ELECTRIC POWER CABLES

All electric cables consist of the following essential parts:

1. The conductors for transmitting electrical power.
2. An electrical insulating medium required to insulate the conductor from direct contact
with earth or other line conductors inside the cable.
3. External protective coverings for protection against mechanical damage, chemical or
electrochemical attack, fire or any other dangerous effects external to the cable.
Copper (Cu) conductors have extensively being used for cables but of late Aluminum (Al) is
being used in place of copper to reduce both the cost and weight of the cable for the same
current capacity. To obtain flexibility a number of wires are made up into a strand which makes
it easier to handle, less flexible to kink and break and to a large extent eliminates the risk of the
conductor breaking through the dielectric. The wire in a stranded conductor are twisted together
to form lays. The successive layers usually are stranded in opposite direction. The stranded
conductor is expressed as 19/0.1, where the first number stands for the number of strands used
second number given corresponds to the gauge of the strand used; e.g. 3/20, which means a
cable with three strands each of 20 SWG (1.0 mm ).

TYPES OF CABLES AND CABLE COMPONENTS
The conductors of a cable have to be covered by an insulation to isolate the conductors from
each other and from their surroundings. The insulating material should have high dielectric
strength, high insulation resistance, good mechanical strength and should be able to withstand
temperatures from about -30 C to over 100 C. Many insulating materials have been
developed and are used in cable manufacture. Typical properties of few cable insulations are
shown below:
Temperature rating C
# Material
Dielectric
Strength
(KV/mm)
Power
factor
Max
continuous
Short-time
overload
Short-
circuit
1 XLPE 2.5 18 0.008 90 130 250
2 Polythene thermoplastic 2.3 21 0.0004 75 95 150
3 Ethylene propylene (Rbr) 2.8 15 0.009 90 130 250
4 Butyl Rubber 3.2 13 0.015 85 105 200
5 PVC 5.0 17 0.045 75 95 150
6 Oil impregnated Paper 3.6 21 0.008 80 110 200
Different types of Cables:
1. VIR Cables
Vulcanized Indian Rubber (VIR) insulation was developed in 1870 and has a dielectric
strength of around 10 ~ 20 KV/mm and a dielectric constant of about 2.5. Sulfur (S) is
mainly used as the vulcanizing agent. This insulation is limited to wiring cables for low
cost lighting and minor power installations.
2. Elastomer Insulated Cables
Elastomeric insulation includes many types of rubber, e.g. butyl rubber, silicone rubber,
and ethylene propylene rubber. Elastomers have rubber like characteristics which is
achieved by compounding the basic polymer with selected additives. Since natural been
devoted for the development of synthetic elastomeric compounds with superior
properties.
PolyChloroPrene (PCP) or Neoprene is obtained by polymerization of ChloroPrene. The
raw polymer contains about 35% chlorine as a result of which PolyChloroPrene (PCP)
or Neoprene is self extinguishing, if ignited externally. Neoprene compounds can be
used up to a conductor temperature of 60 C and are more resistant to outdoor
weathering and to deterioration by oil than natural rubber.
Butyl rubber, a co-polymer of isobutylene and a small quantity of isoprene, is more
resistant to oxidation and ozone than natural rubber and can be used up to a conductor
temperature of 85 C.
Ethylene propylene rubber (EPR) is a saturated co-polymer of ethylene and propylene
in approximately equimolecular preparations. It has good electrical properties, and is
resistant to ozone, heat and chemicals. Cables with this insulation can be buried directly
and exposed to weather and contaminated atmospheres and are, therefore, suitable for
service industry. They can be used up to a conductor temperature of 85 C.
3. PVC Cables
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a synthetic material obtained from acetylene and can be
produced in a number of grades, depending on the polymerization process used. When
used for cable insulation it must be combined with a plasticizer whose function is to form
a gel and make the material plastic over the desired range of temperature. Its
mechanical properties are not as good as those of rubber and the insulation resistance
is also lower that of rubber. However, it is inert to oxygen and almost inert to oils, many
acids and alkalies. Therefore it is preferable to rubber in many environmental
conditions.
4. Polythene Insulated Cables
Polythene is a straight chain polymer derived from ethylene. Its electrical properties are very
good, e.g. very low power factor at all frequencies, low dielectric constant and high resistivity. Its
main use is in the manufacture of high frequency cables. It has limited application as power
cable insulation. However, a 3 core, 11 KV self supporting aerial cable which can be used for
rural distribution has been developed. Due to its low weight it can be suspended from the
existing low voltage poles.

