Enriched Biology Notes pay back daddy lunch money

Levels of Knowledge
Fact An observation that is repeatedly confirmed.
Hypothesis A testable statement about the natural world.
Law A generalization about how something works in the natural world (describes behaviors).
Theory (in science) A well substantiated explanation of an aspect of the natural world (the
best possible explanation).
Scientific Method
Purpose or Problem statement
Hypothesis
o Ifthenbecause
Methods and Materials
Results
Conclusions
o Mention hypothesis (accepted or rejected), errors that have occurred in the lab
(scientific errors), analyze results (this is what we got, this is why I think we got this).
Lab write-up
Analyze:
o The quality of your experimental design.
o The quality of your write-up.
Make notes or comments in a different colored writing utensil.
Dont panic. You will have the opportunity to re-do.
What are the elements of a good Purpose?
o Detailed yet brief.
o Includes variables (What are you changing? What are you measuring?)
Independent variable: The variable that doesnt depend on other variables and
the one that you change during the experiment.
Dependent variable: What youre measuring. Its dependent on the
independent variable.
What are the elements of a good Hypothesis?
o Independent and dependent variables.
o Prediction of results.
o Justification for prediction (background information)
o Ifthenbecause format for hypothesis.
What are the elements of a good methods section?
o Detailed!
Step by step instructions
List all materials needed for the experiment to succeed
o Multiple trials
o Control
o Single variable being tested
o Constants
What is a control group?
o The absence of the independent variable.
What is an experimental group?
o The group with the independent variable.
What is a constant?
o All the details that should stay the same throughout the entire experiment in both the
experimental and the control group.
Example: amount of soil, amount of water, etc.
What makes a good conclusion?
o Was your hypothesis supported or rejected?
Dont use the word prove
o Explain your data.
o Sources of Error vs. Whoopsies
Unit 1: Biochemistry
Chemistry Review
Matter anything that takes up space
o Atoms:
Most common atoms in living things are: C, H, O, N and P, S
Nucleus contains:
Protons (positive charge)
Neutrons (no charge)
Electrons (negative charge)
o Energy levels: Energy of electrons, based on distance from
nucleus.
Octet Rule:
Atoms want to fill outer energy level
Share, donate, or accept electrons
Example: Carbon
6 total electrons
4 valence electrons:
o Electrons in outermost energy level
o Involved in chemical bonds
Molecule: 2
+
atoms bonded together
o Examples: H
2
O, C
6
H
12
O
6
(Glucose), DNA
Chemical Bonds
Strong Bonds:
o Covalent Bonds share electrons
Polar Bonds share electrons unevenly
Example: H
2
O
Non-Polar Bonds Share electrons evenly.
Example: Methane (CH
4
)
o Ionic Bonds attraction between opposite ions
Example: Sodium Ion, Chloride Ion, Positive Sodium Ion, Negative Sodium Ion.
Weak Bond:
o Hydrogen Bonds strong attraction, but a weak bond!
Hydrogen Bonds are the strongest kindergartners.
Properties of Water
Cohesion water is attracted to itself.
Adhesion water is attracted to other substances.
Temperature moderation takes a lot of energy to heat up.
Solvent Used to dissolve many substances.
Biochemistry
Biochemistry is a discipline which focuses on the chemicals of living organisms.
o Bio- means life.
All biological molecules are organic.
All organic molecules have carbon in them.
The Carbon atom: 4 valence electrons means it has a lot of bonding possibilities.
Most biological molecules are Polymers (chains) of smaller Monomers (subunits).
Macromolecules
Polymers: Train-like (or chain-like) molecule made of repeating monomers.
o Poly- means many.
Monomers: The building blocks or subunits of polymers.
