Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Published by
Sucharitha Publications
Visakhapatnam 530 017
Andhra Pradesh India
Email: victorphilosophy@gmail.com
Website: www.ijmer.in
Editorial Board
Editor-in-Chief
Dr. Victor Babu Koppula
Faculty
Department of Philosophy
Andhra University Visakhapatnam -530 003
Andhra Pradesh India
Vice Chancellor
Indira Gandhi Institute of Development
Research
Mumbai
Prof.Y.C. Simhadri
Prof.K.Sreerama Murty
Department of Economics
Andhra University - Visakhapatnam
Prof. K.R.Rajani
Department of Philosophy
Andhra University Visakhapatnam
Rector
St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute
Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A
Prof. A.B.S.V.Rangarao
Swami Maheshwarananda
Prof.S.Prasanna Sree
Department of English
Andhra University Visakhapatnam
Prof. P.Sivunnaidu
Department of History
Andhra University Visakhapatnam
Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana
Head
Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus
Vizianagaram
Department of Geography
Institute of Arab Research and Studies
Cairo University, Egypt
Department of Education
North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong
Dr.K.Chaitanya
I Ketut Donder
Professor of Education
Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA
Dr.Merina Islam
Prof. G.Veerraju
Department of Philosophy
Cachar College, Assam
Department of Philosophy
Andhra University
Visakhapatnam
Dr R Dhanuja
PSG College of Arts & Science
Coimbatore
Prof.G.Subhakar
Department of Education
Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
Dr.B.S.N.Murthy
N.Suryanarayana (Dhanam)
Department of Philosophy
Andhra University
Visakhapatnam
Dr.Ch.Prema Kumar
Department of Philosophy
Andhra University
Visakhapatnam
Coordinator
AP State Resource Center
Visakhapatnam
University of Pune
PUNE
Editor-in-Chief, IJMER
Typeset and Printed in India
www.ijmer.in
CONTENTS
Volume 3
S.
No
1.
Issue 9(2)
September 2014
Page
No
1
2.
16
3.
24
4.
40
5.
56
6.
59
7.
88
Bheemsha D Sagar
8.
95
Bheemsha D Sagar
9.
109
10.
134
11.
151
12.
166
13.
193
14.
202
15.
213
16.
222
17.
236
18.
251
19.
266
20.
279
21.
293
22.
318
23.
Power Capture Safe Test Pattern Determination for AtSpeed Scan Based Testing
P.Praveen Kumar,B.Naresh Babu
and N.Pushpalatha
332
24.
342
25.
355
26.
366
Editorial ..
Provoking fresh thinking is certainly becoming the prime purpose of
International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER). The
new world era we have entered with enormous contradictions is demanding a
unique understanding to face challenges. IJMERs contents are
overwhelmingly contributor, distinctive and are creating the right balance for
its readers with its varied knowledge.
We are happy to inform you that IJMER got the high Impact Factor
2.735, Index Copernicus Value 5.16 and IJMER is listed and indexed in 34
popular indexed organizations in the world. This academic achievement of
IJMER is only authors contribution in the past issues. I hope this journey of
IJMER more benefit to future academic world.
In the present issue, we have taken up details of multidisciplinary
issues discussed in academic circles. There are well written articles covering a
wide range of issues that are thought provoking as well as significant in the
contemporary research world.
My thanks to the Members of the Editorial Board, to the readers, and
in particular I sincerely recognize the efforts of the subscribers of articles. The
journal thus receives its recognition from the rich contribution of assorted
research papers presented by the experienced scholars and the implied
commitment is generating the vision envisaged and that is spreading
knowledge. I am happy to note that the readers are benefited.
My personal thanks to one and all.
M. V. Rao
Department of Zoology
Andhra University
Visakhapatnam, India
M. Balaji
Wood Biodegradation Centre (Marine)
Institute of Wood Science and Technology
Visakhapatnam
Introduction
Marine wood boring organisms are an economically important
group of pests mainly occurring in coastal waters and mangal wetlands
causing enormous damage to timber installations and wooden craft as
well as live and dead mangrove vegetation (Rao et al., 2007). Compared
to that on agriculture, forest and land pests, studies on these menace
makers in India are not commensurate with the vast seaboard of 8000
km. it possesses and 4663 km2 of mangals (AR 2012-13). Research on
marine wood biodeterioration has been carried out in the country for
the last six decades, but the dedicated working group has been very tiny
mainly concentrating its efforts on marine fouling formations, wood
borer fauna, timber durability and wood preservation at five major
ports, viz., Visakhapatnam, Chennai, Kochi, Goa and Mumbai. Certain
national institutes and marine universities have also been taking up
similar work elsewhere rather discretely. All these attempts together
resulted in finding out the occurrence of the said group of pests at 32
stations along the west coast and 26 localities along the east coast still
leaving numerous places for exploration. A few recent publications in
the line are that of Pachu et al. (2008), Pati et al. (2013) and Rao et al.