5. XLPE Cables (Crossed Linked Polythene Cables)
Low density Polythene, when vulcanized under controlled conditions (roughly in the same way
as in vulcanizing rubber), results in cross linking of carbon atoms and produces cross-linked
polythene. This new material does not melt but carbonizes at 250 - 300 C and has become
very popular as an insulating material. XLPE cables possesses the advantage of light weight,
small overall cable dimensions, low dielectric constant and good mechanical strength. These
cables permit conductor temperatures of 90 C and 250 C under normal and short-circuit
conditions and can be buried directly in soil as this insulation has very low water absorption.
These cables have been found to be very suitable for all voltages up to 33 KV.

6. Paper Insulated Cables
Paper is the most important insulating material used in the manufacture of power cables up to
500 KV rating. Paper insulation has the advantages of superior heat conductivity, ability to
withstand high temperature, durability, high dielectric strength, low cost and low electrostatic
capacitance.
For providing insulation over the conductor, the paper tape is lapped on to the conductor until
the required thickness is obtained; it is then dried and impregnated with insulating compound,
e.g. insulating oil. The insulating compounds are required to have, besides high electrical
insulation properties, a high viscosity at working temperatures (50 80 C), a low viscosity at
impregnation temperatures (105 120 C), a smooth change in viscosity with temperature
and very low co-efficient of thermal expansion. The insulating compounds are all based on a
paraffinic or on a naphthenic mineral oil, resin being often added to improve the impregnating
quality since it is important that no air voids should be left in the finished cable. The
impregnation of paper insulation increases its dielectric strength from around 3 8 to 10 80
KV/mm. The dielectric constant of impregnated paper insulation is about 3.6. In a belted cable a
part of the insulation is applied to each core individually and the remainder is in the form of an
overall belt.
The thickness of insulation depends on the mechanical and electrical requirements which it has
to withstand in service. The low voltage cables (< 1 KV rating) should have sufficient insulation
thickness to meet the mechanical treatment which the cable may undergo during manufacture,
installation and service. At higher voltages the insulation thickness is determined by electrical
requirements.

7. Sheath, Armor and Covering
A metal sheath is provided over the cable insulation so that moisture may not be able to affect
the insulation and may also protect the insulation from mechanical damage. A metallic sheath is
essential because no organic material is sufficiently impervious to moisture. Previously, many
years back, lead was established as a suitable material for sheathing. The main advantages of
lead sheaths are the comparative ease with which they are made in lead presses, their flexibility
and high corrosion resistance. Some of the disadvantages of lead are its large mass (sp.gr. of
lead is 11.37), low mechanical strength, fluidity and small resistance to vibrations. The
hardness, mechanical strength and resistance to vibrations of lead sheaths may be
considerably increased by adding alloying mixtures. Many alloys of lead having around 1% of
copper (Cu), tin (Sn), Bismuth (Bi), etc. may be used for sheathing.
Aluminum (Al) is now being increasingly used as a sheathing material. Aluminum sheaths have
a much greater mechanical strength than lead sheaths, low weight (sp.gr. of Al is 2.71) and low
fluidity. The Aluminum sheaths cost about 3.5 times less than the lead sheaths.
Steel tape or wire armor is necessary to protect the sheath against mechanical damage. Steel
tape armor consists of two steel tapes coated with preservative compounds, applied helically in
the same direction over fibrous bedding, the outer layer covering the spaces between the turns
of the inner layer. This provides a good protection against mechanical damage but Steel wire
armor is recommended where additional longitudinal stresses may occur during installation or in
service. Steel wire armor consists of galvanized steel wires applied over compounded bedding.
Double wire armors are used for high degree of mechanical protection. Single core cables for
AC systems are usually not provided with armor because of its effect in increasing the losses. In
these cables a plastic or PVC over-sheath is used for mechanical protection. Aluminum
sheathed cables, owing to the comparative hardness of the sheath, are not required to be
armored in the same way as the lead sheathed cables but for special conditions armoring is
provided for these cables too. As an anticorrosion measure, power cables are usually protected
by Bitumen impregnated fibrous wrapping (or covering for serving). Generally two layers of such
covering are provided, one layer over the sheath (i.e. on the inner side of the armor) and the
second layer over the armor.