o Mono- means one.
Polymers are made through a process called Condensation Reactions.
Condensation Reactions
Similar to linking box cars together, these reactions:
o Link monomers together.
o Form relatively strong bonds where energy is stored.
o Form water as a by-product (hence the name condensation reactions).
OH + OH = H
2
O
o If Condensation reaction builds a polymer, what breaks it down?
Hydrolysis
Polymers are broken down through a process called Hydrolysis.
o Think of this like dismantling the train.
o The bonds holding monomers together are broken, releasing energy.
Hydrolysis Reactions Use water to help break polymers apart into their smaller monomers.
o Hydro- means water.
o lys means to break.
All Biological molecules are synthesized and hydrolyzed in the same way.
4 Main Macromolecules
Carbohydrates: The main fuel which run most living organisms.
o Structure:
Ring-shaped molecules.
Three main types of carbohydrates:
o Monosaccharides (Simple Carbohydrates)
Primary monomer of carbohydrate polymers.
General formula for all monosaccharides is C
6
H
12
O
6
.
All monosaccharides have the same chemical formula.
Examples: Glucose (C
6
H
12
O
6
), Galactose, Fructose.
o Disaccharides
2 monosaccharide monomers bonded/linked together.
General formula for all disaccharides is C
12
H
22
O
11
.
When 2 monosaccharides are bonded together, water is created as a by-product;
therefore, the formula will be missing 2 H and 1 O molecule.
Examples: Maltose, Sucrose, Lactose.
o Polysaccharides (Complex Carbohydrates)
Complex carbohydrates.
Long chains of monosaccharides bonded together.
No general formula because there are so many different forms of
monosaccharides.
Examples:
o Glycogen (stores energy in animals).
o Cellulose (found in plant cell walls).
High fiber carbohydrate.
Human body cannot break down cellulose; therefore, it
is not digested.
o Starch (stores energy in plants).
Lipids:
o Fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, etc.
o Structure:
All lipids have fatty acid tails.
Saturated fats:
Long, straight chains of Hydro-carbon atoms.
Saturated with Hydrogen atoms.
o Solid at room temperature.
o Animal products
Unsaturated fats:
Long, kinked chains of carbons due to one or more double bonds.
o Unsaturated with Hydrogen atoms.
o Liquid at room temperature.
o Plant products
o Functions:
Long term energy storage molecule.
Insulation (blubber)
Cell membranes (Phospholipids)
Protective coating
Steroids (Cholesterol)
o Extra information about lipids:
Low Density Lipoproteins (LDL):
Bad kind of lipid. Causes blockages in blood vessels.
High Density Lipoproteins (HDL):
Good kind of lipid. Removes cholesterol from blood.
Trans Fats
Use a chemical catalyst to add hydrogen atoms to an unsaturated fat to
make it a Saturated Fat.
By hydrogenating, you make them more attractive for cooking and
extend shelf life.
Problems with Trans Fat:
o Body cannot metabolize or remove Trans fats, so they stay in
the blood stream longer.
o Contribute to coronary heart disease by raising levels of (LDL)
and lowering levels of HDL
o Suspected as contributing to other conditions such as certain
types of cancer, diabetes, and obesity.
Nucleic Acids
o DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid), RNA
o Structure:
Large Polymer
Monomers are called nucleotides.
Each nucleotide contains:
o One 5 Carbon sugar
Called Deoxyribose in DNA
o One phosphate group
o One nitrogen base
Adenine
Thymine
Cytosine
Guanine
Uracil
Phosphate Pentose Sugar Nitrogenous
Base
o The order of the nucleotides determines how people/animals
look.
o Functions:
DNA stores genetic information.
RNA used as codes or templates for making proteins.
Proteins
o Grouped according to their function.
o Skin, hair, muscle, blood, enzymes are made of proteins.
Structure:
o Tons of different types and shapes of proteins.
o Monomers are called amino acids.
Amino group NH
2

