, the teacher #ill devise a listening task-sheet1#orksheet for
students to #ork on. *n constructing a good task-sheet, the teacher #ill make sure that0
the reading or #riting included in the tasks is kept to a minimumI
the %uestions are should be short and clear, as, unless there is a second listening,
the students have no time to go over the te2t again, as in readingI
the students are not re%uired to #rite too muchI
the %uestions are ans#erable by ticking items or by one or t#o #ritten #ordsI
there is a gradation of %uestion difficulty ; the first %uestions should check the
understanding of the main idea (gist rather than specific information (detailsI
the tasks include a variety of %uestion types
there is a grid (chart completion task, #hich is good for practising note-taking
skills
the tasks practise the main $itening trategie used in real life listening0 $itening
,or git (main idea or global understanding or $itening ,or peci,ic 9!etai$e!;
in,or"ation.
Chec)ing pre!iction
*f the students are encouraged to make predictions about the topic, ideas or vocabulary
they #ill hear, or to ask %uestions they #ant ans#ers for, then the first activity #hile
listening #ill be directed on confirming predictions or e2pectations formulated. !tudents
#ill simply tick the items they hear.
I!enti,-ing topic&conte3t&te3t t-pe
*f the topic, conte2t or te2t type has not already been introduced at the pre-listening stage,
the first listening activity, re%uiring listening for gist, can be to identify one of the above
items of information. The e2ercise can involve a simple multiple choice e2ercise.
#%$tip$e choice' topic&"ain i!ea&!etai$
The ne#s item concerns0
sport politics books natural disaster
Xenny is in favour of0
holistic medicine homeopathy acupuncture classical medicine
3hat time did the accident take placeD
+-0.. +-0+5I ++0/5I +-0J.
Tr%e&4a$e&Don0t )no. tate"ent
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Or!ering&n%"*ering ite"' topic ection/ i!ea/ entence/ )e- .or! or
phrae
This activity can consist of t#o phases0 the students #ill first number the above items in
the order they think is the most logical, then listen to the te2t to check their ans#ers. The
e2ercise may be focused on either global or detailed comprehension.
#%$tip$e "atching&#atching ite"' entence to topic&%*topic/ entence to
pict%re/ ha$+e o, entence/ topic&tate"ent&i!ea to pea)er
The activity can also be organised in t#o steps0 the students do the matching e2ercise
before they listen to the te2t and then check ans#ers. *t can be used both for both
listening strategies.
Gri! co"p$etion&In,or"ation tran,er
Completing a grid #ith different headings is a useful e2ercise in note-taking and
systematising information. *ts scope goes beyond training listening skills since it also
helps in developing study skills. $s it may re%uire more #riting, the students #ill need to
listen to the te2t more than once.
Na"e Age <o* Interet
Nic) ta3i
!ri+er
To" 11
Ann Dancing/ .i""ing
Open(en!e! 8%etion .ith one&t.o(.or! an.er
"pen-ended %uestions re%uiring short or key-#ord ans#ers can also be used to check
detailed comprehension. E.g. 3hat time did the accident happenD13here #as the film
shotD
Gap(,i$$
'ap-filling is the most difficult e2ercise for students to do, as it re%uires an accurate
understanding of individual #ords. That is #hy this can be done only after the students
have listened to the te2t at least once and become %uite familiar #ith it. E.g.0 5irs
mission #as to !rovide Russian cosmonauts #ith a ========"
POST(LISTENING ACTIVITIES
8ost-listening activities are meant as a follo#-up to the listening tasks. They naturally
lead to the use of other skills, #hich constitutes a good opportunity for integrating skills.
The activities elicit student response, evaluation and personalisation regarding the issues
and information in the te2t. They are usually speaking activities in the form of pair, group
or #hole class discussions or debates on the topic of the listening material.
3ritten activities such as various letter types, reports, proposals or opinion essays
can also constitute a follo#-up to the listening te2t. 3ritten tasks may involve role
playing, i.e. #riting a letter to the editor or an article from the point of vie# of an
ecologically-minded person, a proposal for saving an endangered natural area, a leaflet
popularising a public interest event, etc.
The general principle underlying the organisation and staging of a listening
activity is that the listening material should function as a springboard for integrated-skills
communicative activities.

TEACHER DESIGNED ACTIVITIES 9USING THE TEACHER0S VOICE;
The teacher:s spoken English provides the first listening material students e2perience
and get accustomed to listening to on an everyday basis. Listening to the teacher:s voice
can be less threatening than listening to a recorded material, as it is a familiar voice and
accent, usually offering comprehensible input at a reasonable speed, #hich makes the
students feel more at ease and more confident in their ability to understand #hat is being
said. 6esides, the teacher can al#ays help students to comprehend ne# information by
talking more slo#ly or using facial e2pression and gestures.
That is #hy, especially #ith lo#er levels, the teacher should design and use
regular, motivating, comprehensible and lo#-stress listening activities, aimed at training
the students: listening skills in a more comfortable, interactive and mutually re#arding
atmosphere. This is more learner-friendly than a recording, since it ensures greater
comprehensibility due to the constant interaction #ith and monitoring from the teacher,
through eye-contact and gesture. These activities also promote #hole class participation
and involvement as they re%uire physical or #ritten responses from all students. This may
also help in boosting the students: self-confidence, even for #eaker students.
Co""an! !ri$$ ,or Tota$ Ph-ica$ Repone 9.ho$e c$a TPR;
The activity can be played as the traditional game 9!imon says:, #hich consists of
commands eliciting physical action1 response. The commands can be adapted to the
practice of certain vocabulary, parts of speech or structures0
Perbs1phrasal verbs0 touch, point to, sho#, go to, open1close, pick up1put do#n,
put into1take out, get out1put a#ay, turn over, turn to
8repositions of place0 (put ob(ects in1on1under1above1bet#een
)ouns0 parts of the body, clothes, classroom ob(ects, students: things (look at,
point to, sho#
$d(ectives indicating shapes, colours, material, physical appearance
!tructures0 8oint to the biggest ob(ect in the room1someone #ho1someone E
present participleI 3hen *...do (actionI *f you..., then...*f not, ...
Spe$$ing !ictation
*t is a very useful activity for practising both the English alphabet and #ord-spelling. The
teacher spells out #ords #hich the students #rite do#n.
N%"*er !ictation
This activity gives students practice #ith numerals, #hich is al#ays a problematic area
#ith many students. *t may consist in0
4eading out numbers #hich the students #rite in numerals.
&ental arithmetic prompts. !tudents #rite do#n in numerals and calculate sums,
subtractions, multiplications or divisions based on the teacher:s prompts.
Finding pages1paragraphs1lines in the te2tbook. The task may include #riting
do#n the first1last #ord in the respective section.
True1False statements containing numbers or geographical1historical facts
involving numbers. The teacher reads one statement at a time and the students
mark it as T1F.
Dictation o, ti"e&!ate&phone n%"*er&8%antitie
Times0 the teacher reads out the time in traditional form, the students #rite it in
digital form. The students change the format from -/-hour clock or vice versa.
$nother activity can involve marking as T1F statements involving times or
timetables.
<ates0 the students transcribe in numerical form the dates the teacher says in
traditional form. The students mark as T1F statements involving dates ; birthday,
holidays, events, etc.
Suantities0 the students #rite in numbers the %uantities they hear the teacher say.
Str%ct%re(,oc%e! Tr%e&4a$e tate"ent
The activity is intended or the receptive practice of specific language items. The teacher
reads out sentences containing a particular structure, relating to a classroom
situation1te2t1 picture1general kno#ledge facts. The students listen and #rite T1F.
4i$$ing chart&ta*$e
The activity is intended to practise a particular structural or le2ical area. The charts can
contain facts about countries (location1population1productI people (names,
likes1dislikes1daily routines1sports1hobbiesI animals (area1habitat1food. The reads out
sentences and the students enter the information in the chart by ticking a bo21item or
entering a key-#ord or number.
4a"i$-(tree !ictation
!tudents are given a family tree #ith blank name bo2es. The teacher uses a completed
family tree to make sentences describing the family relationships. The students listen and
enter the names in the blanks.
Pict%re tran,er
The teacher can describe a simple dra#ing to the class #hile students dra# #hat they
hear. $s a feedback to the students: dra#ings, the instructions are repeated, #hile t#o or
three students dra# on the board. The activity can be used for physical appearance, street
maps, room layout, for practice #ith various ad(ectives, prepositions of place, etc.
Pict%re g%eing
The teacher describes a picture or item among three or more similar pictures and items0
people, buildings, rooms, landscapes, places, animals or ob(ects. The students have to
identify the picture or item described. $s a variation #ithout pictures, the teacher
describes a student in the class, a place in to#n, a famous place or person, or a person
everyone kno#s.
Pict%re(,oc%e! Tr%e&4a$e tate"ent
The students are looking at a picture. The teacher describes the picture, including false
statements. *t can be done as a T84 e2ercise ; for instance, the students are instructed to
raise a hand #henever they hear a false statement.
#ap tran,er
The activity can be based on a #all map or a map in the te2tbook. The teacher describes
the geographical location1shape1neighbours of a country. The students have to identify the
country and #rite its name. !imilarly, the students can be asked to identify cities, from
the descriptions of their positions.
4o$$o.ing !irection on a treet p$an
The teacher can use a pre-dra#n #all-chart or a street plan in the te2tbook. The teacher
sets a starting point on the plan, gives a series of directions and ends by asking the
students 93here are youD: The students #rite do#n the ans#er. The teacher repeats the
instructions before checking ans#ers.
Stor-(te$$ing
Listening to stories #orks e2tremely #ell #ith young learners, so stories are likely to
provide an e2cellent conte2t for a purposeful listening activity. *t can be integrated #ith
speaking activities if the teacher pauses to get students anticipate #hat follo#s ne2t or
ho# the story #ill end.
Ri!!$e
4iddles are popular #ith young learners (and not only as they imply a kind of
competitive guessing. They make for an engaging listening activity #ith a focus on
mental reasoning and interpretation of metaphorical #ord meaning.
Genera$ )no.$e!ge 8%i22e
The students are given %uiC on a particular sub(ect0 countries, capital cities, people,
places, ob(ects, historical events, sports people, cinema, music, #riters or books. The
students #rite one-#ord ans#ers. $ variation may be done #ith T1F statements on a
general kno#ledge topic0 food, health, good manners, shops and goods, (obs and
#orkplaces, products and materials1fabrication processes, national or international bodies
and their activities


Chapter G
DEVELOPING READING S6ILLS
4eading is a receptive skill #hich, like listening, presupposes language comprehension
rather than production. Fnderstanding the content o, a .ritten te3t means interpreting
each of its constitutive components0 in,or"ation (integrating the old #ith the ne#,
tr%ct%re (comprehending sentence1te2t grammar, $e3i (recognising letters1#ords,
guessing meaning te3t organiation (interpreting the use of paragraphing and linking
devices for te2t cohesion and coherence and conte3t (assigning the te2t to a te2t type.
These are the implicit reader operations1tasks underlying te2t comprehension,
#hich means that a fluent reader interacts #ith the te2t at several levels, contributing
meaning to the te2t on the basis of previous e2perience. Therefore classroom procedures
and tasks should reflect the purposeful, task-based, interactive nature of real life reading
and e2ercise types should, as far as possible, appro2imate to cognitive reality. This refers
to the cognitive e2perience #hich the reader inherently brings to a te2t. The aspects of
previous e2perience involved in efficient reading are the follo#ing0
6no.$e!ge o, the $ang%age
For classroom reading, this pre-re%uisite is provided by the suitability of the te2t to the
students: level of language. 6oth very easy and very difficult te2ts can raise problems, as
the challenge #ill be too lo# or t#o high. $ te2t should provide a fair amount of
challenge #ithout being forbidding. That is #hy the reading programme should closely
parallel the students: linguistic competence, since gro#th in language ability is an
essential part of the development of the reading skill.
Interet an!&or "oti+ation
3e normally read for t#o main reasons (or a combination of both ; information and
pleasure. 3hatever the reason, #e read because #e are interested in a certain topic or
have a certain motivation, related to study1professional1personal purposes ; passing an
e2am, #riting an essay1study1thesis, gaining personal or professional kno#ledge,
pursuing a hobby or a pleasant pastime. *n the classroom, this can be realised by selecting
interesting te2ts, relevant for the students: age, language level and interests, as #ell as by
devising inciting pre-reading activities, aimed at arousing interest and curiosity.
6no.$e!ge o, the .or$!
3e never approach a te2t #ithout referring it to our previous e2perience of the domain,
topic, author, culture or conte2t. Thus any ne# information is integrated #ith our
previous kno#ledge of the #orld, by #hich #e contribute meaning to the te2t. *n class,
the pre-reading stage should e2ploit and activate the students: relevant kno#ledge.
6no.$e!ge o, c%$t%re
*n our first language, comprehension is aided by our kno#ledge of our culture and
everyday reality. 3ith authentic te2ts, #hich are inherently culture-bound, the cultural
gap may impede the comprehension of certain issues, details, references, names, (okes,
anecdotes. *t is the teacher:s task to provide the necessary background information so as
to alleviate cultural incomprehension.
6no.$e!ge o, te3t t-pe
"ur kno#ledge of the #orld and culture also help us assign a te2t to a category1te2t type
; ne#spaper1magaCine article, letter, diary, essay, short-story, novel, scientific book. $
classroom reading programme should ac%uaint students #ith a variety or te2t types in the
foreign language.