8. Classification of the cables
Paper insulated metal sheathed power cables may be classified as solid type and pressurized
cables.
(a) Solid Type Cables: In these cables, the pressure within the cable does not go above
atmospheric pressure and may even fall below it locally, e.g., in voids. This can lead to
cable breakdown when the electrostatic stress is high. The cables for voltages up to 33
KV belong to this category.
(b) Pressurized Cables: In these cables pressure is maintained above atmospheric either
by oil, in oil filled cables or by gas in gas filled pressurized cables. Gas pressures cables
are used up to 275 KV while oil filled ones are used up to 500 KV or so.
Either of these may be single core or multi-core. A solid single core cable has a central
conductor, with an insulation of impregnated paper, a metallic sheath and a plastic over-
sheath. Fig. 8.1 shows such cable. A multi-core cable may have 3 cores (for 3-phase, 3-
wire system) or 4 cores (for 3-phase, 4-wire systems) and may be a belted type cable or
H type cable.
A multi-core cable is designated as S L cable if each of the core has a separate lead
sheath and also an overall covering of lead sheath. Similarly, it is designated as S A
cable if each of the core has a separate Aluminum sheath and also an overall covering
of Aluminum sheath. In H S L cable the individual cores are also covered with a layer of
Aluminum foil or Copper tape under the lead sheath. The lead sheaths over the three
cores and the overall lead sheath should make good electrical contact with each other.
Solid type cables are suitable only up to 33 KV. At higher voltages the chances of
insulation breakdown in cables due to ionization in voids become quite high. In
pressurized cables voids are eliminated by maintaining higher pressure than
atmosphere. Pressurized cables are either oil filled or gas-pressure cables.
(i) Oil filled Cables: Single core or 3 core oil filled cables are suitable for 33 KV as
well as higher voltages up to 500 KV. An oil filled cable is kept constantly
supplied with low viscosity mineral oil through ducts in the cable, the ducts being
connected to oil reservoirs. The expansions and contractions merely produce
changes in the oil level of the reservoirs and, therefore, do not result in voids.
Another advantage is that any space formed by the distortion of lead sheath or
by relative movement of paper dielectric is immediately filled with oil.
The breakdown inception stress, for oil filled cables, is 300 400 KV/cm which is
much higher than that for a solid type cable. Therefore, the normal operating
stresses are raised considerably. The insulation thickness is mainly governed by
requirement of withstand voltage at power frequency. Maximum stresses up to
130 KV/cm are acceptable for 275 KV and 400 KV oil filled cables. A 3 core cable
has three oil ducts, one in each filler space. The pressure within the cable must
not fall below atmospheric and a lower limit of around 21.7 KN/m2 gauge is set.
The transient pressure, developed when the load is suddenly increased, should
not increase beyond 8600 KN/m2 gauge. The joints in the cable have to be
properly made such that no restriction to the flow of oil occurs. The current
carrying capacity of oil filled cable is determined by allowing a normal maximum
conductor temperature of 85 C.

(ii) Gas filled Cables: In these cables paper dielectric is impregnated with
petroleum jelly so that it may not have any free compound. The interstices
between the layers of the paper are then filled with gas, generally dry nitrogen, at
a pressure up to 1380 KN/m2, forming a composite dielectric. Pressure is
retained by lead sheath. The gas flows throughout the cable via the filler spaces,
butt-gaps in the dielectric and conductor strands. In single core cables a small
clearance to the sheath is left for allowing the axial flow of gas. In case of multi-
core cables, such a clearance is not necessary because the filler spaces and
strands provide sufficient path for the flow of the gas. The advantage of gas filled
cable over the oil filled cable is that the oil pressure reservoirs and other
extraneous apparatus are unnecessary and still the ionization is avoided
because the voids are filled by gas at high pressure.
Another type of cable used for high voltages is external pressure cable. In these
cables, the conductor cores, after being insulated, impregnated and covered with
sheath, are placed inside a steel pipe which is filled with gas, generally, nitrogen,
at a pressure of about 12 15 atmospheres.
Because of external gas pressure, the voltage required to set up ionization inside
the voids is increased. Moreover the external pressure tends to close the voids.
In comparison with the solid type cable, this construction gives twice the working
voltage and about one and half times the working current. The increased cost is
more than justified by the increased operating voltage and current. In addition the
steel pipe provides an ideal mechanical protection for the cable.