Every single amino acid has NH
2

All amino acids also have a Carboxylic acid group (C(O)OH)
The R group (side group) changes depending on what amino acid it is.
There are 20 types of amino acids.
Arranging these in different combinations allows for a huge diversity of
proteins.
Analogy: Our 26 letter alphabet can be used to create millions of different
words.
o Peptide bonds:
Formed between 2 amino acids following a condensation reaction (rxn)
between the acidic group and the amino group.
Amino acids form H-bonds with each other to produce different 3D shapes.
Proteins: Energy and Enzymes
o Energy The ability to do work or cause change.
Potential Energy Energy of position.
Kinetic Energy Energy of movement.
Exothermic Energy Diagram (Energy that is released from the reaction)

Endothermic Energy Diagram (Energy is needed/gained)

Enzymes
o Proteins that speed up chemical reactions (AKA organic catalysts).

o Enzyme Structure
Very specific 3-D shape.
Active Site Pocket of the enzyme that binds to the substrate (reactant).
Each enzyme can only work with certain reactants because of the
specific shape.
o Enzyme Function
1. Substrate binds to active site of the enzyme.
2. Enzyme lowers activation energy and reaction occurs faster.
3. Products are released.
Activation Energy
o The energy needed to start a chemical reaction.
o Example
Salivary amylase
Enzyme in spit that breaks polysaccharide (starch) down to the
monosaccharide (glucose).
o If it ends with -ase, its most likely an enzyme.
o Coenzymes
(AKA Cofactor) assist in enzyme action by being part of the active site.
Example:
o Vitamins
o Competitive Inhibitors
Bind to the active site but dont react; slow the reaction by getting in the way.
Factors Affecting Enzymatic Speed
o Enzyme Concentration
Increase enzymes, increase enzyme activity.
Due to more collisions between substrate molecules and the enzymes.
Will eventually level out.
o Substrate Concentration
Increase substrates, increase enzyme activity.
Due to more collisions between substrate molecules and the enzymes.
Will eventually level out when the number of enzymes and substrates
even out.
o Temperature
Increase in temperature increases enzyme activity. (Up to a certain point)
If the temperature is too high, enzyme activity levels out and then declines
rapidly because the enzyme gets denatured.
Denatured: A change in the shape of the enzyme where its no longer
functional.
The same thing happens if the temperature gets too cold.
o pH
Each enzyme has an optimal pH at which the rate of reaction is highest.
Too drastic of a change in pH will also lead to denatured enzymes.
Unit 2: Cells
Types of Microscopes
Compound Microscope
o Allows humans to see things so small that it cannot be seen with the naked eye.
o Allows us to see individual cells.
Stereomicroscope
o Sees things in greater detail.
o Sometimes called a Dissecting scope.
Microscope Terms
Magnification: How much large an object appears.
For our scopes:
o Eyepiece
10x magnification
o Objective lenses
Scanning: 4x magnification
Low: 10x magnification
High: 40x magnification
o Total magnification
Scanning: 40x magnification
Low: 100x magnification
High: 400x magnification
Resolution: The ability of a microscope to distinguish two objects as separate.
Field of View: Everything that can be seen through a microscope.
Depth of Field: Portion of field that appears sharp.
o Determined by adjusting the fine adjustment knob.
Microscope Lab Skills
Carrying: 2 hands, 1 hand on arm, and 1 hand on base.
Preparing a wet mount:
o Obtain a clean slide.
o Put a drop of water on the slide and put your object on top of it.
o Obtain a clean cover slip and put it over your object at a 45
o
angle and slowly push it
down into place.
Focusing:
o Always begin with the scanning objective lens.
o Use the course adjustment knob to adjust focus only when the scanning objective lens is
in use.
o Never use the course adjustment knob when using the high power objective lens.
o Use the fine adjustment knob when using high and low power lenses.
Cells
Discovery of the cell
o Robert Hooke (1635 1703): First identified cells using a microscope.
o Anton von Leeuwenhoek (1632 1723): First person to identify living cells.
o Cell Theory: (Schleiden, Schwann & Virchow, 1839)
All living things are made up of cells.
Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in all living things.
Cells come only from the reproduction of living cells.
Cells are limited in size.
The only cell that is visible to the naked eye is a human egg cell.
Why are they limited in size?
o Specific cells for specific functions.
o They could fall apart if theyre too big.
Cell size: Small cells are more efficient because of the high surface area to volume ratio.
Eukaryotic Cells (plants, animals, fungi, protists)
Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic Cells: Have a nucleus and other organelles.
Animal Cells
Have all the following structures/organelles:
o Cell (plasma) membrane:
Regulates what enters/exits the cell.
o Cytoplasm:
Cells interior; water with stuff dissolved in it.
o Cytoskeleton:
Provide internal structure within the cell.
Microtubules Tracks for transporting vesicles.
Microfilaments Support, muscle contractions.
Intermediate Filaments Holds things in place.
o Ribosomes:
Help build proteins.
Organelles
Organelles Membrane bound structures.
o Nucleus:
Contains DNA, controls the cell.
Nucleolus:
Makes ribosomes.
o Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
Rough ER: Contains ribosomes; transports proteins.
Smooth ER: Makes fats; breaks down toxins.
o Golgi Apparatus:
Modifies proteins from Rough ER.
o Vesicles:
Transports materials through cell; rides on tracks of cytoskeleton.
o Lysosomes:
Digests materials not needed by the cell.
o Mitochondria:
Produce energy for the cell (powerhouse of the cell).
Plant Cells
Plant cells have all of the above (animal cells) PLUS
o Vacuoles:
Store material (water).
Plant cells and some protists.
o Cell Wall:
Protective barrier; supports cell shape.
o Chloroplasts:
Produce energy by photosynthesis.
Animal Cell
DNA inside nucleus