STAGING IN INTENSIVE READING ACTIVITIES
$s opposed to real life or e2tensive reading, classroom reading in a foreign language,
also called inteni+e rea!ing, involves tasks aimed at developing the students:
comprehension skills and reading strategies. Even if the tasks are designed to simulate or
replicate the principles and strategies underlying real reading, they #ill still retain their
didactic character of teaching1learning techni%ues, inherently intensive in terms of
procedure and conditions. $ classroom reading activity se%uence should comprise three
important stages0 pre(rea!ing/ .hi$e(rea!ing and pot(rea!ing. The tasks at each stage
are meant to reflect the interactive aspects and operations at #ork in everyday reading
and to train the particular sub-skills engaged in effective reading comprehension.
PRE(READING ACTIVITIES
*n real life, #e hardly ever engage #ith a reading te2t #ith an empty mind ; #e al#ays
have some idea of #hat #e are going to read about. 3e are able to make some predictions
about content, topics or ideas, based on our previous kno#ledge of the conte2t, te2t
(discourse type, topic, background (temporal1spatial setting. The pre-reading stage is
meant to replicate these conditions by #arming the students up to the topic, activating
their relevant general kno#ledge and encouraging them to make predictions about #hat
they #ill read1learn about. 8rediction tasks #ill also arouse interest and curiosity, as the
students #ill be eager to check if their predictions #ere true.
Pre!icting&anticipating topic&content ,ro" para(te3t%a$ ,eat%re 9tit$e/
pict%re/ i$$%tration/ ,ront co+er;
The $ea!(in phase #ill consist in involving the students in making predictions about #hat
they are going to read, on the basis of the para-te2tual features #hich a fluent reader uses
to anticipate content ; titles, headline, headings, pictures, illustrations, front-page or
cover. The teacher asks the students to use one or several of the above features to
speculate about the likely content of the te2t. The students are encouraged to talk about
the anticipated topic or ideas and about any relevant previous e2perience, kno#ledge,
attitudes or preferences. E.g.0 What information #ould %ou e!ect to find in the follo#ing
reading tet?
$ ne#spaper article #ith the headline Plane Crashes in the Andes
$ chapter in a popular science book called Comets
$ romantic story called Im ost #hich begins0 I kno# I havent s!oken for
a #hile, $ut I #as thinking a$out %ou and it kind of made me smile" So man%
things to sa%, and Ill !ut them in a letter"""
$s sho#n above, predictions can be made from a first sentence1paragraph. $lternatively,
the students can be asked to make predictions from a number of #ords taken out from the
te2t.
>raintor"ing&pre!icting i!ea on the topic
The students #ill ans#er such %uestions as0 93hat #ould you like to kno# about the
te2tD13hat do you already kno# about the sub(ect of the te2tD: They can #ork in pairs or
groups to brainstorm ideas based on their previous kno#ledge of the topic, #hich they
can share #ith other pairs and groups until a complete list is put on the board. The
students may be asked to predict #hich ideas or issues are most likely to come up in the
te2t.
Raiing 8%etion&e3pectation
This is an interest-raising task, meant to increase the students: motivation to read the te2t.
The underlying principle is that #e normally read because there is something #e #ant to
find out, some information #e #ant to check or clarify or some opinion #e #ant to match
against our o#n. *f in the above brainstorming activity the students are asked to #rite
do#n #hat they already kno# about the topic, this time they are re%uired to think about
#hat they #ould like to kno# and to #rite do#n any %uestions #hich they #ould like
ans#ered. The %uestions may be based on a given title, a suggestive picture illustration, a
first sentence or paragraph, a set of key #ords. The activity is meant to activate the
students: previous kno#ledge, to get them to connect old and ne# information and
formulate e2pectations about learning #hat interests them. *t increases motivation as it
gets students to personalise their reasons for reading ; to have their o#n %uestions
ans#ered.
Anticipating topic +oca*%$ar- +oca*%$ar- pre(teaching&pot(teaching
coni!eration
$ reader usually uses his previous kno#ledge of the topic to anticipate le2ical content.
!tudents should be involved in brainstorming and activating the #ords they kno# about
the topic and compile a common list of #ords #hich they think might come up in the
te2t. 3hile reading, they can be asked to check their vocabulary predictions. *f the
teacher thinks the te2t contains #ords likely to hinder comprehension, he1she may choose
to pre-teach them or ask students to look them up in the dictionary. *f not, it #ould be
preferable to postpone #orking #ith #ords until the post-reading stage, #hich #ill be
more productive, as it gives students the chance to deal #ith ne# #ords in a more natural
and interactive #ay, that is to guess their meaning from conte2t.
WHILE(READING ACTIVITIES
$t the #hile-reading stage of a reading lesson, the primary activity should consist in
learners reading te2ts silently and doing comprehension tasks set by the teacher. 3hile
the students are reading, the teacher should keep a lo# profile and allo# students to
e2plore the te2t in silence, #ithout unnecessary interruptions. *f the students #ork on
reading task-sheet, the class feedback session can be done at the end of each activity or,
preferably, at the end of the lesson.
4eading comprehension tasks should be aimed at training the t#o important
reading strategies and sub-skills0 )i""ing (identifying the "ain i!ea or git of a te2t
and canning (focussing on peci,ic in,or"ation&!etai$ in a te2t. <uring a reading
lesson, it is desirable that students should have both skimming and scanning e2ercises.
S6I##ING TAS6S
!kimming (through a te2t means reading %uickly or perusing the te2t for the main
idea1gist, #ithout reading #ord by #ord or sentence by sentence. *t is the strategy #e
normally use for global comprehension or getting a general idea of a te2t or book. *t
involves speed-reading, i.e. bro#sing1leafing through pages or looking over a te2t to get
the main idea in the shortest time possible. That is #hy skimming activities should
al#ays be done #ithin a set time-limit, #ith the teacher specifying the allocated time
from the beginning and timing the students: reading. The time limit should be carefully
thought out ; it should be short to encourage speed, but realistic in terms of task
comple2ity, as too short a time frame may frustrate students #ho haven:t been able to
finish the task. &atching a title to an article can take t#o minutes, #hile ordering
(umbled paragraphs may take +. minutes.
#atching tit$e&hea!$ine&hea!ing&topic entence to te3t&paragraph
These activities can be done #ith several te2ts1e2cerpts or on a single te2t. 3ith several
te2ts, the students can be asked to match J-/ headlines1summaries #ith the corresponding
ne#s items, or some titles1summaries #ith te2ts of different types. "n a single te2t, the
students can do a multiple matching e2ercise based on a number of headings or summary
statements to be matched #ith the corresponding sections or paragraphs in the te2t. $
variation can be offering a te2t in #hich the topic sentences of the paragraphs have been
erased, and the (umbled topic sentences #hich the students have to match to the
corresponding paragraph.
I!enti,-ing the topic 9o, a te3t or paragraph;
This is a variation of the above activity, re%uiring the skimming of a te2t or paragraph to
identify the topic. The students #ill state the topic themselves or can ans#er a multiple
choice %uestion. They should also be taught to e2ploit the role of the topic sentence in a
paragraph.
S%""ariing the git o, a te3t&paragraph 9*- a tit$e&hea!ing&entence;
!tudents are re%uired to skim a te2t or paragraph and suggest a title, heading or sentence
#hich best summarises its main idea.
Or!ering :%"*$e! paragraph
The students are given cut-outs containing the paragraphs of a te2t. *n pairs or groups,
students have to put them in the right order #ithin a relatively short time limit. The
students #ill have to take into account the logical se%uence1coherence of the paragraphs,
as #ell as the linking #ords or topic sentences #hich can provide clues as to #hat may
come before or after each paragraph. The groups report their results and e2plain the
ordering clues they have used.
<iga. rea!ing
$ variation on the above activity can take the form of a :iga. rea!ing, #here each
student in a group is given a different paragraph. The one #ho thinks is the first #ill tell
the others a summary of his1her paragraph, and each of them #ill do the same #hen they
consider they come ne2t. $t the end they put their paragraphs together and check results.
The activity integrates reading #ith listening and speaking.
Co"prehenion&open(en!e! 8%etion
Comprehension %uestions can be aimed at checking general comprehension if they are
focused on important areas of meaning rather than on details. They help guide the
students: reading of the te2t ; good %uestions should focus their attention on the main
points and lead them to think about the meaning of the te2t. E.g.0 What is the #riters
main argument against >oos? /o %ou agree #ith it?

SCANNING TAS6S
!uch tasks are aimed at training the students to scan the te2t for bits of specific
information. !canning strategies also presuppose speed-reading, so the teacher should set
time limits for any such e2ercises. !canning activities can be applied to any kind of te2t
or to more specialised te2ts. To replicate the real life conte2ts in #hich #e use this
reading strategy to focus on the information #e need, #e should illustrate them by special
purpose te2ts such as transport timetables, TP guides, tourist brochures, travel
information guides1leaflets, user:s manuals, menus, directories, etc.
Ae&No 8%etion& Tr%e&,a$e tate"ent
This is a %uite simple and common e2ercise, e2tremely useful for scanning activities, as it
focuses the students: attention to items of specific information. *t can also be organised as
a reading competition, #hose #inner is the first to ans#er the %uestions correctly.
Specia$&Wh(8%etion
!pecial %uestions provide students #ith both a purpose and a clear focus #hile reading.
The e2pected ans#ers can be shorter or longer, depending on the comple2ity of the
response re%uired. *f used #ith systematised informative te2ts such as timetables, TP or
tourist guides, this e2ercise also lends itself to a competition, #ith the #inner being the
first one to find the ans#ers.
E.g.0 What film is on &hannel ? on at @ !m on 5onda%?(What time is the /ocklands
5useum o!en at #eekends? What is the entrance fee?
Detai$e! co"prehenion 8%etion
Comprehension %uestions are, more often than not, the most commonly #idespread
e2ercise for checking detailed comprehension and focusing the students: attention on
particular items of information. They sho# the teacher and the students themselves ho#
#ell they have understood the te2t, and #hat needs to be more fully e2plained.

In,erence 8%etion
*nference %uestions are meant to get the students probe into the meaning of the te2t at a
deeper level and infer or 9guess at: potential shades of meaning not e2plicitly e2pressed,
but rather suggested by the te2t. *n other #ords, inference can be defined by reading
bet#een the lines for meaning, ideas, attitudes, stances, motivations, moods or feelings
#hich are only obli%uely or indirectly touched upon or understated. *nference %uestions
also train the students: ability of identifying the #riter:s purpose and tone. E.g.0 Wh% do
%ou think the girl decided not to leave home after all?1Wh% does the stor% $egin #ith a
!re;vie# of the ending scene? What is the role of the long enumeration in !aragra!h 2?
In,or"ation tran,er 9gri! co"p$etion;
The students are given a grid1table #ith different headings referring to specific items of
information. They have to complete the table #ith brief notes of the relevant information
re%uired by each heading ; that is to 9transfer information: to a different kind of format.
The main purpose of completing the table is to help focus the students: attention on the
main points of a te2t, and make it easier for them to organise the information in their
minds. 6esides, by giving students: practice in note-taking, the activity helps them to
develop efficient note-taking skills and systematise information in a concise manner ;
#hich is very important for their study skills. For e2ample, if #orking on a te2t
concerning a personality profile, the headings may be0 ,ometo#n, 8amil%, +ducation,
8irst 6o$, 8irst film(,oll%#ood success(Ascar nomination(a#ard, ,ome, 5arriage and
children, +arnings, &harit% causes, etc"
Rea!ing race&co"petition
6ringing an element of fun to a reading activity is a #orth#hile variation, as it helps
build both motivation and confidence. Competitive activities may be concerned #ith
either skimming or scanning skills. $rranging (umbled paragraphs1sentences can be used
for skimming, #hile scanning activities, as already illustrated above, may involve finding
ans#ers to a number of %uestions #ithin a certain time limit, filling in gaps #ith the
missing phrases from a list. The activities can be played individually or in groups.

ECPLORING TECT ORGANISATION
Te2t organisation constitutes an aid to comprehension in itself, therefore students should
be taught to e2ploit the logical, rhetorical and linguistic devices #hich hold a te2t
together and help clarify meaning. $part from facilitating comprehension, e2ercises
#hich dra# attention to te2t organisation features are essential in helping students #ith
their o#n #riting, as it is commonly kno#n that good readers usually make good #riters.
Conse%uently, such a#areness-raising activities have a much #ider scope, in that they are
training reading sub-skills and strategies #hich, implicitly and naturally lead into #riting.
E3a"ining te3t organiation e$e"ent
To begin #ith, thinking of te2t organisation features help consolidate the students:
kno#ledge of te2t types. $ssigning the te2t to a type means an a#areness of defining
organisational features, #hich #e use in distinguishing bet#een letters, articles,
argumentative essays, literary or scientific te2ts. Engaging students in evaluating
paragraph se%uencing and the relationship bet#een the different parts1sections of a te2t
can be done through any skimming e2ercise #hich re%uires multiple matching (main
ideas and paragraphs, identifying the topic or gist of each paragraph or ordering (umbled
paragraphs. $fter identifying the main topic and paragraph divisions of a te2t, students
can be asked to complete a diagram illustrating the format1plan1outline of the te2t, #hich
they can use as a model for their o#n #riting assignments. For e2ample, a te2t
descriptive essay model for describing people can be represented as follo#s.
Character/
Personality
Final comments/present feelings now *ntroduction
>o# you met
Physical appearance/
Clothes
>o# you met
Introduction
How you met