(2008, 2010 and 2013). Given the scenario, a maiden effort was put at
of each month and retrieved at the end of the same month regularly for
two years to monitor monthly occurrence of wood borers. At the same
time, eleven such ladders were also installed at the beginning of each
year and one ladder each out of them was removed either at the end of
each of the subsequent eleven months or at a prior date in case severe
destruction of the panels to understand the progress in the intensity of
borer attack. On removal of the ladders from field, each panel was
scrapped free of all fouling accumulations, cleaned with sea water,
brought to the laboratory, all possible number of borers present in it
extracted and preserved in 70% alcohol. Subsequently, each whole
specimen in the case of sphaeromatids and pholadids and the unique
structures namely, pallets too in the instance of teredinids were
examined under a stereo zoom binocular microscope and identified
based on the keys of Krishna Pillai (1961) and Turner (1971).
Important water parameters were also measured or estimated during
each field collection following Parsons et al. (1984). Data pertaining to
water parameters was summarized as means followed by standard
deviation, while date on the community structure of borers was
transformed into ecological indices through PAST software (Hammer et
al., 2011). Beginning in January 2009, the total trial period lasted for
21 months.
Results
Port water characteristics
Machilipatnam port waters were characterized by annual mean
temperature of 29.2 oC 1.82 within a range of 26.0 oC to 32.0 oC; pH
of 7.8 0.19 within a range of 7.2 to 8.1; salinity of 17.30 14.18
with a range of 0.55 to 36.01 ; dissolved oxygen of 3.76 mg.l-1
1.57 within a range of 0.44 mg.l-1 to 6.51 mg.l-1; total suspended solids of
81.63 mg.l-1 71.35 within a range of 6.2 mg.l-1 to 220.0 mg.l-1; nitrates
of 3.03 mol.l-1 3.08 within a range of 0.242 mol.l-1 to 12.584 mol.l-1;
3
Conclusion
Due to varied combination of diversity and evenness factors
supported by numerical abundance, marine wood boring community
prevailing in Machilipatnam port waters showed vigorous activity in
the introduced transient habitat despite generally low species richness
imparting thorough destruction to timber coupons usually within two
months unlike that at many other ports.
References
1. AR 2012-13.
Annual Report 2012-13. Environmental
Information System, Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Government of India, New Delhi. 464 pp.
2. Pachu, A. V., M. V. Rao and M. Balaji, 2008. Marine wood borer
fauna in mangroves of the Krishna estuary, East Coast, India.
In: A. J. Solomon Raju (Ed), Bioresources conservation and
management.
Today and Tommorrows Printers and
Publishers, New Delhi: 41-51.
3. Parsons, T. R., M. Yoshiaki and C. M. Lalli, 1984. A manual of
chemical and biological methods for seawater analysis.
Pergamon Press, Oxford. 173 pp.
4. Pati, S.K., M.V. Rao and M. Balaji, 2013. Marine wood borer
communities of Visakhapatnam harbour, India: Spatiotemporal
patterns and environmental drivers. International Journal of
Research in Marine Sciences, 2(1): 13-25. Available online at
http://www. urpjournals.com .
5. Rao, M. V., M. Balaji and A. V. Pachu, 2008. Marine wood borers
of BhimunipatnamVisakhapatnam coast, Bay of Bengal,
India. J. Timb. Dev. Assoc. India, 54(1 & 2): 59-75.