9. Effective Conductor Resistance
The effective conductor resistance Reff of each conductor of a cable has to be
calculated by taking into account the dc resistance, skin effect, proximity effect, sheath
loss and armor loss.
(a) DC Resistance: In calculating the dc resistance, the increase in resistance due to
temperature, effects of stranding and laying should be taken into account. The
conductor temperature must not exceed 85 C for pressurized cables. For other
cables, the specified temperatures vary from 50 C to 75 C. The dc
resistance at the maximum temperature may be about 20% more than that at 20
C. The resistance is multiplied by 1.02 to account for stranding and in case of multi-
core cables again multiplied by 1.02 to account for additional length of conductor
resulting from the lay of strands and of core in manufacture.
(b) Skin Effect: The increase in resistance due to skin effect depends mainly on the
cross-sectional area. For 400 sq. mm and 600 sq.mm cross-sectional areas, the
increase in resistance at 50 Hz is about 3.5 and 6.5% respectively.
(c) Proximity Effect: The increase in resistance due to non-uniformity of current density,
over the cross-section of the conductor, caused by the magnetic field of currents in
other phase conductors is greater in single core cables than in 3 core belted cables
for a given size. For three core belted cables, the increase in resistance due to
proximity effect is about the same magnitude as that due to skin effect. The dc
resistance at the operating temperature as modified by stranding, laying, skin effect
and proximity effect is termed as ac resistance, i.e.; Rac.
(d) Sheath Losses: When alternating current flows in the core of a cable, the core and
the sheath act as the primary and secondary of an air core transformer. An emf is
induced in the sheath leading to flow of eddy currents and longitudinal circulating
currents. These currents give rise to sheath losses. The losses due to eddy current
in the sheath are usually negligible except in very large cables.
For three phase cables, circulating currents are important only when 3 separate
single core cables or a three core cable with each core having separate sheath (SL
or SA cable) are used. In 3-core belted cable or 3-core screened cable with only a
single sheath covering all the three cores, the magnetic fields of the three cores are
partially mutually compensated and the circulating currents are reduced. Sheath
losses are greater in aluminum sheathed cables than in lead sheathed cables.
When the sheaths of the three single core cables are not bonded or bonded at one
end only, circulating currents cannot flow but induced voltages appear between one
sheath and another. The magnitude of these voltages may be 50 200 Volts/Km
(and much more at short circuits). In order to avoid the risk of damage or danger
arising from the presence of these sheath voltages especially adjacent to the
terminals, sheaths have to be bonded at both ends. If this is done, circulating
currents flow and sheath losses occur. As the spacing between the cores increases
the loss also increases. Methods of cross-bonding at joints have been developed by
which circulating current sheath losses can be virtually eliminated and the inter-
sheath voltages kept small. Cross-bonding employs a transposition method involving
systematic interruption and cross-connection of sheaths at each interruption (i.e.; the
sheath of conductor 1 connected to that of conductor 2, sheath of conductor 2
connected to that of conductor 3 and sheath of conductor 3 connected to that of
conductor 1) at suitable intervals. Since the sheath voltages are equal and displaced
by 120 (for balanced loads), the circulating currents are eliminated. For
unbalance loads as well, the circulating currents are very small. Inter-sheath voltage
is limited to that of each section.
(e) Armor Losses: These losses are partly due to eddy currents in the armor and partly
due to hysteresis. The losses due to eddy currents are of greater importance. It is not
a standard practice to provide single core cables with armor of magnetic materials
because of large armor losses and larger inductive line reactance. In multi-core
cables the armor losses are generally negligible for conductor sections less than 200
sq. mm but may be high as 20% of conductor resistance loss for some 3-core
cables.
If sheath loss = 1 x conductor loss; and armor loss = 2 x conductor loss, then
Reff = Rac (1 + 1 + 2)




10. Conductor Inductive Reactance
For small changes in temperature, the resistance increases linearly with temperature and
the resistance at a temperature t is given by: R t = R 0 (1 + 0 t) (1)
Where R t = resistance at t C
R 0 = resistance at 0 C
0 = temperature co-efficient of resistance at 0 C
Using equation (1) the resistance R2 at a temperature t2 C can be found if the
resistance at a temperature of t1 C is known.
R
2
/ R
1
= (1 / 0 + t2 ) / (1 / 0 + t1 ) (2)
The constant 1 / 0 equals to 228 for Aluminum.