!tudents can also be involved in e2amining paragraph construction, #hich also teaches
them ho# to #rite a good paragraph themselves. They can e2amine the #ay in #hich the
main idea and supporting details are organised #ithin a paragraph by analysing the
role1function of each sentence ; the topic sentence and supporting statements. E.g.0
<ecide ho# the other sentences in paragraph - e2pand the information given in the
topic1key sentence. <oes any of them0 a give e2amplesD b give a further e2planationD c
give a (udgementD d do a mi2ture of the aboveD e do something elseD
Te3t coherence
Te2t coherence concerns the logical connection and arrangement bet#een ideas,
paragraphs or sentences in a te2t and the use of !ico%re "ar)er (sentence adverbs or
adverbial phrases signalling order and se%uence, additional ne# points, contrasting
points, etc. in ensuring the logical flo# of ideas. $ctivities focused on coherence can
involve identifying a paragraph or sentence #hich does not belong in the te2t, ordering
(umbled sentences, deciding the order of J-/ e2pressions taken out of the te2t or
e2amining the functions of the $in)ing phrae or !ico%re "ar)er mentioned above.
Te3t coheion
Te2t cohesion concerns the syntactic and le2ical mechanisms #hich hold the te2t together
or make it cohere at discrete level ; ho# ideas and sentences are (oined or related to each
other. $ctivities may involve identifying and analysing the use of the cohei+e !e+ice
#ithin a sentence or paragraph ; linkers, con(unctions, demonstrative pronouns, articles,
anaphoric reference (back#ards, to a previous element or cataphoric reference
(for#ards, to a subse%uent element references. E.g.0 What does 7it(this(7that(7do so in
line BC refer to?
POST(READING ACTIVITIES
8ost-reading activities usually deal #ith the students: reactions to the te2t. They
encourage students to comment on ideas, agree1disagree #ith issues, share opinions and
impressions about #hat they have read, make value (udgements, assess e2periences, etc.
They also promote the integration of reading #ith other skills (speaking, listening,
#riting, since, as it happens in real life, reading is often a pre-te2t for talking or #riting.
E+a$%ation an! repone
$ reader usually evaluates and reacts to a te2t in various #ays ; discussing #ith others,
e2changing opinions, agreeing, disagreeing, arguing in favour or against points in the
te2t, #riting1doing something in response, changing certain habits or behaviours, etc.
!tudents can be asked to react in a %uite simple, yet telling manner0
E.g.0 Read(sa% aloud the sentence in the tet #hich0
- you like best
- you most agree1disagree #ith
- you #ill tell your parents1friends about
- impressed you the most
- set you thinking1gave you food for thought
- changed your perspective on the matter
- made you #ant to do1change something

Dic%ion/ !e*ate
These are more ample activities regarding the reactions mentioned about, in #hich
students can discuss in pairs or groups certain issues related to the te2t. They may be
asked to interpret1e2plain certain facts or ideas1comment on situations and people1find
solutions to problems presented1think or speculate on of causes and effects1plan a course
of action, etc.
<iga. rea!ing
This is an approach to reading #hich involves the students in speaking and summarising
skills. *t is very useful #hen #orking #ith short authentic te2ts such as ne#spaper
articles. Xigsa# reading is a great #ay to introduce speaking into a reading lesson. *t
provides a real opportunity for genuine communication. *n real life, #e may tell people
about a ne#s article #e have read, so this is a classroom activity that is fairly authentic.
Xigsa# reading can be done in t#o #ays0
i5 T.o eparate torie
3e can use t#o ne#s stories #hich share a theme ; for e2ample t#o separate stories on
holidays gone #rong. The teacher prepares comprehension %uestions for each story and
gives one half of the class ('roup $ one story, and the other half ('roup 6 the other.
The students read their article, ans#er the %uestions and check understanding. !tudents
then pair up #ith someone from the other group and tell them about their story, and listen
to the other one. To help students remember their story #e may get them to take notes,
but, in order to keep the challenge, #e should not allo# them to take the article #ith them
to refer to.
ii5 One tor- p$it in t.o
!ome stories can be clearly divided in t#o. 3e can follo# the same procedure as above,
but giving each group only one half of the story. 3hen the students are recounting their
half of the article, #e should make sure that the student #ith the opening half goes first.
The activity integrates reading #ith listening and speaking.
Ro$e(p$a-
4ole-play activities can be used #ith te2ts focused on people ; personality profiles,
biographies, historical documents, outstanding people:s achievements, or #ith literary
characters. $ssuming the role of certain characters in the reading, students can
ask1ans#er %uestions and speculate on the motives or reasons of their actions, the nature
of their e2periences, etc.
I"aginar- inter+ie.
The students, acting as themselves this time, are asked to #rite intervie# %uestions they
#ould like to ask a person they have read about in a reading te2t. They can also be
encouraged to imagine the potential ans#ers or can intervie# other students #ho #ill
play the part of the imaginary intervie#ee.

Written repone acti+itie
4eading activities should also be used as a springboard for #riting activities. !tudents are
asked to respond in #riting to issues they have read about. For instance, they can #rite
letters (to the editor, complaint, en%uiry, reports, proposals, leaflets, manifestoes,
articles, etc. They can #rite as themselves or, especially #ith human interest stories or
literary te2ts, #hich lend themselves to role-playing, they can assume the role of a
character, #riting a letter or a diary entry from his1her perspective. "ther challenging
tasks may be #riting a continuation to a story or a different ending.
Voca*%$ar- *%i$!ing ta)
4eading te2ts are usually a rich source of ne# vocabulary, therefore they should be used
for vocabulary e2pansion. 8roviding the ne# #ords do not hinder comprehension, it is
usually #orth#hile postponing vocabulary matters to the post-reading stage, telling
students not to #orry about the #ords they don:t kno#. This helps prepare students
psychologically to deal #ith unkno#n vocabulary and accustoms them to guessing
meaning from conte2t. Conse%uently, post-reading vocabulary tasks should be based on
discovery and inference techni%ues0 matching #ords1phrases #ith definitionsI multiple
choice definitions1e2planationsI finding synonyms1antonyms for #ords given by the
teacherI using the #ords in sentences of their o#n, #riting a te2t using the ne# #ords.
USING LITERARA TECTS
Literature is an ine2haustible source of interesting, motivational and instructive te2ts, so
literary te2ts should also figure in a balanced reading programme. "f course, sources
should be #ell-adapted to the learner:s age, interests and language level. There is a #ide
variety of children:s books the teacher can use, from classical to contemporary
storybooks such as those of 4oald <ahl or X.A. 4a#ling, for instance. Teenage literature
is also #ell-represented, a good e2ample being !ue To#nsend:s Adrian 5ole books (The
Secret /iar% of Adrian 5ole, Aged -2D, The Gro#ing Pains of Adrian 5ole, etc".
Literary te2ts provide learners #ith situations and characters they may identify #ith, or
#ith flights of fancy #hich can develop their imagination, creativity and linguistic ability.
The te2ts can be e2ploited from many different perspectives and using various strategies.
They may also offer an incentive for more ambitious pro(ects such as dramatisations or
script-#riting and, #hy not, even short amateur films. 3hat is more important, ho#ever,
is the potential of a #ell-chosen literary te2t to #het the students: appetite for reading
literature outside the classroom, #hich #ould be a tremendous gain for all those
concerned.
ENCOURAGING ECTENSIVE READING
&otivating students to read e2tensively outside the classroom should be the envisioned
corollary of any reading programme. 3ell-conducted intensive reading activities have
their role in increasing motivation for reading, but they should be supplemented by class
activities specially targeted at e2tensive reading. !ome recommended strategies are
presented belo#.
Uing rea!er
The numerous graded readers available on the market, adapted for different language
levels, provide a good source of reading materials. There are also packages of teaching
resources specially designed for activities based on the use of readers in and out of class.
The teacher should of course have access to a reasonable number of readers #hich can be
circulated among the students. !etting up a c$a $i*rar- can be a positive move, as the
very visibility of available books #ill help in raising reading interests, especially if all
tastes are catered for, in terms of a variety of topics and genres.
Let "e reco""en!555
$s in real life, the books #e liked should be talked about, commented, recommended and
passed around. Therefore the teacher should organise regular sessions in #hich individual
students report on their #riting and recommend a book to their peers. The teacher can
provide the students #ith a simple format for a book revie#, containing such headings as0
Title, $uthor, 8lot, Characters, 3hy * liked it.
>oo) o, the "onth corner
!tudents should be encouraged to enter the titles they liked on a list available on a #all
display1class notice-board. $ny student #ho read the same book can #rite a mark (+to5
and a short comment on a certain book card (see >armer, -+-. $t the end of the school
year, the students can compile the H>oo) hit($it0 #ith the books ranking highest in their
preferences.
3hatever strategies and activities #e may devise to encourage our students to
read #idely, they should highlight the value of reading as a pleasurable, re#arding and
enriching pastime #hich benefits them in the long run, both personally and socially.

Chapter I
DEVELOPING SPEA6ING S6ILLS
!peaking and #riting skills belong to the category of productive skills, as they re%uire
learners to produce language input, oral or #ritten. "f course, #e can talk about learner
language production only #ith reference to free practice, communicative activities, based
entirely or at least to a large e2tent on student input.
)eedless to say, productive skills are more difficult to develop than
comprehension skills, and re%uire more time and effort on the part of both teacher and
learners. 3ith speaking and #riting, progress is often slo# and not so readily evident or
so accurately measurable. 6uilding fluency takes time and re%uires patience, sustained
effort, plenty of confidence-building activities, as #ell as constant encouragement and
positive feedback from the teacher.
$s in the other areas of language and skills practice, speaking practice includes
controlled, semi-controlled and free practice activities, in #hich teacher or student
control over language depends on language proficiency level, activity focus and type
(accuracy1fluency. $s various types of more or less controlled speaking activities have
already been illustrated in the previous chapters, this chapter #ill focus on free speaking,
interactive, fluency building activities, aimed at developing oral communication skills.
$ balanced general English course should include activities illustrating the
+ariet- o, te3t t-pe found in everyday communication, #hich can be categorised as
follo#s0
Socia$&Perona$0 !mall talk and social chatI 8ersonal conversationI $necdotes
and (okes
E+er-!a- tranactiona$&in,or"ationa$0 !ervice encounters (shop, bank,
healthcareI Transactional conversations (instructions, e2planations, directions,
descriptions, arrangementsI <iscussions (planning and problem-solvingI
&eetings
E!%cationa$&Pro,eiona$&Specia$ie!' LessonsI Lectures and seminarsI 4eports
and presentationsI !peechesI *ntervie#s and consultationsI <iscussions and
debatesI 8lays and sketches
$ #ell-balanced speaking programme should include all activities from sections a, *,
though some te2t types in section c can very #ell be used for free speaking activities.
#AIN PRINCIPLES IN SETTING UP 4REE(SPEA6ING ACTIVITIES
#oti+ation
4aising motivation is essential for the success of a speaking activity. This can be realised
through selecting interesting topics, suited for the students: age and interests. The
students also need to be .ar"e!(%p to the topic by lead-in %uestions, e2amples and
%ueries #hich help generate interest. 3e should also give the activity a clear purpose,
#hich can be created by giving the students a task to solve, involving a clear outcome,
result, solution or agreement #hich they are supposed to reach at the end of the activity.
C$a $a-o%t an! eating arrange"ent
3e should make sure that the class layout is suitable for the activity. $ppropriate seating
arrangements #ill be made for group-#ork (problem solving, pair-#ork (face to face for
information gap1back to back for phone conversations or #hole class discussion (circle.
P$anning
The procedure and organisation for the activity should be carefully thought out by the
teacher before class0 activity se%uence and timing, necessary materials (visuals, handouts,
crayons, poster sheets, etc..
Preparation ti"e
*n order to help the students perform the activity in good conditions, #e should allo#
them enough time for preparation ; brainstorming, #orking out ideas and opinions,
thinking about useful language. &any activities are unsuccessful because the students
are not given time to think things through. 'roup-#ork activities, in particular, re%uire
ade%uate preparation for the task.
Ue,%$ tr%ct%re an! +oca*%$ar-
The teacher has to make sure that the students are e%uipped #ith the appropriate
structures and vocabulary they need to use. 3e should check1revise1pre-teach any useful
vocabulary or structures #e think necessary.
C$ear intr%ction an! !e"ontration
3e should al#ays make sure that the students have understood our instructions and kno#
e2actly #hat to do. To this effect, #e can ask a student to repeat the instructions. 6etter
still, #e should give a short demonstration of #hat they have to do or #hat language to
use during the activity.

Ti"ing
3e should not let the activity go on for too long, so that students #ill not be left to linger
unnecessarily, lose interest or even s#itch off. 3e should also leave sufficient time for
reporting, feedback and correction.
Correction
<uring pair-#ork or group-#ork speaking activities, the teacher should try to keep a lo#
profile and not interrupt students or interfere #ith their #ork unless something goes
#rong or communication breaks do#n. The best #ay of dealing #ith errors occurring
during a speaking activity is !e$a-e! correction, i.e. after the activity ; #e can take
notes of any language or interaction mistakes #e hear and bring them to the students:
attention at the end.
Integration .ith other )i$$
!peaking activities can and should al#ays be integrated #ith other skills. They are often
used as part of a listening, reading or #riting se%uence, or as free language practice for
reinforcing grammar or vocabulary. $ speaking activity should be used as a lead-in to
more discussion or to a #riting1reading1listening task.
CO##UNICATIVE SPEA6ING ACTIVITIES
Communicative activities for free oral practice commonly presuppose pair .or) an!
gro%p .or). *n order to motivate students to #ork together in pairs1groups, the activities
have to be ta)(*ae! ; if students kno# #hat they have to achieve, they #ill have a
p%rpoe to #ork to#ards, i.e. solving the task. 6asically, the most common
communicative activities are of four main types ; In,or"ation Gap/ G%eing ga"e/
Pro*$e" So$+ing and Ro$e P$a- ; but the range is in fact much #ider, #ith mi2ed kinds
of tasks. The most productive speaking activities for free oral communication are
described belo#.
IN4OR#ATION GAP ACTIVITIES 9In,o(gap;
Fsually suitable for pair #ork, but also for group #ork, these activities are based on an
information gap, i.e. the students have different information #hich they have to share in
order to fulfil the given task. *n other #ords, the need to e2change information provides
the need to communicate, usually by means of %uestion and ans#er patterns of
interaction. *n an information gap activity, each student #orking in a pair ($ and 6 is
given a handout containing information his1her partner does not have. The task varies
depending on the language or topic focus of the activity. &ost often, they have to
e2change information in order to reach a decision, an agreement, a conclusion, a certain
result (filling in a chart or to create something (a map, a dra#ing, a description, an
ob(ect1handicraft item. $s they are not supposed to see each other:s information, the best
seating arrangement for the pair is face-to-face. 8ossible tasks may include0
Agreeing on a co""on p$an&action5
!tudents are asked to agree on a time to meet, a place to go together, a course of action to
take or choice to make, by #orking #ith handouts containing different information.
Achie+ing a re%$t
The handouts may also contain incomplete te2ts, tables, diagrams, or pictures, so students
have to e2change information by asking and ans#ering %uestions, as they depend on
#hich other to complete their items.
Pict%re .ith !i,,erence
The students are given %uite similar pictures containing a number of differences
(number1colour of ob(ects, different people1animals1furniture1street1position in space.
They are told there are +. differences, for e2ample. To fulfil the task, they take turns to
ask and ans#er %uestions, paying attention to and recording the differences they identify.
Chart co"p$etion
The students are given charts #ith different missing information. To complete them, they
have to ask their partners, #ho have the information they need.
#ap co"p$etion
The students are given handouts #ith the map of a street, village, to#n, Coo, store, etc.
Each student has elements the other has not, so they have to ask and ans#er %uestions in
order to complete their maps #ith the missing items put in the right place.
Dra.ing intr%ction
The students are given handouts #ith different shapes1ob(ects1places1people1animals. The
task re%uires that each of them dra#s the picture on their partner:s handout by listening to
each other:s descriptions and instructions. 3ithout handouts, the task can be that each of
them describes his1her room so that their partner can dra# a plan of the room.
GUESSING GA#ES
'uessing games are communicative activities roughly based on the information gap
principle, involving the interaction bet#een a 9kno#er: and a 9guesser:. The guessers #ill
ask Oes1)o-%uestions until they guess #hat the kno#er is miming or thinking about.