Plant Cell


Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic Cells
o Ex: Bacteria
o Smaller than eukaryotic cells.
o Contain no membrane bound organelles, only:
Cell membrane
Cytoplasm
Ribosomes
Ribosomes are pieces of RNA. RNA are pieces of rewritten DNA.
Nuclear Material
DNA
RNA
Cell Wall

Other Cell Structures
Modes of Locomotion (movement):
o Flagella: Long, whip-like tails.
o Cilia: Short hair-like projections.
Cell Transport
Cells regulate movement of materials across their membrane.
o This maintains internal balance (we call this homeostasis) despite changes in their
environment.
Cell (plasma) membrane: regulates what can enter or exit a cell
o Selectively permeable: Only certain substances may pass through.
Fluid-Mosaic Model Name scientists use to describe the structure of the cell membrane.
o Membrane acts more fluid than solid.
Components:
o Phospholipids
Head: Hydrophilic (polar) (loves water)
Two fatty acid tails(long Hydrocarbon chains): Hydrophobic (non-polar) (hates
water)
Lipid Bilayer: Two layers of phospholipids, move laterally.
If you added phospholipids to a mixture of oil and water, where will they align?
Heads facing the water, tails facing the oil.
o Proteins: Perform various jobs within the membrane
Peripheral Proteins: Act as enzymes; NOT embedded in bilayer, on the surface.
Integral Proteins: Regulate transport across membrane, serve as markers;
extend across entire membrane. Fully embedded in membrane.
Polar ends, non-polar mid section.
Membrane Transport
Equilibrium: Molecules move until the concentration is the same throughout a space.
Concentration gradient: A difference in concentration of a substance across a space.
Passive Transport: When molecules move from a high concentration area to a low concentration
area.
o The movement of molecules, across the membrane, that does NOT use energy.
o Substance moves down the concentration gradient (from high to low concentration).
o 3 main types:
Diffusion
NET movement of molecules from high to low concentration.
o Ex: food coloring, perfume, sugar cube
Osmosis
The diffusion of water.
Solvent molecules can diffuse across a membrane.
Set up Eggs
o Types of Solutions
Hypotonic: Solution with less dissolved particles than
the inside of the cell.
Hypertonic: Solution with more dissolved particles than
inside of the cell.
Isotonic: Solution with the same amount of dissolved
particles as the inside of the cell.
Turgor Pressure: The pressure that water exerts against
the cell wall.
Plasmolysis: Loss of pressure when cell shrinks away
from cell wall.
Cytolysis: Animal cells bursting due to water diffusing
into the cell.
Facilitated diffusion
Diffusion of molecules across a membrane using a channel or carrier
proteins.
o Carrier proteins: Similar to enzymes, in that a specific shape
allows a specific molecule to pass.
o Channel Protein: An open passage for molecules to pass
through.
Active Transport
o Transport of substance against the concentration gradient.
Molecules move from low concentration to high concentration.
Uses energy and a membrane protein.
Vesicular Transport
o Movement of large amounts of material using a vesicle.
Endocytosis: Moves substances into the cell.
Exocytosis: Moves substances out of the cell.
Unit 3: Energy (Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis)
Types of Energy
Kinetic Energy Energy of motion.
Potential Energy Stored energy (energy of position).
Laws of Thermodynamics
First Law of Thermodynamics
o Energy cannot be created or destroyed, it only changes forms.
Examples:
Dropping a book.
Dropping an object.
Potential energy Kinetic energy Sound/heat energy.
Converting food energy into usable (ATP) energy in our cells.
o Heat is given off in every energy transfer.
Second Law of Thermodynamics
o Entropy of the universe always increases.
The universe is always moving closer to chaos (entropy).
Entropy Measure of disorder (randomness/chaos).
o If entropy always increases, why can we clean our rooms?
Room is a closed system.
Use energy to clean.
Put energy into a closed system.
Using energy actually increases entropy.
By putting energy into something (like cleaning your room) you are
increasing the entropy of the universe.
Living things work this way we require an input of energy therefore we
increase the entropy of the universe.
o Heat is a highly disordered form of energy.
Overview of Photosynthesis
Where does all the energy that supports life come from?
o The sun
Sunlight
o Photosynthesis converts solar energy into the chemical energy:
6CO
2
+ 6H
2
O + Sun C
6
H
12
O
6
+ 6O
2