Month
Temperature Salinity D. O
(oC)
(PSU) (mg/l)
pH
TSS
(mg/l)
Jan-09
8.00
27.90
26.22
5.28
---
0.440
1.125
43.056
Feb-09
8.10
29.50
4.39
4.07
100.00
---
---
---
Mar-09
7.70
29.50
4.93
3.03
28.00
2.002
2.655
20.304
Apr-09
7.90
29.00
35.34
0.56
148.00
0.297
0.315
9.624
May-09
7.90
28.00
35.50
0.44
210.00
0.242
0.090 179.520
Jun-09
7.90
30.00
28.16
6.51
65.60
2.068
2.880 136.600
Jul-09
7.80
27.00
34.98
5.06
208.60
3.718
6.525
34.992
Aug-09
7.90
28.00
1.07
2.92
50.00
3.542
3.645
32.400
Sep-09
7.80
28.00
10.91
4.38
68.00
2.228
6.030
32.640
Oct-09
7.80
30.00
4.39
1.11
60.00
2.464
3.105
22.800
Nov-09
7.70
30.00
0.73
2.92
71.40
7.260
4.995
13.824
Dec-09
7.70
26.00
11.26
4.04
37.92
1.716
1.890
78.430
Jan-10
7.80
26.50
14.85
4.06
24.40
6.864
4.185
85.872
Feb-10
8.00
28.50
32.20
4.72
6.20
0.616
0.810
84.384
Mar-10
7.80
31.50
10.90
3.82
64.72
12.584
Apr-10
8.00
31.00
36.01
4.83
220.00
1.122
2.610
17.424
May-10
7.80
27.00
30.45
5.16
---
2.024
0.810
9.408
Jun-10
7.80
31.00
33.94
4.71
---
1.078
0.855
9.984
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
Aug-10
8.10
32.00
1.10
4.94
---
5.874
1.755
60.096
Sep-10
7.20
32.00
0.55
3.26
---
3.960
2.610
62.832
Oct-10
7.70
31.00
5.48
3.15
---
0.528
0.540 109.530
Minimum
7.20
26.00
0.55
0.44
6.20
0.242
0.090
Maximum
8.10
32.00
36.01
6.51
220.00
12.584
Mean
7.83
29.21
17.30
3.76
81.63
3.031
2.885
58.009
Stdev
0.19
1.82
14.18
1.57
71.35
3.08
2.54
48.26
Jul-10
10.260 116.450
9.408
10.260 179.520
Oct-09
Sep-09
Aug-09
Jul-09
Jun-09
May-09
Mar-09
Feb-09
Jan-09
Sl. No.
Species
Pholadids
1
Teredinids
2
240
L. affinis (Deshayes)
0 1928
L. takanoshimensis Roch
0 1440
120
L. pedicellatus (Quatrefages)
845
812
L. bipartitus (Jeffreys),
248
482
240
813
543
484 1210
T. bartschi Clapp
10 T. clappi Bartsch
27572
1358 2166
360
1630
454
3180
46
227
0 18833
21220
594
1086
121
152
9417
1060
10
Jun-10
May-10
Apr-10
Mar-10
Feb-10
Jan-10
Dec-09
Nov-09
Species
Sl. No.
Pholadids
1
628
Teredinids
2
L. affinis (Deshayes)
736
0 1625
L. takanoshimensis Roch
0 1992
735
L. pedicellatus (Quatrefages)
735
L. bipartitus (Jeffreys),
0 3250
0 2985
735
542
0 3673
T. bartschi Clapp
869
617 1159
0 1853 2896
0 1235 1159
10 T. clappi Bartsch
11 B. campanellata Moll and Roch
12 Bankia carinata (Gray)
13 B. brevis (Deshayes)
6307 3980
0
369 1469
9459 3483
2694 8121
0 1989
0 5537
926
14 B. gouldi (Bartsch)
15 B. gracilis Moll
11
Nov-09
Oct-09
Sep-09
Jul-09
Jun-09
Feb-09
Jan-09
Sl. No.
Species
Sphaeromatids
1
166
82
180
S. terebrans Bate
250
191
1415 1706
166
Pholadids
3
272
Teredinids
4
L. affinis (Deshayes)
L. takanoshimensis Roch
166
L. pedicellatus (Quatrefages)
84
L. bipartitus (Jeffreys),
666
362
T. bartschi Clapp
11124
1249
241 3246
12 T. clappi Bartsch
927
254
13905
250
482
0 18186
14 B.carinata (Gray)
8343
666
15 B. brevis (Deshayes)
7417
1166
362
170
16 B. gouldi (Bartsch)
416
61
17 B. gracilis Moll
83
12
Aug-10
Jun-10
May-10
Apr-10
Mar-10
Feb-10
Jan-10
Sl. No.