11. The inductance of three phase line with un-symmetric spacing D12 , D23 , D31
The inductance of phase a is:
La = a/Ia = 2 x 10
-7
ln (3(D12 D23 D31) / r) H/m (3)
Where r = GMR = 0.7788 r (r being the radius of conductor.
Or, La = 2 x 10
-7
ln (Deq / r) H/m (4)
= 0.465 log (Deq / r) H/m (5)
The quantity 3(D12 D23 D31) is called equivalent spacing and is denoted by Deq. It is the
geometric mean of the three distances of the line.
[Example: A three phase transmission line has its conductors at the corners of an
equilateral triangle with side 3 m. The diameter of each conductor is 1.63 cm. Find the
inductance per phase per kilometer of the line.
Solution:
r = 0.7788 x 0.5 x 1.63 = 0.635 cm.
Hence, L = 0.465 log (300/0.635) = 1.2315 mH/km ]

The above Equations (3) and (5) can be used to calculate the inductive reactance of each
conductor of single core and 3-core cables respectively. Eq. (5) can also be used if the three
phase circuit consists of 3 single core cables. The results have to be modified to take into
account the following effects:
(a) Reduction due to mutual coupling with the sheath. This is generally small except in some
cases, such as large single core cables with aluminum sheath.
(b) Reduction due to lower effective spacing between cables with conductors of cross-
section other than circular.
(c) Increase due to mutual coupling with the armor of 3-core cables. This may be to an
extent of 10%.
Because of the need of modification due to reasons given above, it is better to determine
the inductance experimentally.
Example 1:
Calculate the inductance per conductor per km of a 3-core belted cable with 37/0.238 cm
conductor and core insulation 0.5 cm thick. Neglect the effect of mutual coupling with
sheath and armor.

Solution:

A 37-strand conductor has a central strand surrounded by 3 layers containing 6, 12 and 18
strands respectively. The overall conductor radius is, 0.238 x 3.5 = 0.834 cm.
Geometric mean radius r = 0.7788 x 0.834 = 0.6495 cm.
The distance between conductor centers is uniform and, therefore,

D
eq
= 2(0.5 + 0.834) = 2.668 cm.

Using Eq. (5)
L = 0.465 log (D
eq
/ r) = 0.465 log (2.668 / 0.6495) = 0.2825 mH/km.


12. Parameters of Single core cables

12.1 Insulation Resistance

The Fig. 12.1 shows a single core cable of conductor radius r. The cable has a sheath of inside
radius R. The insulation resistance d R
ins
of an annulus of thickness dx at radius x is:

dx
d R
ins
= ---------- Ohms/metre (12.1)
2 x
Where, is the resistivity of the insulating material in Ohm-metres.

The insulation resistance per metre length is

R dx
R
ins
= ------------- = ( / 2) l
n
(R/r) Ohms/metre (12.2)
r 2 x

If the cable has a length of l metres,
Insulation resistance = ( / 2 l ) l
n
(R/r) Ohms (12.3)


Average value of for impregnated paper varies from 5 x 10
12
to 8 x 10
12
Ohm-metres at
15 C. The change in resistivity of insulating materials with temperature is described by the
equation:

t
=
0

- t
(12.4)

Where,
t
is resistivity at t C,
0
is resistivity at 0 C and is a constant.


12.2 Capacitance

Since the single core cable (Fig. 12.1) has an earthed metallic sheath, there is an electric field
between the conductor and the sheath. Let the charge on the surface of the conductor be q
coulomb per metre length of the cable. The electric flux density D
x
at a radius x is

D
x
= (q / 2 x ) C / m
2

The electric field intensity E
x
at a radius x is
E
x
= ( D
x
/
r .

0
x ) V/m
Where,
r
is the relative permittivity (dielectric constant) of the cable insulation and

0
= 8.85 x 10
-12
F / m
The potential difference between the core and the sheath is
R
V = E
x
dx = q / ( 2
r .

0
). l
n
(R/r) Volts
r

Capacitance between core and sheath is
C = (q/v) = ( 2
r .