o Cellular Respiration
C
6
H
12
O
6
+ 6O
2
6CO
2
+ 6H
2
O + ATP
o Autotrophs: Organisms that can produce their own food.
Example: Plants, algae, and certain bacteria.
Overview of Cellular Respiration
Converts food energy into usable energy, called ATP, for the cell (+heat)
C
6
H
12
O
6
+ 6O
2
6CO
2
+ 6H
2
O + ATP
Heterotrophs: Organisms that get their energy from another source.
o Example: animals, fungi, bacteria, protists.
Overview of important molecules
ATP Adenosine Triphosphate
o Structure
Adenine (nitrogen base)
Sugar
THREE phosphates
o Energy in bonds between phosphates.
o Function
Provides energy to cell for cellular processes and chemical reactions.
Entire pool of ATP is recycled once per minute.
o ATP + H
2
O ADP + Inorganic Phosphate + Energy
ATP Cycle
o ATP breaks down into ADP + phosphate
Use energy!
Movement
Active Transport
Making molecules
o Transport energy from food to replenish the missing phosphate group
Make ATP!
Breakdown of food.
Food molecules: (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins)
o Food contains potential energy.
o By breaking the chemical bonds in the good, we can release energy and transfer it to
other forms.
Food
Release energy quickly producing heat and light
Release energy slowly in the form of ATP
Wait doesnt food provide energy? Why do we need ATP?
o We cannot utilize the energy that directly comes from food, so we need to convert it
into ATP so our body can use it.
Electron Carriers: Temporary energy storing molecules.
o NADH and FADH
2
; NADPH
NADH (Nicotinamine Adenine Dinucleotide)
FADH
2
(Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide)
Energy in Heterotrophs making ATP
Overview:
o 3 Methods to make ATP.
Phosphocreatine
Glycolysis and (Lactic Acid) Fermentation
(Aerobic) Cellular Respiration
o Track two things:
What energy transfers are occurring?
Where are the carbon atoms?
Phosphocreatine: Enzyme that adds P
i
(Phosphate) directly onto ADP to make more ATP.
o Used for quick energy.
o Anaerobic (doesnt use oxygen)
o Stored in muscles.
o Only works for ~30 seconds!
1. Glycolysis: The partial breakdown of glucose.
o Features:
Used for short term energy production.
Anaerobic
Occurs in the cytoplasm.
o Process:
Priming: ATP is used to add phosphates to glucose.
Cleavage: 6C unit split into 2 3C units.
Energy Recovery: Production of ATP and NADH.
Ends with 2 molecules of Pyruvate (AKA Pyruvic Acid).
Electron Carriers:
o NADH is formed to temporarily hang on to energy before making ATP.
Nicotinamine Adenine Dinucleotide.
o NAD
+
and NADH are recycled over and over again!
Glycolysis Summary
o Inputs
Glucose
2 NAD
+

2 ATP
4 ADP + 2 P
o Outputs
2 Pyruvate
2 NADH
2 ATP (NET gain)
After Glycolysis, the fate of Pyruvate depends
o Oxygen Absent
Fermentation
o Oxygen Present
Cell Respiration
Energy in Heterotrophs Fermentation
If oxygen is NOT available, fermentation occurs.
o Fermentation Anaerobic process (does not require oxygen).
o In animals Lactic Acid Fermentation
Pyruvate is converted into Lactic Acid.
o In plants and yeast Alcoholic Fermentation
Pyruvate is converted into ethyl alcohol (ethanol) and CO
2
.
Why go through Fermentation? Why not just stop and wait for Oxygen?
o To regenerate the NAD
+
.
o Need Glycolysis to take place even when theres no Oxygen.
o Fermentation regenerates NAD
+
from NADH so that Glycolysis can repeat.
Recall: NET of 2 ATP produced in Glycolysis!
Why is Fermentation cool
o Alcoholic Fermentation.
If the plants are dead, what is alive that undergoes Glycolysis?
o Bacteria or yeast consumes the cells of the dead plant and it undergoes Glycolysis.
Energy in Heterotrophs
Fate of Pyruvate
o Oxygen absent
Fermentation (in cytoplasm)
o Oxygen present
Cellular Respiration (transition into mitochondria)
Energy in Heterotrophs Cellular Respiration
If oxygen IS available, cellular respiration continues in the mitochondria:
o 4 main steps of Cellular Respiration:
1. Glycolysis
2. Transition reaction
3. Krebs Cycle
4. Electron Transport Chain
Features:
o Used for long term energy production.
o Aerobic (requires oxygen)
o Occurs in mitochondrial matrix
o Can use glucose, fats or proteins as fuel.
The Mitochondria:

2. Transition Reaction
Occurs between cytoplasm and the mitochondrial matrix.
o Pyruvate combines with Coenzyme A (CoA) to produce Acetyl-CoA.
o 2 CO
2
released
o 2 NAD
+
is reduced to 2 NADH
End of Transition Reaction
o So
Where is the potential energy of glucose now being stored?
Some of it is in the NADH, and some of it is in the Acetyl-CoA.
In addition to ATP and NADH from Glycolysis.
Where are the 6 carbons we started with?
2 C exhaled as CO
2

Other 4 C in Acetyl-CoA (2 each)
3. Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)
Acetyl-CoA combines with a 4C molecule.
The 6C molecule releases a CO
2
, and NAD
+
is reduced to NADH.
The 5C molecule releases another CO
2
, and NAD
+
is reduced to NADH.
ATP is generated.
FAD
+
and NAD
+
are reduced to FADH
2
and NADH.
The 4C molecule is recycled.
Happens two times.
NET Output of Krebs Cycle (per glucose molecule)
o 6 NADH
o 2 FADH
2

o 2 ATP
o 4 CO
2

End of Krebs
o So
Where is the potential energy of glucose now being stored?
NADH, FADH
2
, ATP
In addition to ATP and NADH from Glycolysis and Transition.
Where are the 6 carbons we started with?
All 6C exhaled as CO
2

4. Electron Transport Chain (Electron Transport System)
Whats involved?
o Electron carriers: NADH and FADH
2
are temporarily storing energy.
o Electron transport proteins: Membrane proteins (part of the mitochondrial membranes).
H
+
Pumps: Membrane protein to pump a proton against concentration gradient.
ATP Synthase: Protein that uses energy released by movement of protons down
concentration gradient to make ATP.
This process is called Chemiosmosis.
o Oxygen: An input and final electron acceptor of the process.
Catches electrons and binds to H
+
to form water.
Process
o How many ATP does each NADH yield?
3 ATP
o How many ATP does each FADH
2
yield?
2 ATP
Aerobic Cellular Respiration
C
6
H
12
O
6
+ O
2
H
2
O + CO
2
+ ATP
C
6
H
12
O
6
Glycolysis
O
2
ETC
() +H
+
+ e
-

H
2
O ETC
CO
2
Transition (2) Krebs (4)
ATP
Energy in Heterotrophs Making ATP
End of electron transport chain:
o Where is the potential energy of glucose now being stored?
ATP
o Where are the 6 carbons we started with?
Exhaled as CO
2

Energy in Autotrophs: Photosynthesis
Light Energy:
o Light is a wave.
Wavelength () Distance between two peaks.
Small wavelength = higher energy
Large wavelength = lower energy
Different wavelengths reflect different colors.
o Pigments: Molecules that absorb/reflect sunlight.
Examples:
Chlorophyll (absorbs red, reflects green)
Carotenoids (absorbs violet/blue, reflects yellow/orange)
How they work:
Molecules absorb a photon of light.
Electrons become energized and jump to a higher energy levels.
Electrons typically fall back down, but in photosynthesis they are
caught by electron carriers and are used to do work.
Photosynthesis:
o Takes place in the Chloroplast:
Thylakoid: Flattened disc; contains chlorophyll.
Stroma: Fluid filled region.
Grana: Stacks of Thylakoids.