G%eing ga"e' 1? 7
This is a popular game. *t can be played either in pairs or #ith the #hole class. *n a pair,
the partners take turns as 9kno#er: and 9guesser:. Each thinks of an activity, person, (ob,
animal, country, continent, place, etc. They try to guess #hat the other is thinking of by
asking relevant Oes1)o %uestions (up to -. focused on structures and topics fit to the
conte2t. 3ith the #hole class, one student is the kno#er, ans#ering the %uestions asked
by his peers.
#i"e&Chara!e
This is another type of entertaining guessing game, also used for amusement at social get-
togethers. The kno#er has to mime the concept he1she has in mind, nodding or shaking
his head in response to the others: %uestions.
In the "anner o, the a!+er*
This is a mime in #hich the focus is on guessing the manner in #hich a certain action is
performed. $ student is secretly instructed by the teacher to do an action in a certain
manner, e.g. to make coffee angri$-. The class #ill ask %uestions using adverbs of
manner.
Hote$ reception
This is another mime variation #hich can be played in pairs, #ith one student acting as a
guest at a hotel and the other as a receptionist. The guest mimes a problem #ith the
service or accommodation #hich the receptionist has to guess.
Na"e on the *ac)
The teacher sticks 9name cards: on the students: backs. The cards can bear the name of a
famous person (historical figure, politician, #riter, music or film star, literary character
or, alternatively, the name of an animal. !tudents #ill ask and ans#er %uestions so as to
help each other guess their mysterious identity.
Ca$$ "- *$%,,
Either in front of the class or in pairs, students #ill tell their peers a story or anecdote,
real or invented. $lternatively, they can tell t#o stories, #hile the others have to decide in
#hich the teller speaks the truth and in #hich he1she is merely bluffing.
4in! o"eone .ho
The activity begins #ith a matching e2ercise, #ith t#o separate lists of items to be
matched so as to obtain ad6ective ) noun collocations, e.g. light slee!er, heav% smoker,
close friend.
$fter checking the correct combinations, the students move round the class to find
someone #ho0 is a light slee!er, have a heav% smoker in their family, has a close friend
of a different nationality, has had a serious illness, etc.
In,or"ation gathering' 8%etionnaire&%r+e-
!tudents are asked to gather information about their classmates by devising a
%uestionnaire on various topics0 hobbies, pastimes, sports, holidays, eating1reading habits,
likes1dislikes, etc. They have to go around the class asking %uestions and recording
ans#ers on their report sheet. $t the end the students process the data collected and
present their findings under the form of pie-charts, stack columns, graphs or diagrams.
Inter+ie.
The students intervie# each other on a given topic0 future plans1career1holidays, past
e2periences, family, relationships, friends, study or pastime preferences, etc. $t the end
each student produces an oral or #ritten account of the intervie#. The
intervie#ers1intervie#ees can act as themselves or play the role of other people (family
members, friends ; an e2ercise in empathyW, of celebrities or even animals, #hich really
appeals to their empathic imagination.
7%i22e
SuiCCes can be organiCed as pair, group or #hole class activities. Each group can devise a
%uiC based on topics studied in class (#ildlife, geographical1historical1cultural
facts1films1books1music, etc. *t can be conducted orally or in #riting. *t is more
challenging if organised as a competition bet#een t#o1three teams, in #hich the #inning
team has the most correct ans#ers.
Stor- .ap' %r*an "-th
&ultiple story s#apping is a comple2 activity, involving (igsa# reading and e2changing
stories. *t can be organised #ith four very short stories, for instance urban myths or ne#s
articles. !tudents #ill be put in four groups $, 6, C, <. Each group #ill read the same
story and are asked to prepare to tell the story as accurately as they can to members from
other groups. Then they are put into pairs $6, C< and tell their partners the torie the-
ha+e :%t rea!. Then they get into other pairs 6C, $< and then 6<, $C to tell their peers
the torie the- ha+e :%t hear!. 6y telling and retelling stories they have heard from
others, they actually replicate the #ay in #hich urban myths are created and circulated.