Species
Sphaeromatids
1
S. terebrans Bate
166
107
282
280
120
2560 4418
19.5
191
Pholadids
3
18292
Teredinids
4
L. affinis (Deshayes)
L. takanoshimensis Roch
L. pedicellatus (Quatrefages)
936
713
L. bipartitus (Jeffreys),
0 3950
1240
3722
4991
1861
936
8284
987
11 T. bartschi Clapp
1874
12 T. clappi Bartsch
3744
8285
0 4096
8684
713
936
0 2340
7443
15 B. brevis (Deshayes)
2808
0 2925
4962
16 B. gouldi (Bartsch)
936
17 B. gracilis Moll
14 B.carinata (Gray)
13
Long-term coupons
53032
---
41716
272
416
Feb-09
1000
---
5000
1415
82
Mar-09
5433
1313
Apr-09
May-09
13708
1448
Jun-09
6166
1331
1508
1706
371
Jul-09
6500
---
3416
166
---
Aug-09
833
---
---
---
---
Sep-09
---
17264
Oct-09
28250
---
62876
Nov-09
23333
---
65467
Dec-09
16667
---
Jan-10
16167
---
14042
18292
166
Feb-10
23625
4518
33139
2560
Mar-10
10286
2410
9875
4418
Apr-10
6792
2008
13750
5975
May-10
6083
628
27912
1905
402
Jun-10
5417
6417
191
Jul-10
---
---
---
---
---
Aug-10
Sep-10
---
---
---
14
387
16
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
Hypotheses
In pursuance of the objectives 1-5 the following Null Hypotheses
were formulated.
i)
There
is
no
significant
relationship
between
Home
iii)
iv)
There
is
no
significant
relationship
between
Home
There
is
no
significant
relationship
between
Home
Data collection
The Family Climate Scale and Emotional Maturity Scale were
administered on college students to obtain the required data. The
investigator personally visited each college to collect duly filled tools.
Personal data relating to name, age, sex, location, type of college and
socioeconomic status were also collected through a personal data
specially prepared for the purpose.
Statistical Analysis
In order to study the relationship scores of Home Environment
with the scores of students Emotional Maturity, Persons correlation
coefficients were computed and tested for significance as shown in
Table 1.
19
Scores
Home Environment
Emotional Maturity
Home Environment
Emotional Maturity
Home Environment
Emotional Maturity
Home Environment
Emotional Maturity
Home Environment
Emotional Maturity
Home Environment
Emotional Maturity
Home Environment
Emotional Maturity
Home Environment
Emotional Maturity
Home Environment
Emotional Maturity
Home Environment
Emotional Maturity
Mean
172.5200
320.7800
169.4000
313.5800
200.8696
312.8986
175.1000
321.5400
191.0000
299.8235
173.0625
318.4375
199.7903
311.4859
171.9800
314.3400
204.6744
311.4419
214.7895
316.6847
Correlation
Coefficient
SD
13.3160
27.3923
16.3931
28.3607
24.2559
23.0869
12.0835
31.5835
20.4512
18.0043
15.7887
30.5593
23.2253
26.7126
15.9329
32.5987
26.1495
25.6258
23.8993
38.5242
20
t' value
p' value
Significant
0.4876
3.8692
<0.01
0.4950
3.9468
<0.01
0.1468
1.2145
>0.05
NS
0.3353
2.4654
<0.05
0.1049
0.4081
>0.05
NS
0.2947
2.0910
<0.05
0.2185
1.7340
>0.05
NS
0.3881
2.9179
<0.01
0.3579
2.4541
>0.05
NS
0.5306
2.5811
<0.05
Major Findings
22
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
23
N.P.S.V.N.Murthy
Research Scholar
Dept. of Commerce and Mgt. Studies
Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
Introduction:
The amalgamation of Regional Rural Banks has been completed.