0
) / l
n
(R/r) F / m






12.2.1 Dielectric Loss
A cable has a capacitance between the core and the sheath. If a voltage is applied to an
unloaded cable between the core and the sheath a capacitive current (or the charging current)
flows through it. Since the resistivity of insulation is not infinite, leakage current flows and a
power loss occurs. With AC voltages the phenomenon of dielectric absorption also contributes
to the power loss. Thus the cable behaves like an imperfect capacitor and the total current, e
voltage not by 90 but by an angle (90 ) as shown in Fig. 12.2. The angle is termed as
loss angle of the dielectric.
The dielectric loss P
d
is
= V. I. cos = V. I. cos (90 ) = V. I. sin
= C V
2
sin = C V
2
Watts
Where C is the capacitance of the cable and V is the applied line to neutral voltage; is the
dielectric loss angle (radians) and is the power supply frequency (measured in radians / sec).
Since, is normally very small, sin = . Hence, P = V
2
C Watts, where is in radians.
ALTERNATIVELY
The cable is a sort of capacitor with core and the sheath forming two plates of the capacitor
separated by the dielectric material in between. The equivalent circuit for this system is
represented by a parallel combination of leakage resistance R and a capacitance C. The
equivalent circuit with its phasor diagram is shown in Fig 12.3. The loss in dielectric is due to the
loss in the equivalent leakage resistance.

P = V
2
/ R
From phasor diagram: (V / R) / (VC ) = tan
Or, V / R = VC / tan
P = V
2
/ R = V
2
C tan
Where, is the dielectric loss angle (radians) and is the power supply frequency (measured
in radians / sec). Since, is normally very small,
tan =
Hence, P = V
2
C Watts, where is in radians.
From the phasor diagram, the power factor angle of the dielectric is given by:
= (90 )
Hence, cos = cos (90 ) = sin
The power factor of a dielectric is a function of the temperature attained by the dielectric
and also depends upon the voltage stress to which the dielectric is stressed.

12.3 Grading of Cables
The value of E
max
has to be kept within limits which depend on the margin of safety and the
permissible degree of dielectric heating. Since the insulation away from the core is under
stressed, there is an avoidable waste of insulation. It seems attractive to use methods which
reduce the amount of insulation by redistribution of stress so as to increase stress in outer
layers of insulation without increasing it at the conductor surface. Two methods for such a
grading of insulation have been suggested. These are:
(a) Capacitance grading
(b) Inter-sheath grading

12.3.1 Capacitance grading

The method involves the use of two or more layers of dielectrics having different permittivity,
those with higher permittivity being nearer to the conductor.
The electric field intensity E
x
at any radius x is given by equation:
E
x
= D
1
/ (
r

0
) = q / (2
r

0
x).
If it were possible to vary permittivity with radius x such that:

r
1 / x = m / x
Then, E
x
= q / {2

0
(m / x) (x)} = q / (.2

0
m )
Thus E
x
is constant throughout the thickness of insulation. Such a gradation is evidently not
possible. However, two or three dielectrics with different values of relative permittivity can be
used as shown in the Fig. 8.6.
From x = r to x = r
1
, the dielectric with relative permittivity
1
is used.
At x = r, E = q / (2
0

1
r)

At x = r
1
, E = q / (2
0

1
r
1
)
From x = r
1
to x = r
2
, the dielectric relative permittivity
2
is used.
At x = r
1
, E = q / (2
0

2
r
1
)
At x = r
2
, E = q / (2
0

2
r
2
)
From x = r
2
to x = R

, the dielectric with relative permittivity
3
is used.
At x = r
2
, E = q / (2
0

3
r
2
)
At x = R

, E = q / (2
0

3
R)
If all the three dielectrics are operated at the same maximum electric intensity, then:

1 / (
1
r) = 1 / (
2
r
1
) = 1 / (
3
r
2
)
Or, (
1
r) = (
2
r
1
) = (
3
r
2
)
The variation of electric field intensity with radius is shown the above Fig. 8.6. The operating
voltage V is:
r
1
r
2
r
3
V = E
x
dx + E
x
dx + E
x
dx
r r
1
r
2

r
1
r
2
r
3

= {q / (2
0

1
x)} dx + {q / (2
0

2
x)} dx + {q / (2
0

3
x)} dx
r r
1
r
2

= {q / (2
0

1
) l
n
(r
1
/ r)} + {q / (2
0

2
) l
n
(r
2
/ r
1
)} + {q / (2
0

3
) l
n
(R / r
2
)}

= { q / (2
0

1
r)} r l
n
(r
1
/ r) + {q / (2
0

2
r
1
)} r
1
l
n
(r
2
/ r
1
) + {q / (2
0

3
r
2
)} r
2
l
n
(R / r
2
)