ROLE PLAA ACTIVITIES
4ole play tasks involve a social or transactional type of interaction. The purpose of the
e2change and the role particulars should be made clear on the ro$e car! allocated to the
students #orking in pairs or groups, #hich provide the information gap re%uired for a
meaningful e2change of information. 4ole playing also involves a strong focus on
language functions0 persuasion, invitations, refusals, agreeing, disagreeing, etc. *n
designing a role play, #e should think of a conte2t or situation presenting a potential
clash conflict of interest, opinions or ideas. $t the same time role plays should reflect
clear social roles0 teacher, parent, policeman, driver, ecologist, salesperson, customer,
public figure, artist, etc. 4ole cards are essential in defining the profile and goal of the
interlocutors students have to impersonate #hile interacting #ith their partners.
Agon- co$%"n&Agon- a%nt&%nc$e
This popular magaCine column in #hich the columnist ; called an agony aunt1uncle ;
offers advice to readers re%uesting advice on a problem can be adapted for role play
focused on the function of asking for and giving advice. *t #orks better in pairs rather
than groups. Each student receives a role card containing a problem (relationships,
school, #ork, career, health, etc. Every student complains about his problem and
receives advice from his partner. $lternatively, both the problem and the advice can be
e2pressed in #riting, #ith each student receiving a problem card to respond to in #riting.
For this version, the role play can be dropped in favour of a self-e2pression e2ercise,
#here the students can #rite their o#n problems on unsigned pieces of paper, #hich the
teacher distributes around the class, asking students to offer advice on the problem in
%uestion. $s students may be sensitive about this self-revealing conte2t, anonymity is
obligatory. $ll the pieces of paper #ill be gathered on the teacher:s desk, so the students
can collect their 9advice letter: at the end of the lesson.
Ce$e*rit- inter+ie.
The students intervie# each other in the role of a famous person, taking turns to play the
intervie#er or intervie#ee. The roles can be either ascribed by the teacher or chosen by
the students themselves, according to their preferences and interests.
<o* inter+ie.
!tudents are distributed into (ob seekers and members of the intervie#ing board. 6oth
candidates and intervie#ers #ill be given the (ob description and re%uirements.
*ndividual candidates #ill be intervie#ed by the board, #hich #ill then deliberate on the
most suitable candidate for the (ob. 3hile the activity can be really challenging, its
competitive nature may cause problems and upset those not selected, so things should be
handled sensitively.
Part-
!tudents are given cards about different party guests. They have to mingle and make
conversation #ith the other guests, acting out the respective part they have received. $
variation can be a party #ith parents, children and teachers, in #hich the guests discuss
problematic issues related to school or family life.
Cri"ina$ in+etigation&tria$
!tudents are given the particulars of a criminal case and of the people involved ; accused,
plaintiff, prosecuting counsel, defence counsel, police officer, (udge, (ury, #itnesses,
character #itnesses, etc. Each student #ill be allocated a role to play in a class staging of
a trial.
>ro)er&#erchan!ier
!tudents #ill be divided into brokers and clients. The brokers have to promote a certain
product and convince their potential buyers of the benefits. They can broker any kind of
goods or services, or more abstract things such as luck, fortune, beauty, celebrity, love,
etc. 3hen they have found their clients, they sit do#n together. <uring the feedback
session, the clients #ill tell the class #hy they chose a certain product and #hat
arguments convinced them.
B5 PRO>LE# SOLVING&DE>ATE ACTIVITIES
Pro*$e" o$+ing
This activity can be done either as a role play, #ith students in the group assuming a
given role in a given conte2t, or, for a more realistic conte2t, the students can discuss
issues from their o#n perspective, acting as themselves. The activity consists in asking
the students to discuss and agree on possible solutions to a certain problem. $ real or
imaginary problem is presented by the teacher, orally or on a fact-file handout. This can
be in connection #ith a real problem ; solutions for cleaning a polluted area1reducing
pollution in their area1publicising an event or product1repairing a malfunctioning machine
or vehicle1converting or finding a use for an old building in to#n1refurbishing the school
building1raising funds for a cause1protecting an endangered species1community1area, etc.
$lternatively, the problems can be brain-teasers or puCCles to #ork out, or more
imaginative problems like being on a space mission and having to deal #ith a technical
problem.
Chooing can!i!ate
The students are given a list of candidates for a competition, (ob, manager, as #ell as
relevant information about them. The candidates: profiles should include details about
their background, %ualities, abilities and skills, e2perience, interests, commitment or
leadership potential. The group has to discuss their suitability and reach a decision about
the most suitable candidate. The functions practiced can be agreeing, disagreeing,
suggesting, persuading, arguing one:s opinion, e2pressing ability, possibility,
positive1negative deduction (using modal verbs.
Prioritie rating
This type of activity re%uires prioritising elements in a critical situation e.g. survival
conte2ts1 games (fire, ship#reck, flood, earth%uake, vehicle breakdo#n, etc. !tudents
have to rate their priorities according to certain criteria (usefulness, urgency. This
involves thinking and talking about #hat actions should come first, #hat ob(ects might be
useful in a given emergency or survival scenario.
>a$$oon !e*ate
6alloon debates are also based on a priority rating principle. 3e tell students that they are
in an overloaded balloon #hich is in danger of falling and they have to get rid of an
element ; person, thing, ideas or concepts ; in order to save the balloon. They have to
decide #hich element has to go first, #hich is likely to generate discussion and
arguments.
De*ate
The students are introduced to a controversial issue in the real #orld, relevant for their
age, level and interests. They have to discuss the respective issue, from various
perspectives, arguing their standpoints, giving arguments and e2amples. $ debate can be
organised in groups or #ith the #hole class.
15G5 PERSONALISATION ACTIVITIES
*rrespective of the organisation of free practice activities ; individually, pairs, groups,
#hole class ; opportunities for self-e2pression #ill promote better learning and aid
retention. 6y having students share their personal e2perience, feelings, tastes and
interests #ith their peers, #e enhance a good rapport bet#een students and a cooperative
atmosphere.
4ree con+eration e3changing perona$ in,or"ation&opinion
!tudents share information about issues relevant to their everyday life0 their plans for the
#eekend1holidaysI travel e2periencesI childhood memoriesI favourite
pastimes1food1books1film1music starsI opinions on topics of general human interest, etc.
They can e2tend the discussion to their family and friends. They can do this in pairs,
groups or in a #hole class discussion.
Speeche
!tudents may be encouraged to prepare a short speech on a certain topic and give it in
front of the class. They can choose to speak on a topic studied in class or on something
that preoccupies or interests them ; a hobby, an e2tracurricular activity, a social,
economic, political or civic problem.
Chapter J
DEVELOPING WRITING S6ILLS
3riting is, arguably, the most difficult skill to develop, as it re%uires time, effort and
application on the part of the students. *t is a product-oriented activity #ith a more
tangible outcome. The likelihood of making mistakes and being penalised for them is
much higher, therefore raising motivation for #riting is harder to achieve. *n contrast
#ith speaking, #riting is a less natural activity and channel of everyday communication,
#here feedback is not instant, but delayed, and bad, careless grammar is hardly
acceptable, especially in formal style te2t-types.
For this reason, students need constant and sustained guidance and
encouragement #ith their #riting, so a sensitive attitude and positive feedback on the
teacher:s part are essential. Far too often, teachers may simply evaluate a piece of #riting
by negative marking, that is by focusing on #hat the student failed to do rather than
considering #hat the student has achieved. That is #hy the students should be made
a#are of the nature of #riting as a process #hich re%uires careful crafting, revising and
editing. &oreover, they should be involved in self-evaluation and self-correction,
activities #hich can lead to a sense of achievement, thus helping increase confidence and
motivation.
&otivation is at a premium in getting students to #rite. *f #e consider the
learners: long-term needs, #riting may be considered by many as the least important of
the four skills, since fe# students are likely to have much use for #riting in the foreign
language. 4ealistically speaking, they are more likely to listen to, read and speak English
than to #rite it. 6esides, they might not often #rite in their first language. "ther daunting
problems for learners may be related to spelling difficulty, comple2 punctuation, stylistic
confusions bet#een spoken and #ritten English and the stronger possibility of L+
interference. )evertheless, #riting should not be neglected in a balanced English
programme, since it brings variety to learner and class activity and constitutes an
invaluable aid to learning.
WRITING 4OR LANGUAGE REIN4ORCE#ENT' CONTROLLED
WRITING
,e #ho #rites reads t#ice (Latin proverb
*t is a truism that #riting aids language learning and consolidation. For all learners,
#riting #ill represent a means to an end rather than an end in itself. Especially at lo#er
levels, the students: need for #riting is most likely only to be for language reinforcement
and study purposes and as a necessary e2amination skill. $t this level, the main
importance of #riting is that it he$p t%!ent to $earn, since #riting #ill help them
remember ne# structures and vocabulary. $s #riting is done more carefully than
speaking, #ritten practice helps focus the learners: attention on #hat and ho# they are
learning, #hich also re%uires them to concentrate on acc%rac-.
For consolidation purposes, #riting is fre%uently used to finish off the
presentation stage, for structural or le2ical practice, to ans#er comprehension %uestions,
to follo# up oral practice in narrative or dialogue or for home#ork. 6eing accuracy-
oriented, #riting for consolidation is likely to be strictly controlled, offering learners little
control over language. The best-kno#n and commonly used controlled-#riting activities,
aimed at language consolidation #ith lo#er levels, are presented belo#.
Cop-ing acti+itie
The first basic form of controlled #riting, copying is valuable for reinforcing spelling,
le2is and sentence structure. Though many might consider it an old-fashioned and rather
pointless, boring activity, in real life copying is used as an aid to retention or to keeping a
record of things0 addresses, phone numbers, train times, useful bits of information, study
notes or reading notes (poems, %uotations, aphorisms, proverbs, song lyrics. The teacher
should provide learners #ith meaningful copying activities, such as0
O!! "an o%t0 the students are given /-= #ords and asked to copy only those
#ords #hich belong together (to the same topic or field.
La*e$$ing ite"0 students receive a list of #ords and small cards on #hich they
copy each #ord. They have to use the cards to label classroom ob(ects,
people1ob(ects in a picture1plan1diagram1picture story1cartoon strip1le2ical set or
on a map.
C$ai,-ing ite"&Co"pi$ing categor- $it0 students are given a list of (umbled
#ords belonging to different topics or semantic field. They have to copy and
arrange them into related categories ; house furniture and ob(ects for each room,
foods and drinks for specific meals of the day, men:s or #omen:s clothing, animal
classes, etc.
Or!ering :%"*$e! ite" in the correct e8%ence0 the learners have to copy
#ords from a (umbled list in their according to their correct se%uence0 days of the
#eak, months1seasons, numerals, daily routines, manufacturing processes.
4in!ing .or! pair&co"po%n!0 from a list of (umbled #ords, the students have
to copy the #ords #hich are used together in fi2ed combinations (bread and
butter, bits and pieces or combine to form compound #ords (raincoat,
toothpaste.
Wor! *ingo' the teacher #rites a +. or +- #ords on the board. Learners are told
to copy any = #ords they #ant in any order. The teacher #ill then call out #ords
from the board. !tudents #ho hear all their #ords #ill call out 96ingoW:
4i$$ing in peech *%**$e' the students are given a list of sentences or dialogue
lines #hich they have to copy in the right speech bubbles in a picture story or
cartoon strip.
Or!ering :%"*$e! .or! in a entence0 by arranging #ords in their right order
in the sentence, learners get useful practice in grammatical structures and #ord-
order.
Sorting o%t !ia$og%e&torie&$etter ,ro" :%"*$e! entence0 copying to sort
out (umbled te2ts is a meaningful problem-solving type activity #hich gets
learners thinking about meaning, coherence and te2t organisation, thus providing
them #ith good useful models.
State"ent I $i)e&agree&!iagree .ith0 #hile reading a te2t, learners can be
asked to copy the sentences they most like, agree or disagree #ith.
E2changing favourite poems1songs1proverbs1 %uotations0 students should be
encouraged to share such things #ith their classmates by pinning them up on the
class notice-board or #all display. They #ill be asked to copy them by hand.
!tudents are asked to copy the items they like best in a special scrapbook, #hich
#ill really make for a %uite purposeful copying activity.
Dictation acti+itie
$ traditional techni%ue in the language classroom, dictation has someho# lost
popularity, being regarded as a rather uninvolving and unchallenging activity. *n
recent years it has made a comeback due to the #ork of <avis and 4involucri, #ho
attempted 9to put a useful but no# undervalued area of #ork back on the language-
teaching map: (<avis and 4involucri, 5. *n doing so, they have upgraded dictation
for the communicative classroom through activities involving student interaction and
allo#ing for increased student control. !ome suggested activities #ould be0
Sha!o. !ictation. The students are arranged in t#o parallel ro#s. The students
in the front ro# (ust listen to the teacher, #hile those behind them have to #rite.
The listeners are supposed to assist the #riters, so during the dictation, the teacher
#ill allo# time for spontaneous consultation. The students in the pair correct the
te2t together.
R%nning !ictation. The teacher pins up to a board several copies of the same
te2t. The students are put into groups, #ith one member acting as 9scribe:. 'roup
members take turns in running to the board and then back to dictate to the scribe
#hat they can remember. The first group to finish and end up #ith a reasonably
accurate version of the te2t #ins the competition. The activity introduces an
element of task-interdependency, as all the members contribute to the successful
completion of the task.
#%t%a$ !ictation. This is a te2t reconstruction e2ercise, in #hich the t#o
students in a pair have different gapped versions of the same te2t. !o as to
complete their te2t, they have to dictate the missing parts to each other.
De$a-e! trancription. This is another te2t reconstruction activity involving a
kind of
9self-dictation:. Each student #ill go to the board to read and remember chunks of
a short te2t then back again to #rite them do#n. !tudents #ill run back and forth
until they finish transcribing the te2t.
Dictog$o. $lso kno#n as 9grammar dictation:, this activity involves the
reconstruction of a te2t read by the teacher. The teacher reads the te2t once or
t#ice, at normal speed, #hile the students take notes. *n groups of three or four,
the students use their notes and #ork together to recreate the te2t, as close to the
original version as possible. The activity is %uite comple2 and involving, as it gets
students thinking about grammar, vocabulary, and #ord order. *t also re%uires
them to negotiate language and meaning, as #ell as to cooperate on the task.
Para$$e$ .riting
8arallel #riting provides students #ith controlled #riting practice based on a model te2t,
#hich they have to re#rite by introducing different information or making certain
changes, according to given cues such as #ord or picture prompts. !tudents read a short
te2t and perhaps study its particular features (e.g. the #ay the sentences are (oined, the
use of verb tenses1the passive. They then #rite a paragraph #hich is similar but #hich
involves some changes. This may mean structure or vocabulary changes ; different tense
(present to past tense1gender (masculine to feminine1prepositions, using antonyms or
synonyms, replacing nouns by pronouns for back reference in narratives.
&ore often than not, parallel #riting re%uires learners to #rite a similar te2t by
changing the key details in a te2t on a certain topic. For instance, they read a paragraph
about a student:s day, then #rite about their o#n dayI after reading a description of a car,
they #rite descriptions of other cars from a given set of notes1cuesI if reading the
description of a room, they #ill #rite a description of another room in the pictureI after
reading a te2t giving personal information, they #rite about other people by using forms
giving personal details.
$lbeit rather controlled, parallel #riting provides students #ith useful practice at
discourse level, #ith paragraph and te2t organisation, #hich helps build confidence in
tackling later free #riting tasks.
Sentence($in)ing
These activities help introduce students to the use of linking devices (con(unctions,
sentence adverbs in creating comple2 sentences. They also raise a#areness of the more
comple2 syntactical structures usually re%uired in #ritten English and of the various
functions of sentence connectors introducing time reference, condition, cause,
concession, contrast, purpose, result, etc. The e2ercises usually consist of a number of
simple sentences to be combined by means of a given set of connectors. These may
re%uire :oining entence by a certain type of connectorsI pairing %p :%"*$e! entence
by using one or several connector typesI co"p$eting gappe! te3t by inserting given
sentences in the right placeI recontr%cting te3t from (umbled sentences, by supplying
the right connectorsI paragraph&te3t *%i$!ing on an outline of connecting devicesI
re.riting !ia$og%e in indirect speech, #ith students supplying the necessary linking
#ords.
G%i!e! .riting
'uided #riting tasks usually provide students #ith a format, outline or frame#ork for
structuring content and organising ideas. The students are allo#ed a greater control over
language, #hile relying on the support of a given structure outline, plan of ideas or an
incomplete te2t. 'uiding activities may include0 #riting the opening&"i!!$e&en!ing
paragraphs of a given te2tI constructing a te2t by follo#ing a p$an o, i!ea&.or!
pro"pt&character pro"pt (a number of specific characters1pict%re pro"pt&pict%re
torie or cartoon tripI #riting dialogues from !ia$og%e ,ra"e&"ap.
Writing .ith ora$ preparation
*ntroducing freer #riting activities, #hich re%uire students to produce a te2t on a given
topic (e.g. 9#rite a description of your to#n or village: are likely to pose problems for
students, #ho might be at a loss about #hat or ho# to #rite and find the task frustrating
To make the task easier, #e might involve the students in suggesting ideas about
content and organisation so that they #ill end up #ith a plan to follo#. $fter introducing
the topic of the #riting e2ercise, the teacher should ask a variety of %uestions about it,
thus eliciting suggestions for content from the students. *n groups or #ith the #hole class,
students #ill #ork on a common outline and list of key e2pressions to be #ritten on the
board, #hich they can use as a basis for their #riting.
The advantage of oral preparation activities is that they are fle2ible and can be
done in different #ays, according to the students: abilities and interests. &oreover, the
ideas about #hat to #rite come from the students themselves, #hich makes the activity
more interesting and involves the students more, thus helping them gain confidence about
tackling #ritten tasks. Finally, it integrates #riting #ith listening and speaking skills
practice.
CREATIVE WRITING CREATIVITA THROUGH CONTROL