This paper builds up a case against it. Amalgamation would be a death
blow to the credit starved rural poor, small and marginal farmers,
agricultural and landless labourers and artisans. The process of
amalgamation commenced in September 2005 and it is expected to be
completed by March 2008. As a result of the amalgamation, the number
of RRBs was reduced from 196 to 133 as on 31st March, 2006 to 96 as on
30th April 2007 and to 82 RRBs as on September 2009. Now 82 RRBs
are working in the country. The RRBs have plays an important role in
agricultural financing. Regional Rural Banks were established under
the provisions of an ordinance promulgated on the 26th September
1975and the RRB Act, 1976 with an objective to ensure sufficient
institutional credit for agriculture and other rural sectors. The RRBs
moblise financial resources from rural/semi-urban areas and grant
loans and advances mostly to small and marginal farmers, agricultural
labourers and rural artisans. The area of operation of RRBs is limited
to the areas as notified by Government of India covering one or more
districts in the state. Government of India initiated the process of
structural consolidation of RRBs by amalgamating RRBs sponsored by
the same bank within a state as per the recommendations of the Vyas
Committee (2004). The Regional Rural Banks in Andhra Pradesh have
had a long standing of nearly four decades. The RBI and NABARD
24
25
of RRBs may be considered taking into account the views of the various
stakeholders. The Group has put forth two options: merger between
RRBs of the same sponsor bank in the same state and merger of RRBs
sponsored by different banks in the same state.
Thingalaya N.K. (2006) in his book Karnataka: Fifty years of
Development, reveals that Grameena Banks in Karnataka compared
to those operating in other states proved to be viable rural credit
agencies accessible to the weaker sections of the society. He stressed
the need for adopting modern practices by the Grameena Banks and
has suggested for evolving RRBs as the retail outlets of financial
supermarkets, selling the fast moving products such as insurance and
mutual funds at competitive prices and have a strong door-delivery
wing for the special customers i.e., SHGs and also merger of Grameena
Banks as a move towards revitalisation.
OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
1. To study amalgamated picture of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh.
2. To analyze the key performance indicators of RRBs in Andhra
Pradesh.
3. To offer suggestions helpful in improving functions on the basis
of conclusion.
PROBLEMS OF STUDY
1. First and important problem of the research work is analysis of
financial data.
2. Information from the RRBs in Andhra Pradesh was difficult to
be obtained as it a government organization and members were
not interested to provide information.
3. Frequent number of visit was made to RRBs to collecting data.
SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY
The research
study
is significant
to
evaluate financial
SCOPE OF STUDY
1. The study is based on the performance of RRBs in Andhra
Pradesh. Therefore, study covers state of Andhra Pradesh to the
fulfillment of objectives of the study.
2. The study covers of the secondary data on financial performance
of the RRBs in Andhra Pradesh year 2011-12 was taken as the
reference period.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The amalgamated picture of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh has been
analysed with the help of key performance indicators. Analytical
Techniques Employed key performance indicators analysis was
undertaken with a view to studying financial performance of the
Regional Rural Banks.
The present study is empirical in character based on the
analytical method. The study is mainly based on secondary data which
is collected from annual reports of NABARD and concerned Regional
Rural Bank of Andhra Pradesh. Other related information collected
from journals and websites.
28
Table 1: Picture of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh during Pre and Post Merger: Detailed
Introduction of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh
Sl. No.
No of
district
covered
Sponsoring
banks
Sl. No.
Est. Date
(post
merger)
No of
district
covered
Sponsoring
banks
1.
Nagarjuna
Grameena Bank
02
SBI
1.
31.03.2006
08
SBI
01
SBI
Andhra Pradesh
Grameena Vikas
Bank
2.
Kakathiya
Grameena Bank
01
SBI
01
SBI
03
SBI
01
Syndicate
Bank
01.06.2006
05
Syndicate Bank
01.03.2006
03
3.
Manjira Grameena
Bank
4.
Sangameswara
Grameena Bank
5.
Sri Visakha
Grameena Bank
7.
Sri Anantha
Grameena Bank
Pinakini Grameena
Bank
9.
Rayalaseema
Grameena Bank
Chaithanya
Grameena Bank
Syndicate
Bank
Andhra Bank
01
Syndicate
Bank
3.
SBH
02
01
8.
Andhra Pragathi
Grameena Bank
02
02
6.
2.
01
Andhra
Bank
Chaithanya
Godavari Grameena
Bank
4.
Godavari Grameena
05
Andhra
Bank
01
Deccan Grameena
Bank
SBH
01
10.
24.03.2006
SBH
29
Indian Bank
Bank
01
01.07.2006
5.
SBH
11.
12.
Sri Saraswathi
Grameena Bank
Sri Satavahana
Grameena Bank
01
SBH
Indian Bank
Saptagiri Grameena
Bank
Indian Bank
13.
14.
Golconda Grameena
Bank
15.
Kanaka Durga
Grameena Bank
16.