o 2 Reactions
1. Light-dependent reactions
Occurs in Thylakoid membrane.
2. Light-independent Reactions (AKA Calvin Cycle)
Occurs in Stroma.
Also known as Carbon fixation.
o Process
Light-dependent Reactions:
1. Sunlight excites e
-
in chlorophyll of photosystem II and caught by an
e
-
acceptor.
2. e
-
transferred along an electron transport chain (ETC).
3. Sunlight excites e
-
in photosystem I and again, it is caught by an e
-

acceptor.
4. e
-
are transferred along the ETC and will eventually combine with
NADP
+
to make NADPH.
5. Restoring Photosystem II:
o Enzyme in Thylakoid splits water into protons, electrons, and
oxygen. (H
2
O e
-
+ H
+
+ O
2
)
o Electrons replace photosystem II; protons are left inside
Thylakoid; oxygen gas diffuses out.
6. Synthesis of ATP:
o Chemiosmosis: Build up of a H
+
concentration gradient (high in
Thylakoid space).
o ATP Synthase: Located in the Thylakoid membrane, makes ATP
as H
+
moves down the concentration gradient.
Order of pigments is photosystem II, then photosystem I.
Light-independent Reactions (AKA Calvin Cycle):
1. CO
2
enters and combines with RuBP to form PGA.
2. ATP and NADPH provide energy and H
+
to convert PGA to PGAL.
3. Most PGAL is converted back to RuBP, but some is eventually used to
make GLUCOSE!
Cell Reproduction
Human (Eukaryotic) DNA
Storing DNA
o Nucleus:
Nuclear Envelope: Double membrane surrounding the nucleus.
Nuclear Pores: Small holes in the membrane.
o Packaging DNA
Chromatin Long, thin, uncoiled DNA.
Histone Proteins DNA wraps around to help coil.
Chromosomes DNA coiled, thick (stored this way for replication).
Chromosome (cont.)
Replicated Chromosomes
Chromatin replicates itself into 2 identical pieces of chromatin.
Chromatin condenses and forms 2 identical chromosomes.
Chromosomes connect together at a structure called centromere. When
they stick together at the centromere, it creates one big chromosome
made up of two identical chromatids.
Sister Chromatids Exact copies of DNA
Centromere Connects sister chromatids.
Karyotype: Photograph of all chromosomes in a cell.
o Homologous Chromosomes Two chromosomes that carry the same type of
information, but are not identical.
Autosomes Non-sex chromosomes (22 pairs).
Sex Chromosomes Usually XX or XY; determines sex (1 pair).
Quiz Time
How many chromosomes do human cells have?
o 46
How many pairs of chromosomes do humans have?
o 23
Autosomes?
o 22
Sex chromosomes?
o 1
Prokaryotic Cell Division
Binary Fission:
o (Remember: no nucleus)
o Single piece of DNA (circular)
o Copies DNA
o DNA moves to opposite sides.
o Cell divides in half.
o Happens very fast.
Eukaryotic Cells
Cell Cycle: Sequence of growth and division of a body cell.
o Importance: Growth, healing, and repair.
o 3 main parts:
Interphase
Mitosis
Cytokinesis
Structures involved:
o Chromosomes: DNA
o Spindle Fibers: Microtubules that attach to the centromere and move chromosomes.
o Centrioles: Structures that anchor the spindles at opposite ends of the cells.
Cell Cycle: Interphase
Interphase is the cell carrying out its normal life activities and chromosomes become duplicated.
G
1
Gap between cell division, cell grows.
G
0
Gap phase. Cells are NOT undergoing any preparation for cell division just being.
S Synthesis; DNA is copied.
o When the DNA is copied inside the nucleus. Its preparing for the cell to divide.
G
2
Gap cells prepare for division; Centrioles replicate, spindles form.

Cell Cycle: Mitosis
Prophase:
o Chromatin coils to form visible chromosomes.
o Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear.
o Spindle fibers form between Centrioles, which move to opposite ends of cell.
Metaphase:
o Chromosomes meet in the middle.
o Each chromatid is attached to separate spindle fibers.
Anaphase:
o Centromeres split and sister chromatids separate as they are pulled apart to opposite
sides of cell.
Telophase:
o Nucleus and nucleolus reappear.
o Cells form two new daughter nuclei.
o Chromosomes begin to uncoil
o Cell begins to divide.


Cell Cycle: Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis: Complete division of cytoplasm.
o In plants, cell plate forms and eventually becomes the cell wall that separates the two
cells.
o In animal cells, a protein ring encircles the plasma membrane.
o Ring contracts producing a cleavage furrow.
o