1515 POETRA WRITING
3riting poetry in the foreign language must not necessarily mean a time of frustration, of
racking one:s brains for a topic, a figure of speech or for a rhyming #ord. $pproaches
like 9*:d like you to #rite a poem today:, #ith or #ithout a given topic, can be utterly off-
putting and confusing. The freedom of producing a poem by relying entirely on internal
resources cannot but prove a dra#back and a return to the captivity of uninspiring
helplessness. The old saying 9ninety-nine per cent of inspiration is perspiration: might not
be #orth applying in this situation.
That is #hy control can be the name of the game in this area. 6y control #e do
not mean thought or content control, but a prescribed outline of form, something like
fi2ed-form poetry. The use of models is an essential first step. The model need not be a
mere ob(ect of contemplationI students should be given tasks by #hich they can interact
#ith the te2t and thus get involved in recreating it - to rearrange (umbled #ords or lines,
to fill-in gaps or even reconstruct the te2t from initial letters. The tasks may help to set
the students: minds in tune or to #het their appetite to produce their o#n version, after
having got familiar #ith the overall structure and organiCation of the poem. "nce the
right mood has been created, students are ready to endo# their 9skeleton poem: #ith ne#
flesh and blood.
"f course, creation is not seen as instantaneous. *t is preceded by establishing a
theme ; the model outline can lend itself to any topic area - by discussion and a session
of idea generating, selection and se%uencing of ideas. The procedure can make full use of
collaborative #riting, carried out in groups or pairs and can easily lead to integration of
skills.
3riting a poem does not have to constitute an isolated activity, it can be a follo#-
up or corollary to a se%uence of lessons, #here a discussion, a listening or a reading task
centred on a certain theme or topic are meant to strike a chord and stir the students
sensitivity before the model te2t is actually introduced.
3hat is more, #riting poetry does not involve abandoning more pragmatic
concerns such as grammar or function practice. *n fact, this kind of activity can be
e2tremely fruitful and, most of all, a memorable opportunity for reinforcement of
grammar.
$s marvellously demonstrated by 'unter 'erngross and >erbert 8uchta in &reative
Grammar Practice, poetry can become a vehicle for reinforcement, revision, or recycling
of language structure. The model te2t e2ploits a certain grammatical area, and the outline
to be filled out provides a highly melodic structure #here various tenses or structures
become a kind of leitmotif.
*n fact, their book offers a complete grammar course in disguise and teaches us
the art of mi2ing nothing more than a repetition or substitution drill #ith loftier elements
of poetic feeling, brooding mood and alert sensitivity distilled in the magic potion called
memorability. 3hat more memorable #ay of learning grammar than one:s poem, #here a
personally evocative association of emotional content, language and rhythm is transfi2ed
through the means of a structural pattern. $s in the procedure already discussed above,
the production of the students: o#n te2ts is usually the final stage in a #hole se%uence of
listening, reading, speaking or other pre-#riting activities, often carried out in groups.
"f course, the issues of formal control and language practice do not imply an
emphasis on form to the e2pense of content or personal e2pressionI nor can they be a
hindrance to self-e2pression. "n the contrary, they provide guidance and a foundation on
#hich to use language imaginatively and construct meaning and poetical effect.
$part from the grammar-focused outlines mentioned above, there are several
#ell-kno#n models #hich #e can use #ith our students. Their virtue is that they lend
themselves to different levels of attainment or age-groups, and usually result in
satisfaction and further motivation to #rite. They are usually fairly simple poetical forms
and though they might feed on the language of imagination, it is clear and
comprehensible language e2pressed in a simple form. !ome of the most popular forms
used to enhance creativity through control #ill be e2amined belo#.
Na"e poe" 9Acrotich;
For those students #ho cringe #hen the #ord 9poem: comes up in con(unction #ith
9#riting assignment:, #riting name poems can be a fun #ay to help them #ith this
problem. *f they start #orking on their names, the resulting poems #ill be a very telling
embodiment of their perceptions and opinions about themselves or about each other and
the activity #ill help to enhance mutual kno#ledge and understanding and good class
relationships. They can also #ork #ith names of things, concepts, etc. They #ill #rite the
#ord vertically and use each letter as the first letter of a line. >ere are some e2amples of
name poems0
!um!ing Ma%$e
"ut of her chair she Another #oman #ould not
#ells 7Thats rightE all the time" $nderstand, $ut she is
%eall%
Ama>ing"
Classrooms &ar
'ave Anger
A lot of these %egret
Interesting and useful items,
$ut the%re not
%ecliners"
Hai)%
The teacher #ill introduce the idea of a haiku as a long-standing, culture-specific form of
e2pression, and provide some e2amples. $ttention should be dra#n to the characteristics
and conventions #hich distinguish such a te2t - the brevity and the #ay the essence of the
sub(ect is conveyed in the three line structure0 short - long - short, not necessarily
observing the precise number of syllables. >o#ever, the idea of the 5-?-5 syllable-lines
may prove an additional challenge, so #e can encourage the students to try their hand at
it.
$s a preparation, #e choose an ob(ect or a #ord #ith many associations. The
students #ill provide as many #ords as they can connected #ith this #ord. Each student
#ill then choose the ten or t#elve #ords they like best, #hich to them are most strongly
associated #ith the sub(ect. The teacher #ill construct a haiku #ith the #hole class, using
some of the #ords and ideas on the board and asking for suggestions from the students.
There may be disagreement, and alternative versions produced. The students can be
encouraged to say #hy they think one version or another is better, or means more to
them.
$t the production stage, each group is given a different topic card or is allo#ed to
choose its o#n topic. 3e can set a time limit and ask students to #rite as many haikus as
they can in the time allo#ed. 3e can ensure further involvement if #e ask them to #rite
their haikus on separate pieces of paper, #ithout giving a title. 3hen the haikus are
displayed on the #all, students #ill #alk round, reading them all and trying to guess #hat
the topic is.
E2amples of hai)%0
SF55+R grasses ; SPRI<G: &louds no# and then
All that remains A hill #ithout a name Giving men relief
Af soldiers visions" Geiled in morning mist" 8rom moon;vie#ing"
HHH
The #inds of autumn 4ou sa% one #ord A flash of lightning:
9lo#: %et still green And li!s are chilled Into the gloom
The chestnut husks" 9% autumns #ind" Goes the herons cr%"
Dia"on! poe"
!tructurally more comple2 than the haiku, the diamond poem dra#s on the same
principle of free association, both emotional and conceptual and of distillation of
personally meaningful notions.The format is characteriCed by a fi2ed morphological
configuration disposed in a diamond-shaped contour. The e2ercise re%uires the students
to give the essence of their ideas and to e2press them concisely (after a previous #ord
association session, as #ith the haiku. For lo#er level students, #e need not use
grammar terms in the instructionsI rather, 9noun: can be replaced by 9person1place1thing:
and ad(ective by 9descriptive #ord:.
(article noun
ad(ective and ad(ective
participle, participle, participle
noun, noun, noun, noun
participle, participle, participle
ad(ective and ad(ective
(article noun
$s far as the overall tone of the poem is concerned, the convention is that the top and the
bottom lines are antithetical in meaning. The top part is an e2position of a conflict in a
pessimistic tone, the middle section can be a point #here opposites converge and
intermingle, #hile the bottom is a kind of resolution, a triumph of optimism and hope -
like the silver lining of every cloudU
8all 8ather
mist% and sad stu$$orn and taciturn
falling, $lustering, free>ing doing, going, getting
cold, darkness, $li>>ards and tha#s Parents, res!ect, man, #oman
melting, dri!!ing, $lossoming su!!orting, #atching, hel!ing
mist% and ha!!% strict and reasona$le
S!ring 5other
Prepoitiona$ poe"
!imilar to the diamond poem, a prepositional poem fosters self-e2pression along the
same lines, on the basis of a different format0
$d(ective, ad(ective, noun
Perb, verb, verb
8repositional phrase
8repositional phrase
8repositional phrase
$ noun synonym for the rest for the poem
Strict, taciturn !arents
teach, lead, love
Tedious, $oring grammar
frustrates, confuses, astonishes
from #herever
at #henever
on #hatever
a lifelong model"
in the classroom
in the li$rar%
on dates 1
#onderful +nglish"
4innih poe"
This differs from the formats above in that the prescribed morphological configuration is
not specified, but 9encoded: or translated into le2ical symbols (#e can pretend it is
#ritten in Finnish or in an unkno#n language. The students #ill have to 9translate: it into
English, #ith the help of clues to the code - 9(a: means 9and:I all the other #ords are
nouns.
Iadut
Iadut 6a kukat
Iadut 6a naiset
Iadut
Iadut 6a kukat 6a naiset
Ja la!set
Seeds
Seeds and roots
Seeds and !lants
Seeds
Seeds and roots and !lants
And life"
Chinee poe"
This e2plicitly introduces the idea of imitation of form or repetition of theme as a matter
of keeping up literary tradition or paying homage to the past and one:s predecessors. $s
#ith the haiku, a suitable amount of e2posure to authentic poems is re%uired. Tricia
>edge proposes a #ork card including a short presentation of the particular form
accompanied by several e2amples. 6esides giving the students a chance to e2ploit these
forms creatively, these activities entail cross-cultural interferences and e2panding their
aesthetic and cultural perspective.
,SF IA< WA<G JF<G
'A #ifes thoughts, III* 'In imitation of ,su Ian*
Since %ou, sir, #ent a#a%, SI<&+ %ou, sir, #ent a#a%,
5% $right mirror is dim and untended" 5% golden $urner has had no
incense,
5% thoughts of %ou are like flo#ing #ater0 8or thinking of %ou I am like the $right
candle,
Will the% ever have an end? At midnight vainl% $urning itself
a#a%"
Shape poe"
This dra#s more on the visual effect than the diamond poem and involves a freer choice
of language and shape. That is #hy the outcomes may be as various as there are learners.
The principle of presenting model te2ts remains an essential one. The procedure involves
brainstorming and listing of things #hich have a distinctive shape, such as animals,
flo#ers, toys, machines. $nother tip could be getting ideas together for the kind of things
that might be put into the poem, in order to ensure a perfect match bet#een content and
shape. 3ith elementary students up#ards, irrespective of age, a shape poem #ould
provide satisfaction on several levels0 intellectual, emotional and visual.
Senoria$ poe"
This offers the possibility of perceiving and capturing tones of meaning underlying
abstract notions or situations of everyday life. *t entails a process of free association, of
digging up personal connotations attributed to a certain abstract noun and a synthesis
bet#een the senses (sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch and the associated emotions. The
outcomes can be some outstanding evidence of deep insight, sensitivity and evocative
po#er.
(!unday morning is U (colour
*t looks likeU
*t smells likeU
*t sounds likeU
*t tastes likeU
$nd it feels likeU
De,inition poe"
This format appeals to the same faculty of making associations and encapsulating them in
self-contained gems of meaning and e2pression. !tudents are given a topic (things,
people, concepts and asked to #rite metaphorical definitions on separate strips of paper.
Each student #ill contribute to the pool #ith three strips. 'roups select the definitions
they like best and incorporate them in an up to ten lines poem se%uence. Each line #ill
repeat the topic0 H is1are U
Poe" o%t$ine ocio$ogica$ pro,i$e
!tarting from a given outline, the poem aims at discovering the essential features of a
certain human group. *t can refer to age, se2 or professional groups or people in certain
situations. $gain, the activity dra#s on the po#er of association and on emotional
glimpses into the essence of human condition and e2istence ; a kind of %uintessential
poem, term e%ually applicable to practically all the forms listed above. $ possible outline
can look like this0
Ald !eo!le are likeK
Their clothes are(the% dressK
The% #alkK
The% likeK
The% dont likeK
The% talk a$outK
The% are afraid ofK
Their secrets areK
And the% dream ofK
$ common feature characteriCing all the poetic forms discussed above is their suitability
for collaborative #riting and integration of skills, alongside #ith guidance through the
thorny paths of creative e2pression backed up by a success-oriented approach. Though
most of them offer a fi2ed structure to be observed, they are a springboard for language
e2ploration, #ith particular focus on le2is, in such areas as synonymy, antonymy,
collocation and connotation.
8laying #ith language is encouraged as a means to#ards a product #ith content at
its core. Fsing form as a springboard for content-based poetry is an easy and smooth #ay
to#ards peaks of lyricism and poetic e2pression. The %uite simple formats described
above can pave the #ay for more comple2 and ambitious forms of poetry - #hy not, the
sonnet, if #e are to think of English literary traditions. $nd if #e #a2 too lyrical or
overa#ed by the depth of our o#n poetic feeling and by the seriousness of our #riting
task, #e can al#ays turn to the more playful resources of English literature0 the limerick
tradition and all the range of nonsense rhymes #hich make a uni%ue literary tradition.
"f course, controlled poetry #riting is not to be regarded as the only approach to
poetry. $t more advanced levels or #ithin literature lessons, #riting a poem can follo# as
a response to reading authentic poetry. $fter careful reading and personaliCing the
ideational and emotional te2ture of a te2t in the light of one:s o#n e2perience and
outlook, attempting to respond through poetry, #ould be in the natural course of things.
3riting poems in blank verse gives students the opportunity to e2plore the
language, to organiCe their ideas #ith great care, to manipulate sentence structure, to
select #ords, and to think about appropriate collocations. *t also encourages the drafting
process, as students are an2ious to make their poems sound right. "f course, the need for
seeing their poetic productions 9published: or at least displayed remains a sine;:ua;non
re%uirement, as it provides satisfaction and furthers motivation to #rite.
I#AGINATIVE WRITING IN PROSE
Creativity is not the e2clusive domain of poetry #riting, and a great deal of imaginative
#riting can be done in prose. 3riting in prose is more likely to elude control than poetry
#riting, as it lends itself to a more cursory flo# of thought and pen. *t involves greater
risks #ith language, as sometimes linguistic ability #ill not keep up #ith the faster pace
of imagination. 6ut even if tight control is e2cluded, close guidance and carefully chosen
activities can provide the necessary support, at least at the earlier stages.
The cornerstone of our approach to #riting, irrespective of level or age, should be
ade%uate e2posure to various te2t types, backed up by a careful study of the conventions,
structure or organiCation displayed by a certain te2t. &anipulation activities meant to get
the students to interact #ith the te2t are highly appropriate for the early stages of a
#riting programme. These can take various forms, such as0
arranging (umbled paragraphs, #hich involves identification of key te2t sections
and a#areness-raising about the conventions of opening, developing and
concluding a te2tI
providing a missing section of the te2t0 the opening, the middle or the conclusionI
paragraph assembly ; from given (umbled sentencesI
paragraph completion ; from opening sentencesI
#riting a te2t from a given summaryI
re#riting a te2t1story from memory, after having read or listened to it.
These are (ust a fe# e2amples from a #hole range of sensitiCing e2ercises or more or less
controlled #riting practice. They do not e2actly give students the opportunity to e2ert
their creativeness, but they have a definite value for a#areness-raising, familiariCing
them #ith different #ritten products and #ith the conventions or organiCational rules
apparent in the simple te2ts.
STORA WRITING
$ctual production of creative te2ts can begin #ith fairly short te2ts se%uences, done
mainly at sentence level. Though rather unambitious in form, they may appeal to our
students: sense of humour (or sense of the absurd, occasionally.
Writing :%"*$e! te3t
*n pairs or small groups, students #rite a dialogue or a four-to-five-sentence story
se%uence, #hich they then cut up into separate sentences and give to another pair or
group to put together. Easy to do at elementary levels, the activity can introduce, even if
in a nutshell, the components of a proper story0 e2position (conflict, complication
(clima2 and resolution. *t can be easily turned into a problem-solving e2ercise for others,
leading to interaction and en(oyment.
<%"*$e! torie
This is a variation of the activity above, e2cept that the students have to #rite t#o short
stories of about four to si2 sentences, each about the same person or a similar event. The
stories are then cut up into separate sentences and given to another group to sort out into
the original stories.
#-ter- torie
This is a fairly controlled e2ercises #here the students are given a series of 3>-%uestions
they must ans#er in a particular order0 3hoD 1 3hereD 1 3hat #as H doingD 1 3hat did
H sayD 1 3hat did H do after thatD The students take turns to ans#er each %uestion, then
folding the paper over, so that the ne2t student cannot see #hat the other students have
#ritten before him. 3hen all the ans#ers have been #ritten, the paper is unfolded to
reveal often a hilarious and incongruous story, #here the surprise element makes the
#riting (and reading so much more e2citing.
Wor! tor-
The students are given the opening sentence of a story, and three #ords each. The paper
is passed round the class and each student has to continue the story by including his three
#ords.
Co$$a*orati+e tor-
$ sheet of paper containing only an opening sentence is passed round the class and
students #rite only one sentence each in order to continue the story.
Sentence into tor-
The students are given a single sentence and are asked to build the story around it, and of
course, include it some#here in the te2t. The groups can be given the same sentence and
at the end they can compare the different outcomes generated by the same sentences. $
variation of this #ould be to give a speech bubble instead of a sentence and ask the
students to make up a story or a situation #here the e2act #ords #ould sound
appropriate.
USING READING 4OR STORA WRITING
Inco"p$ete torie
This involves an opportunity for integration of skills, because the students have to read a
part of a story. The most usual procedure is to give students either the opening or the
ending of a story and ask them to provide a complete version. $n easier start #ould be to
give the story #ith only the opening or the ending paragraphs missing. The incomplete
version can be produced by the students themselves, #orking in groups, and given to
other groups to provide the opening, the ending, or the development of events. $ ma(or
re%uirement here is looking at sample te2ts beforehand, and giving the students an insight
into ho# a story is divided into three main parts0 orientation ; complication ; resolution
and ho# these differ from one another.
Re.riting a tor- ,ro" "e"or-
$lbeit not very likely to leave much space for the students: creativity, the task can allo#
for personal interpretation and focus, together #ith the varied choice of vocabulary or
structure. To make the task more challenging, #e may ask the students to re#rite the
story they have read, but feel free to change #hatever they #ant.
Writing a tor- ,ro" !i,,erent point o, +ie.
$fter reading a story told by an omniscient narrator, the students are asked to choose a
character and re#rite the story from his1her point of vie#. 6y assuming the character:s
role, the student may interpret the story from a ne# angle and choose to include or leave
out information as it may seem relevant to him. $ more involving alternative is to give
the students role cards #ith a short presentation of the characters in a story and ask them
to #rite a first person narrative.
OTHER STORA WRITING TAS6S
4air-(ta$e/ ,o$) torie/ ,a*$e or $egen!
These are undoubtedly very appealing genres, en(oyable and stimulating for any age
group, as there is al#ays a grave significance in themI they are e2pressions or
illustrations of fundamental truths deeply rooted in the collective consciousness of any
culture, and any fairy tale brings about some kind of emotional e2perience or a moral
illumination. !uch stories tend to follo# much the same pattern, in #hich there is a
problem that is resolved, leading to the e2pression of some sort of moral. The students
can be encouraged to #rite their o#n tales in several #ays.
Variation 15 The students are given a certain problem to be resolved in a fairy-tale. *t can
be a problem relevant to their age, #orld or cultural background.
Variation 15 The students are given characters to bring together in a story. The characters
can be abstract notions or a fe# ob(ects #ithout any obvious connection bet#een them.
The value of this e2ercise can be brought home along different lines0 by encouraging the
students to be either absurd or logical in their imagination. The latter case seems more
challenging because, by trying to turn the incongruity of different things into a perfectly
logical and natural relationship, they may #rite legends #hich e2plain the nature of
e2isting things. This could support the remark that originality often consists in
discovering connections or analogies bet#een t#o or more ob(ects or ideas bet#een
#hich no link has ever been demonstrated to e2ist.
Variation @5 !tudents are asked to illustrate a proverb by means of a fable, an age-old
genre for conveying moral precepts. The selection of characters from the animal #orld
#ill make the task e2tremely e2citing and motivating for younger learners.
#ini(aga
The activities above can naturally lead to a mini-saga, a relatively ne# sub-genre,
brought to life by a #riting competition organiCed by the /ail% Telegra!h and %uickly
developed into an EFL te2t type in its o#n right. 6asically, the mini-saga is a ,i,t-(.or!
tor-, #ith up to fifteen additional #ords for the title. $s it is a self-contained te2t, the
story must be complete, #ith a beginning, development and conclusion together #ith
characters and a setting. Thus, it is a kind of novel in miniature. *t is an economical #ay
of helping students to get used to the organiCing conventions of any story. 6ecause of the
#ord limit, the #riter has to make every #ord count, #hich means that it is a good
e2ercise for developing care in the choice of vocabulary and economy of e2pression.
Co"petition te3t
"ther possibilities for self-contained te2ts #hich could be completed in one lesson come
from t#o #riting competitions organiCed by The Inde!endent. The activities, mentioned
by 3hite Z $rndt, in their book on the process approach, consist in #riting a ghost-story
of +5. #ords or a ne#spaper article of +.. #ords or less to accompany a given headline.
*f the students: level is not appropriate for #riting a proper ne#spaper account of
a story, they can be asked simply to discuss and #rite out the related story. The important
thing is that they use their imagination, and ideas #ill be seen as more important then
formally correct language. *f, ho#ever, the headline comes from a real ne#spaper, their
versions can be compared #ith the original.
Stor- *ehin! a *oo) tit$e
4eal or imaginary book titles can also be used to stimulate the students: imagination and
lead to surprisingly original 9mini-novels:.
Stor- *ehin! an a!+ertie"ent
The students #ill be given the same advertisement. *n groups, they #ill try to #rite a
story about the #riter of the respective advertisement.
Stor- *ehin! a ,ace&Li,e torie
!tudents are given a set of photos of people:s faces or reproductions of famous painted
portraits. They choose a portrait they like best and try to make-up a (life story inspired
by the respective face1stance1mood.
The activities described above are meant to offer a springboard for other ideas and
variations. The teacher:s imagination in devising challenging #riting tasks can spark the
students: o#n imagination, since they may find imaginative and creative #riting as a
highly re#arding activity, irrespective of age group, level or learner needs and interests.
CO##UNICATIVE WRITING TAS6S
Even from the early stages of language learning, #e should raise the learners: a#areness
of the communicative function of #riting. That is #hy a balanced #riting programme
should introduce, as early as possible, activities illustrating everyday forms of #ritten
communication. $n important principle in training students for #ritten communication is
e2posure to plenty of model te2ts.
Short note an! "eage
!tudents are asked to #rite short notes or messages to other people in the class, #ith the
teacher acting as the postman. Each student has to send a reply note in response to the
one they received.
In+itation car!&$etter
$t first, student study models of invitation cards or letters. They are then given cards or
paper to #rite invitations to their classmates to certain events0 birthdays, parties, outings,
holidays, festivals. The invitees #ill have to ans#er by a note or letter of acceptance or
refusal.
Potcar!&greeting car!
$fter studying relevant models and discussing useful language, students #rite greeting
cards related to forthcoming events ; birthdays, Christmas, )e# Oear: Eve. The same can
be done #ith holiday postcards. !tudents are asked to imagine they are in their favourite
holiday place and #rite a postcard to friends or to the teacher. $lternatively, the teacher
can bring to class holiday brochures1leaflets and ask students to choose a location they
like and imagine they are #riting a postcard home.
Notice&$ea,$et
!tudents study relevant models and #rite notices publicising a certain school or
community event, competition, public campaign, fund-raising campaign, charity event,
etc.