Sri Venkateswara
Grameena Bank
30
02
three districts, which are located in the coastal belt of Andhra Pradesh
and Head Office at Guntur district. The authorized share capital Bank
is Rs. 200.00 lakh. The shareholders of the Bank are Government of
India (50 percent), Andhra Bank (35 percent) and Government of
Andhra Pradesh (15 percent). As on March 31st, 2012 the total number
of branches of Chaithanya Godavari Grameena Bank is 116. According
to the total branches covered rural branches 73, semi-urban branches
31 and remaining branches of urban is 12.
4. DECCAN GRAMEENA BANK
Deccan Grameena Bank (DGB) established by amalgamating
four RRBs sponsored by State Bank of Hyderabad (SBH), which Sri
Saraswathi Grameena Bank, Sri Satavahana Grameena Bank and
Golconda Grameena Bank effected from 24.03.2006. The operating
area is four districts; these all districts are located in Telangana Region
of Andhra Pradesh. Head Office of Deccan Grameena Bank in
Hyderabad. The authorized share capital Bank is Rs. 400.00 lakh. The
shareholders of the Bank are Government of India (50 percent), State
Bank of Hyderabad (35 percent) and Government of Andhra Pradesh
(15 percent). As on March 31st, 2012 the total number of branches of
Deccan Grameena Bank is 230. According to the total branches covered
rural branches 168, semi-urban branches 42 and remaining branches of
urban is 20.
5. SAPTAGIRI GRAMEENA BANK
Saptagiri Grameena Bank (SGB) has been formed with the
merger of Sri Venkateswara Grameena Bank Chittor, Chittor district
and Kanakadurga Grameena Bank Gudivada, Krishna district from
01.07.2006. This bank is sponsored by Indian Bank. Saptagiri
Grameena Bank covered Chittor and Krishna districts, which located
32
APGB
CGGB
DGB
SGB
Sponsored Bank
SBI
Syndicate
Bank
Andhra
Bank
SBH
Indian
Bank
District Covered
Rural Branches
435
281
73
168
103
Semi Urban
Branches
101
95
31
42
36
Urban Branches
38
45
12
20
12
Total Branches
574
421
116
230
151
2354
2010
437
1021
637
Share Capital
500.00
300.00
200.00
400.00
200.00
Share Capital
Deposit
8908.50
3934.26
544.22
1407.23
1577.05
Reserves
53911.73
94784.62
8662.18
23478.56
15041.24
Total Owned
63320.23
99018.88
9406.40
25285.79
16818.29
Items/
Indicators
No. of Staff
33
217033.95
227882.24
51684.64
70940.71
95712.99
Deposits
514666.64
451274.60
94941.16
292066.47
185229.45
Loans
553271.19
549025.14
114872.95
236236.65
221356.31
107.50
121.66
120.99
80.88
119.50
81.91
80.76
70.19
76.32
87.06
12010.30
15043.64
1031.98
3624.10
3812.13
5.08
1.24
1.58
4.86
0.84
Productivity Per
Branch
1860.52
2376.01
1808.74
2174.09
2692.62
Productivity Per
Staff
453.67
497.66
480.12
517.44
638.28
CD Ratio
Recovery
Percentage
Net Profit after
Tax
Net NPA Percent
35
36
39
Dr.G.ChandraMouli
Research Guide
Mewar University
Chittorghar
Rajasthan and
Reader in Commerce
Dr.VSK.Govt Degree and PG
(A) College, Visakhapatnam
41
programs when the profits are ploughed back to a great extent. And
thus profits and growth are interlinked and interwoven..
The managers, through their effective functional management
practices, utilize the scarce resources of the organization efficiently in
such a manner to cause positive effects to the society in terms of better
standard of living and social development.
Excellent management practices make sure the proper discharge
of social responsibilities of an enterprise by satisfying the interests of
all the stake holders, and society at large. They thus help to create
effective andpositive relations with the internal as well as the external
environment and create good business ecology in terms of the
differences of Culture, Science and Technology and Peace.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:
The objectives of the study are as follows:
1) To determine the understandings and the viewsof the persons
responsible for formulating and implementing policies in respect of
functional especially the personnel management in the sample SSIs.
2) To access the human resources practices followed by the select
sample SSI Units in connection with a. Preparation of Job
description and specificationsb. Pay fixation c. Man power
planningd. Section and Recruitment procedures ande. Promotion
policies of the staff.