= E
max
[ r l
n
(r
1
/ r) + r
1
l
n
(r
2
/ r
1
) + r
2
l
n
(R / r
2
)

12.3.2 Inter-sheath Grading

In this method, only one dielectric is used but the dielectric is separated into two or more layers
by thin metallic inter-sheaths maintained at appropriate potentials by connecting them to the
tappings on the winding of the transformer feeding the cable. There is a fixed voltage between
the inner and outer radii of each sheath.
Fig. 8.7 shows a single core cable with two inter-sheaths. The different radii are r, r
1
, r
2
and R.
The potential difference between conductor and first inter-sheath is (V V
1
), that between the
first and the second inter-sheath is (V
1
V
2
) and that between the second and the third inter-
sheath is V
2
. The maximum voltage gradients in the three sections are:
E
max1
= (V V
1
) / {r l
n
(r
1
/ r)}
E
max2
= (V
1
V
2
) / {r
1
l
n
(r
2
/ r
1
)}
E
max3
= V
2
/ {r
2
l
n
(R / r
2
)}
If the values of maximum and minimum potential gradients in the three sections are kept the
same, we get: (r
1
/ r) = (r
2
/ r
1
) = (R / r
2
) =
Then,
(V V
1
) / r l
n
= (V
1
V
2
) / r
1
l
n
= V
2
/ r
2
l
n

If the cable does not have any inter-sheath, the maximum voltage gradient is:
E
max3
= V / {r l
n
(R / r)}
Using the above equations, the ratio of maximum stress with and without inter-sheath can be
calculated. The radii of inter-sheaths may be found from the ratio .
Both the methods of grading of cables involve practical difficulties. With Capacitance grading
the difficulty exists in obtaining different permittivity. The use of rubber (
r
= 4 - 6) and
impregnated paper (
r
= 3 - 4) have been suggested by reputed cable manufacturers. However,
the possible change of permittivity with time may alter the stress distribution and lead to
insulation breakdown even at the working voltage. With inter-sheath grading it may be difficult to
arrange for proper voltages of inter-sheaths. The jointing of cables having inter-sheaths also
poses problems. The possibility of damage to the thin inter-sheaths during cable laying also
exists. Moreover, the charging current may cause overheating of inter-sheaths especially in very
long cables.

12.4 Capacitance of three core belted cables

Three core belted cables were used previously up to 11 KV and are now used up to 33 KV. In
this cable a potential difference exists between any two pair of conductors and also between
each conductor and the outer sheath. Thus, there is an electric field between any two pairs of
conductors and also between each conductor and the outer sheath. Consequently, there is
Capacitance C
c
any two pairs of conductors and Capacitance C
s
between each conductor and
the outer sheath, as shown in Fig. 8.8. The overall field pattern is very complicated and may be
studied experimentally in an electrolytic tank. The Capacitances may be more easily obtained
by measurement.
The three delta connected Capacitance C
c
in Fig. 8.8 can be replaced by three star connected
capacitances each of value 3 C
c
using delta / star transformation as shown in Fig.8.9. The
Capacitance to sheath can be assumed to be in series with star connected capacitance of each
core to earthed neutral, i.e. C = 3 C
c
+ C
s

The capacitances C
c
and C
s
are obtained by the following measurements:
(a) Any two conductors are joined together and the capacitance C
a
between this combination
and the third conductor is measured. A little observation will show that:
C
a
= 2 C
c
+ C
s

(c) All the three conductors are joined together and the capacitance C
a
between this
combination and the sheath is measured. This measured value is:
C
b
= 3 C
s
From the above two equations:
C
s
= C
b
/ 3 and C
c
= (C
a
/ 2) (C
b
/ 6)
The effective capacitance between each core and earthed neutral is:
C = 3 C
c
+ C
s
= 1.5 C
a
0.167C
b
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