>roch%re
$fter e2amining e2ample te2ts and deciding on a suitable plan or outline, students #rite a
tourist brochure advertising their region or to#n. $s the task is %uite comple2, it can also
be done in groups, each student dealing #ith a different topic or section of the brochures.
A!+ertie"ent
The teacher brings students handouts containing ne#spaper advertisements. The class
discuss te2t conventions and specific language. !tudents are asked to #rite ads #ith
selling1buying1renting1hiring offers.
Re+ie.
The students #ork on model te2ts of book1film1play1festival1museum1e2hibition revie#s,
discussing te2t organisation and useful language. Each student #rites a revie# on one of
the above topics. These activities can become part of an ongoing class pro(ect, #ith
groups of students being responsible #ith updates on a certain topic #hich can be posted
on the class notice-board1gaCette.
Ne. report
Like everyone else, students often share information of interesting ne#s items they have
heard or read recently. $s part of the same class publication pro(ects, students can #rite
ne#s articles on issues of interest for their age group and preoccupations.
Letter
Letter #riting may be regarded as a rather obsolete activity in the age of the *nternet,
electronic mail and social media, yet teaching our students to #rite letters may benefit
them for e2am purposes or in their professional life, especially in the case of various
formal letters. They should be offered e2posure to a variety of letter types, both informal
and formal. The teacher may set up a pen-friend #riting scheme #ith students from a
school abroad, #hich could provide learners #ith a real incentive for #riting. &ost letter
#riting done in class involves role-play elements, in #hich the conte2t and reason for
#riting are simulated. The teacher should set up motivating, purposeful activities #hich
involve students in thinking about relevant content, organisation and stylistic choices
intended for efficient communication.
4or" ,i$$ing
Filing in forms is %uite a common #riting activity, re%uired in diverse application
conte2ts, so giving students relevant practice in this area is a highly practical and realistic
activity, preparing them for real-life situations such as university or (ob applications.
CV&Co+er $etter
*n terms of long-term learner needs, it is undoubtedly #orth teaching these specialised
te2t types re%uiring personal information adapted to a specific format. "f course, they are
more suitable for higher level students, but the idea can be introduced even earlier as a
fun activity using imaginary or strange (ob advertisements (see >adfield +,,.. The
activity can be done as a role play, in #hich students are given real (ob advertisements to
respond to. "ther students #ill be involved in #riting (ob re%uirements and descriptions
for each advert, then act as recruiters #ho #ill evaluate the received applications. *n the
conte2t of an increasingly competitive #ork market, teaching our students to present
personal %ualities and achievements in an efficient, convincing and concise #ay
constitutes a #orth#hile pursuit.

4REE WRITING AT ADVANCED LEVELS' A PROCESS APPROACH
From the upper-intermediate level on#ards, #hen learners are likely to have ac%uired
reasonable fluency in the #ritten medium, #e may safely provide them #ith more
opportunities for self-e2pression, usually under the form of lengthier te2ts types, essays
in particular. $lthough it may be argued that, in terms of learner-needs, an essay is a
#ritten form rarely practised outside the classroom, it is still #idely used in public
e2aminations or for academic assessment. Essay #riting offers more varied challenges
for fluency-building #riting programmes at secondary or tertiary levels. *n giving our
students confidence in dealing #ith free #riting tasks, #e should observe a number of
principles #hich offer a pre-re%uisite to a fluency-building #riting programme.
Raiing a.arene o, the .riting proce
*n order to promote a note of realism in our students: approach to #riting and to replicate
the practice of professional #riters, #e should rely on a#areness-raising activities meant
to familiariCe them #ith the stages and mechanisms of the #riting process. They may be
#ell a#are of the difficulties of getting started #hen confronted #ith a #ritten
assignment, #hich sho#s that #riting is hardly a spontaneous activity, but a time-
consuming effort re%uiring such operations as composing, planning, organiCing, drafting,
crafting, revising and editing. *t is the teacher:s task to highlight and illustrate these
stages via relevant activities aimed to mark a necessary departure from more traditional,
product-oriented approaches, and to promote a more realistic process approach.
E3po%re to .e$$(.ritten "o!e$
*t is a #idely ackno#ledged pedagogical assumption that e2perienced and fluent readers
generally make good #riters, as #ell. $nd although in a foreign language the transfer is
not automatically realiCed, this assumption is tenable. E2posing students to pieces of
good #riting via a #ell-balanced reading programme is a necessary pre-re%uisite for
developing #riting skills. 6ut mere e2posure is not enough. 3e should devise activities
that promote a close analysis of the model te2t at different levels.
Firstly, kno#ledge of te2t types and their specific conventions and codes is of
paramount importance and a logical starting point. Conse%uently, students should be
presented #ith a variety of te2t types and formats, and made a#are of general
characteristics such as layout or formulaic conventions (as in letters, for e2ample,
problems of addressability, organiCation of content, paragraphing, discourse markers and
linking devices ensuring te2tual coherence and cohesion, style and register,
communicative function, efficiency and e2pressiveness. Therefore, a close e2amination
of model te2ts should be an obligatory first step in initiating any #riting activity.
Staging in the .riting proce
The main stages of the process are commonly se%uenced as pre-#riting, #hile-#riting
and post-#riting. "f course each stage comprises a number of sub-stages #ith a particular
function and various activities that guide us to#ard the construction of the te2t. The most
important phase is the one preliminary to the actual #riting, #hich provides the students
#ith key data and material that #ill inform their #riting and, more importantly, #ill help
alleviate such frustrating phenomena as the #riter:s block.
!uccessful #riting depends on careful preparation, #here the need for guidance is
paramount. That is #hy approaches #here the student is simply assigned a task #ithout
any kind of guidance are not only pedagogically inade%uate, but also hopelessly
unproductive. 8reparing to #rite is as important as the act of #riting itself, as it paves the
#ay to#ards a successful #ritten product.
THE PRE(WRITING STAGE
Co""%nicating
The stage of communicating has the role of dra#ing attention to the communicative
function of any piece of #riting, #hich inherently pre-supposes an audience. Therefore
te2t-type, content and style #ill be dependent on the prospective reader #e have in mind
as the recipient of our message. Creating a clear sense of audience is bound up #ith
establishing a conte2t for #riting, a sense of purpose and function. The basic %uestions at
this stage should be0 9Wh- a" I .ritingD: and 9Who a" I .riting ,orD:
$ns#ering these %uestions #ill help #riters decide on the kind of information that
must be included in the te2t. !o clarifying information implies reconstructing the impied
reader and his needs, according to #hich #e have to decide on the content and the type of
details that may be relevant for that particular reader. The most pertinent %uestions for the
students to ask themselves #ould be0
3hat do * kno# about the topicD
3hat does my reader kno# about the topicD
3hat does my reader not kno#D
3hat is my reader:s attitude likely to beD
The crucial issue these %uestions are meant to establish is the ratio of shared and
unshared kno#ledge #e can anticipate bet#een #riter and reader. $n a#areness of this is
likely to influence our decisions on #hat information #e need to include or leave out.
"ne line of action usually recommended is to start #ith shared information and continue
#ith ne# information. The need for a correct estimation of shared and unshared
kno#ledge and of the necessity for e2plicitness is more relevant in the case of cross-
cultural communication, culture-bound or highly specialiCed te2ts (scientific, e2pert-
oriented, etc.. *t often happens that #hen #e #rite about things familiar to us, #e tend to
underestimate the need for further e2plicitness of a reader #ho may not be ac%uainted
#ith certain facts that #e take for granted. Encouraging students to anticipate and be alert
to a prospective reader:s needs #ill ensure clarity and eliminate ambiguity from their
final te2ts. &ore importantly, it provides the #riter #ith a sense of direction that #ill
influence the selection of ideas and planning.
Co"poing
This is the stage initiating the e2ploration of a general outline and of content issues. *t
mainly consists in the mental processes of idea-generation, although it may include more
perceptible manifestations like thinking aloud. *t is usually the incipient phase of finding
something to say, humorously described by applied linguists as a Qtime of sighing, pencil-
che#ing, foot-shuffling agonyR (Tricia >edge+,@J, -. or, in a punning formulation, as
Q$nguish as a !econd LanguageR (4aimes+,@?, J-. To illustrate the frustrating
perple2ities characteristic of this stage, 3hite and $rndt (Process Writing, +,,+ %uote a
description of the #riter:s block by the Chinese poet Lu Chi, #hich metaphorically
encapsulates the strenuous process of idea-generating0 9The an2iety is because buckets
carried from the #ell are time and again emptyU: (3hite and $rndt +,,+, +?
'etting some ideas on the topic is a problem that re%uires support from the
teacher and collaboration #ith peers. !tudents should be given tasks #hich demonstrate
basic techni%ues for encouraging critical thinking, idea-generation, outlining and
planning, applicable to a #ide range of topics or te2t-types. These guided techni%ues can
be based on a #ide range of prompts ; visual (pictures, filmsI auditory (tapes, reading
materials or discussion sessions ; generally speaking, activities #hich lend themselves to
the integration of skills and function as a springboard for thinking out content.
Untr%ct%re! $iting
Lists of ideas are a helpful device in helping students to put something do#n on paper.
!tarting from the assumption that one idea sparks off another, this activity involves both
thinking and note-taking, and it is essential that no censoring should impede the random
emergence of ideas. $ny attempt to structure or evaluate ideas at this stage #ould be
inhibiting or #ould stop the ball rolling. Xudging the %uality, relevance or usefulness of
ideas should be postponed until a subse%uent stage involving focusing, selecting and
structuring operations.
>raintor"ing eion
These are based on using a long-standing and efficient techni%ue for idea-generation.
6rainstorming may concern ideas for content or for #ays of organiCation. The activity
may lend itself to many purposes0 choosing a topic1titleI identifying a purpose or reason
for #ritingI finding an appropriate te2t-type or formatI developing a topic or a plot.
6rainstorming can be carried out individually, in pairs, groups or #ith the #hole class. *t
can also be done on the sno#ball principle, #here individual lists of ideas are shared in a
pair, then in a group and, finally, among groups, so that the class ends up #ith a common
pool of ideas.
Set o, 8%etion
The procedure employs %uestions intended as prompts #hich dra# attention to the
different aspects of a topic or problem and provide a prete2t for further idea-generation.
C%*ing
This is a techni%ue taking its name from the si2 facets of a cube, as it uses a set of si2
%uestions under different task-headings0
<escribe0 #hat is the colour, siCe, shape, feel, smell, sound of HD
Compare0 #hat is H like or unlikeD
$ssociate0 #hat does H bring to mindD 3hat is it similar or dissimilar toD
$nalyCe0 ho# is H composedD 3hat is it part ofD 3hat is part of HD
$pply0 ho# can H be usedD 3hat can be done #ith HD
$rgue0 #hat points can be put for or against HD 3hat reasons are there for taking
a position in favour of or opposed to HD
C$aica$ in+ention
The procedure proposes five categories of %uestions, follo#ing the principle of classical
invention derived from $ristotle0
De,inition0 #hat are festivalsD Classify them into types.
Co"parion0 to #hat e2tent are festivals similar to or different from #hat they
are being compared #ithD
Re$ationhip0 #hat caused festivalsD 3hat effect do festivals have on peopleD
3hat comes before1follo#s festivalsD 3hat is against festivalsD
Circ%"tance0 #hat kinds of festivals are possibleD 3hat things are possible in
festivalsD 3hat is not possibleD 3hat are the past facts about festivalsD 3hat can
#e predict about festivals in the futureD
Teti"on-0 #here did festivals originateD 3ho says soD 3hat statistics are
availableD 3hat time-tested theories or la#s support festivalsD 3hat personal
e2perience of festivals do you haveD
The SPRE&R approach
The techni%ue provides a highly productive #ay of organiCing ideas and is proposed by
&ichael >oey in his book An the Surface of /iscourse (+,@J. The acronym stands for0
Sit%ation0 #hat is the present situationD >o# did it come aboutD 3hat are its
characteristicsD
Pro*$e"0 is there a problemD 3hat is itD
Repone0 ho# can the problem be dealt #ithD 3hat alternative solutions are thereD
3hat constraints are there on each possible solutionD
E+a$%ation0 #hich of the solutions is likely to be the bestD 3hat #ould be the result of
applying any of the solutionsD
3ith a number of possible variations, this format can provide a basis for discursive
#riting tasks. *t also provides an ordered frame#ork for the general organiCation of ideas
and the structuring of the future te2t.
Organi2ing content/ p$anning an! o%t$ining
"nce the students have finished $iting ideas for content, the subse%uent activities are
meant to focus on problems of selecting, grouping and ordering ideas. *ndividually, in
pairs or groups, the students have to decide on items to be kept or left out, operating a
selection of content. Gro%ping or c$%tering ideas is based on the principle of
relationships. *deas relating to the same concept are grouped under a common heading.
Or!ering involves ranking ideas in terms of their relevance or importance for the topic
and deciding on the hierarchy to be reflected in the overall structure of the te2t. Pisually,
the outline of the envisaged te2t can be represented in different #ays. #in!("ap or
9pi!ergra": are useful and visually suggestive tools for categoriCing content and
organiCing points insofar as the ramifications into categories and subcategories reflect the
hierarchical relationships bet#een different content elements. "ther#ise, any number of
diagrams and layouts can be used to reflect the initial provisional outline of the pro(ected
essay.
The end of this stage ushers in the subse%uent process of drafting, and #e may say
that the guidance offered at the pre-#riting stage has taken the students half#ay through
the #riting task. The value of pre-te2t activities resides in their provision of relevant
content ideas. EmphasiCing the pre-#riting stage, #ith the sub-stages illustrated above, is
not only a pedagogical imperative, but the recognition of the old saying 9#ell-begun is
half done:.
WHILE(WRITING&DRA4TING STAGE
Dra,ting
This is the stage at #hich students engage in actual te2t #riting. The main priority is
getting ideas do#n on paper, so drafting involves fluency rather than accuracy, #hich can
be considered at a later stage. !ome useful techni%ues for encouraging #ritten fluency are
presented belo#.
4at(.riting&7%ic).rite. This is an e2ercise designed to eliminate 9#riter:s
block and get the learner started on the task and re%uires three to five minutes of
continuous #riting for developing an idea.
Loop(.riting. This e2ercise involves both a fast-#riting and a subse%uent
reflection activity, in #hich #hat has been #ritten is revised and condensed in a
main idea or loop, #hich is developed in its turn. This is a good e2ercise in
deciding on topic sentences for each paragraph.
Re+iing&Peer con%$tation
$fter finishing a first draft of the te2t, students should be encouraged to revise #hat they
have #ritten in order to add, cross out or improve points. 8eer-revision activities are
e2tremely fruitful, as each student can get feedback from a reader #ho can point out
unclear or ambiguous ideas, areas needing to be clarified, completed, shortened,
e2panded, reordered or omitted, as #ell as strong or interesting points #hich should be
emphasised.
Re!ra,ting
E!iting&Cra,ting
$fter revising a second draft, students should focus on the accuracy of their te2t. This
concerns grammatical and le2ical accuracy. !tudents have to check sentence arrangement
and syntactic relations, vocabulary choice and rephrasing possibilities, as #ell as logical
ordering and organisation. $gain, peer evaluation or peer editing may provide useful
reader feedback on accurate e2pression.
Re(e!iting&i"pro+ing
"nce students have finished their final drafts, the teacher may e2amine them and offer
suggestions for improving content or form. The teacher indicates mistakes or problem
areas #hich the student has to sort out.