1.4: STUDY AREA A BRIEF PROFILE
The study is limited to select SSI units in the north coastal
districts of Andhra Pradesh, namely Srikakulam, Vizianagaram and
Visakhapatnam. These districts are located in coastal belt separating
the State of Andhra Pradesh from the State of Orissa. These districts
are located at fag end of the boundary and also back ward in many
aspects.
42
44
ii.
1.
Units
having
indentified
the jobs
48(80)
2.
Engineering
39(84.78)
Sl.
Category Of Business
No.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Units nothaving
indentified
the jobs
12(20)
7(15.22)
Total
Number
of Units
60(100)
46(100)
44(100)
33(100)
31(100)
13(100)
227(100)
From the above table 1 it can be observed that out of the total units
under study, 78.41% of the total had identified their jobs in their
organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their jobs of
the organization Out of the total units that had identified their job the
textile units are dominating with 92.31% followed by the engineering
units with 84.78%, the agro base units with 80%, the automobile and
45
service units with 75.75% , the chemical and pharmacy units with
75%and the construction units with 67.74%.
In case of the units that had not identified their jobs , the construction
units are dominating with 32.26%,followed by the chemical and the
pharmacy units with 25%, the automobile and service units with
24.25% and the agro based units with 20% followed by the engineering
units with 15.22% and the textile units with 7.69%.
From the above table it can be concluded that out of the total
units under study, 78.41% of the total had identified their jobs in their
organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their jobs of
the organization Out of the total units that had identified their job the
textile units followed by the engineering units lead. In case of the total
units that did not have identified their jobs, the construction units
followed by the chemical units lead.
Table 2 deals with the data of the TABLE 2DISTRIBUTION OF SSI
UNITS ACCORDING TO TYPE OF ORGANIZATION & UNITS
HAVING AND NOT-HAVING IDENTIFIED THE JOBS OF THE
ENTERPRISE
Table 2
DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO TYPE OF
ORGANIZATION &UNITS HAVING AND NOT-HAVING
IDENTIFIED THE JOBS OF THE ENTERPRISE
Sl.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Type Of Business
Proprietary
Firm
Company
Cooperative Society/Trust
Total
Units
having
indentified
the jobs
90(70.31)
54(84.37)
20(95.23)
14(100)
178(78.41)
Units nothaving
indentified
the jobs
38(29.69)
10 (15.63)
1(4.77)
49(21.58)
46
Total
Number
of Units
128(100)
64(100)
21(100)
14(100)
227(100)
From the above table 2 it can be observed that out of the total units
under study, 78.41% of the total had identified their jobs in their
organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their jobs of
the organization Out of the total units that had identified their jobs,
thesocieties and the trusts category is dominating with 100% followed
by the, companies with 95.23%,, the firms with 84.37%,and the
proprietary concerns with 70.31%.
In case of the units that had not identified their jobs, the proprietary
concerns are ahead with 29.69% followed by the firms with 15.63% and
the companies with 4.77%.
From the above table it can be concluded that out of the total
units under study, 78.41% of the total had identified their jobs in their
organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their jobs of
the organization Out of the total units that had identified their job the
societies followed by the companies lead. Out of the total units, that did
not have identified their jobs, the proprietary units followed by the
firms lead.
Table 3 deals with the data of the distribution of SSI units according to
location of the unit & units having and not-having identified the jobs of
the enterprise
TABLE 3
DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO LOCATION
OF THE UNIT &UNITS HAVING AND NOT-HAVING
IDENTIFIED THE JOBS OF THE ENTERPRISE
Units
Units notTotal
Sl.
having
having
Location of the unit
Number
No.
indentified indentified
of Units
the jobs
the jobs
1.
Rural
82(80.39(
20(19.61)
102(100)
2.
Urban
96{76.80)
29(23.20)
125(100)
Total
178(78.41) 49(21.58)
227(100)
47
1.
Male
Units
having
indentified
the jobs
131(79.39)
2.
Female
47(75.80)
15(24.20)
62(100)
178(78.41)
49(21.58)
227(100)
Sl.
Gender of the entrepreneur
No.