POSTWRITING
The post-#riting stage consists of activities concerned #ith the publishing, evaluation
and ranking of the students: productions.
P%*$ihing
Even if most student te2ts are intended for the eyes of the teacher-reader, #e should find
#ays in #hich the students can see their products 9published:, even in the form of a #all-
display or in a class or school magaCine. 3e can put te2ts up on display, #ith student
(udges allo#ing each te2t points for strong points ; based on clear evaluation criteria
(clarity, originality, creativity, communicative efficiency. The highest ranking three te2ts
can, if possible, be included in a school publication.
Dic%ion an! e+a$%ation o, re%$t
!tudents should be involved in discussing and evaluating their o#n #ritten results,
comparing them #ith others and deciding on areas #hich they need to practise and
improve in their #riting.
E+a$%ation an! "ar)ing
The teacher:s feedback is essential in raising the students: motivation for #riting. That is
#hy students should be given a chance to improve their te2t before the final marking.
Teacher and students can devise a correction code in #hich the teacher can signal
mistakes (e.g. 33 for #rong #ord, 3T for #rong tense, 3" for #ord order (see >edge
-..5. 3ritten comments on the margins can be used to suggest areas needing to be
improved. >aving students re-edit their te2ts according to the teacher:s suggestions
before being marked motivated them to try harder to improve their #ritten products.
&arking should be done on the basis of clear criteria #ell-kno#n to the students, #hich
provides a #arranty of ob(ectivity and transparency. $s already stated before, positive
feedback and constant encouragement is essential in furthering confidence and
motivation for #riting.

>I>LIOGRAPHA AND GUIDE TO 4URTHER READING0
GENERAL #ETHODOLOGA COURSE>OO6S
6rumfit, C. &ommunicative 5ethodolog% in Language Teaching. Cambridge Fniversity
8ress, +,@/
<off, $drian. Teach +nglish: A Training &ourse for Teachers: TeacherMs Work$ook.
Cambridge0 Cambridge Fniversity 8ress, +,@@
>armer, Xeremy. The Practice of +nglish Language Teaching (J
rd
edition. Longman,
-..+
Little#ood, 3. &ommunicative Language Teaching, Cambridge Fniversity 8ress, +,@+
)unan. /esigning Tasks for the &ommunicative &lassroom. Cambridge Fniversity 8ress
+,@,
8arrott, &artin. Tasks for Language Teachers. Cambridge0 Cambridge Fniversity 8ress,
+,,J
!crivener, Xim. Learning Teaching: The +ssential Guide to +nglish Language Teaching.
&ac&illan, -.++
Fr, 8enny. A &ourse in Language Teaching0 8ractice and Theory. Trainee 6ook.
Cambridge0
Cambridge Fniversity 8ress, +,,,
GRA##AR
$itken 4osemary. Teaching Tenses. EL6 8ublishing, -..-
Celce-&urcia and >illes. Techni:ues and Resources in Teaching Grammar. "2ford
Fniversity 8ress, +,@@
Frank and 4involucri. Grammar in Action Again. 8rentice->all, +,,+
'erngross, 'Tnter, 8uchta, >erbert. &reative Grammar Practice. Longman, +,,-
>all and !hepheard. The Anti;Grammar Grammar 9ook. EL6 8ublishing, -..@
>armer, Xeremy. Teaching and Learning Grammar. Longman, +,,5
4involucri, &ario. Grammar Games:&ognitive, Affective and /rama Activities for +8L
Students. Cambridge Fniversity 8ress, +,@5
4involucri, &ario. The N 9ook
Fr, 8enny. Grammar Practice Activities: A Practical Guide for Teachers. Cambridge0
Cambridge Fniversity 8ress, +,@@
3a(yrb, 4uth. Grammar /ictation
VOCA>ULARA
<igby and &yers. 5aking Sense of Goca$ular%. Cassel, +,,+
'airns, 4uth, 4edman, !tuart. Working #ith Words: A guide to teaching and learning
voca$ular%. Cambridge Fniversity 8ress, +,,-
&organ, 4involucri, &ario. Goca$ular%. "2ford Fniversity 8ress, +,@=
4edman, !tuart. A Wa% #ith Words. Cambridge Fniversity 8ress, +,,+
Fnderhill, $drian. Fse Oour <ictionary. "2ford Fniversity 8ress, +,@.
3allace, &ichael X. Teaching Goca$ular%. English Language 6ook !ociety (EL6!,
>einemann Educational 6ooks, +,@,
3atcyn-Xones, 8eter. Test 4our Goca$ular% (Pol. +- /. 8enguin, +,?,
LISTENING
$nderson, $, Lynch, T. Listening. "2ford Fniversity 8ress, +,@@
6lundell, L, !tokes, X. Task Listening. Cambridge Fniversity 8ress +,@+
!tokes, X. +lementar% Task Listening. Cambridge Fniversity 8ress, +,@/
Fr, 8enny. Teaching Listening Comprehension. Cambridge Fniversity 8ress, +,@/
READING
Collie, Xoanne, !later, !tephen. Literature in the Language &lassroom: A Resource 9ook
of Ideas and Activities. Cambridge Fniversity 8ress, +,@@
'o#er, 4oger, 8earson, &argaret. Reading Literature. Longman, +,,@
'o#er, 4oger. Past into Present: An antholog% of 9ritish and American Literature.
Longman, +,,.
'rellet, F. /evelo!ing Reading Skills. Cambridge Fniversity 8ress, +,@+
>edge, Tricia. Fsing Readers in Language Teaching. 8hoeni2 ELT, +,@5
>ill, !usan. Fsing Literature in the &lassroom. 8eguis 8ub Ltd., +,,5
Arashen, !tephen. The Po#er of Reading. Engle#ood Colorado Libraries Fnlimited,
+,,J
)uttal, C. Teaching Reading Skills in a 8oreign Language. "2ford0 >einemann ELT,
+,,=
8ro#se, 8hillip. 98o#erful &agic0 Fsing 4eaders:, 99& +nglish, "ctober +,,=
!aragi, O., )ation, 8., &eister, '. 9Pocabulary Learning and 4eading:. S%stem O, +,?@
!impson, 8aul. Language through Literature. 4outledge, +,,?
3allace, Catherine. Reading. "2ford Fniversity 8ress, +,,-
SPEA6ING
>alli#ell, !usan, >olmes, 6ernardette, Xones, 6arry. 4ou S!eak, The% S!eak: 8ocus on
Target Language Fse. C*LT )ational Centre for Languages, -..-
Alippel, Friederike. Iee! Talking: &ommunicative 8luenc% Activities for Language
Teaching. Cambridge Fniversity 8ress, +,@5
Fr, 8enny. /iscussions that Work: Task;centred 8luenc% Practice. Cambridge Fniversity
8ress, +,@+
WRITING
6yrne, <onn. Just Write. London0 &acmillan, +,@@
6yrne, <onn. Teaching Writing !kills. London0 Longman, +,@@
<avis, 8aul, 4involucri, &ario. /ictation: <e# 5ethods, <e# Possi$ilities. Cambridge
Fniversity 8ress, +,@,
'erngross, 'Tnter, 8uchta, >erbert. &reative Grammar Practice. Longman, +,,-
>adfield, Xill, >adfield, Charles. Writing Games. )elson ELT, +,,.
>edge, Tricia. Pen to Pa!er. London0 )elson, +,@J
>edge, Tricia. In a Word. London0 )elson, +,@J
>edge, Tricia. Writing. "2ford Fniversity 8ress, -..5
>oey, &ichael. An the Surface of /iscourse. $llen and Fn#in,+,@?
Alauser, >. $. Writing on 9oth Sides of the 9rain" 9reakthrough Techni:ues for Peo!le
#ho Write. London0 >arper and 4o#, +,@=
4aimes, $. +!loring Through Writing. )e# Oork0 !t. &artin:s 8ress,+,@?
3hite, 4on, $rndt, Palerie. Process Writing" Longman, +,,+