Total
Units nothaving
indentified
the jobs
34(20.61)
165(100)
Total
Number
of Units
From the above table 4it can be observed that out of the total units
under study, 78.41% of the total had identified their jobs in their
organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their jobs of
the organization Out of the total units that had identified their jobs;
the Male group is dominating with 79.39% while the female group is
with 75.80%.In case of the units that had not identified their jobs, the
female group is dominating with 24.20% while the male group is with
20.61%.From the above table it can be concluded that out of the
total units under study, 78.41% of the total had identified their jobs in
their organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their
jobs of the female group leads.
In case of the total units that had identified their jobs, the male group
leads over the male group.
In case of the total units that had not identified their jobs, the female
group leads.
Table5 deals with thedistribution of SSI units according to level of
education of the entrepreneur & units having and not-having identified
the jobs of the enterprise
TABLE 5
DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO LEAVEL OF
EDUCATION OF THE ENTREPRENEUR &UNITS HAVING
AND NOT-HAVING IDENTIFIED THE JOBS OF THE
ENTERPRISE
Units
Sl. Level of Education of the having
No. entrepreneur
indentified
1.
Units nothaving
indentified
the jobs
the jobs
5(45.45)
6(54.55)
49
Total
Number
of Units
11(100)
2.
10th class
8(61.54)
5(38.46)
13(100)
3.
Inter Mediate
23(71.87)
9(28.13)
32(100)
4.
Graduate
59(80.82)
14(19.18)
73(100)
5.
Technical
34(91.89)
3(8.11)
37(100)
6.
9(75)
3(25)
12(100)
7.
40(81.63)
9(18.37)
49(100)
178 (78.41)
49(21.58)
227(100)
Total
50
In case of the total units that had identified their jobs, the technically
qualified graduate group followed by the technically qualified diploma
group leads.
In case of the total units, that had not identified their jobs, the least
qualified groups followed by the relatively less qualified groups lead.
Table 6 deals with the data of the
DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO AGE GROUP OF
THE ENTREPRENEUR & UNITS HAVING AND NOT-HAVING
IDENTIFIED THE JOBS OF THE ENTERPRISE
TABLE 6
DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO AGE GROUP
OF THE ENTREPRENEUR &UNITS HAVING AND NOTHAVING IDENTIFIED THE JOBS OF THE ENTERPRISE
Sl. Age
Group
No. entrepreneur
Of
Units
the having
indentified
the jobs
Units notTotal
having
Number
indentified
of Units
the jobs
1.
Below 30 years
9(52.94)
8(47.06)
17(100)
2.
30 to 40 years
50(78.12)
14(21.88)
64(100)
3.
40 to 50 years
84(82.35)
18(17.65)
102(100)
4.
Above 50 years
35(79.55)
9(20.45)
44(100)
178(78.41)
49(21.58)
227(100)
Total
Entrepreneur
with
previous Experience
some
69(38.76)
52
Units notTotal
having
Number
indentified
of Units
the jobs
15(61.24)
84(100)
2.
178(78.41)
34(23.78)
143(100)
49(21.58)
227(100)
53
T ABLE 8
DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO THE LEVEL
OF THE INVESTMENT IN PLANT AND MACHINERY &UNITS
HAVING AND NOT-HAVING IDENTIFIED THE JOBS OF THE
ENTERPRISE
THE LEVEL OF THE
Units having
Sl. INVESTMENT
IN
indentified
No. PLANT
AND
the jobs
MACHINERY
Units notTotal
having
Number
indentified
of Units
the jobs
1.
below 25 lakhs
117(75.48)
38(24.52)
155(100)
2.
25 to 50 lakhs
37(80.43)
9(19.57)
46(100)
3.
50 to 75 lakhs
11(100)
11(100)
4.
13(86.66)
2(13.34)
15(100)
178(78.41)
49(21.58)
227(100)
Total
55
from the present 14 billion TCF (trillion cubic feet) up to 37 billion TCF
by the end of the 21st century. Civilization faces a real threat to its
existence coming not so much from political factors, but from
contradictions between the level of economic development and the
standards of material well being organized efforts for sustainable
development and energy production and use are required from all
national governments and the international organizations from all over
world, as a whole. In many countries development programmes for
energy industries, to cover next few decades, are being worked out.
However, they do not take enough account of the global energy balance
structure and the role of innovative technologies of the future.
References
1. S.K. Chopra, Energy Policy for India:Towards sustainable
energy security in India in twenty-first century Oxford & IBH
publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, and pp. 1342004.
2. Mikhail Y Pavlov, A New Energy Paradigm for the third
Millennium world affairs, 2006 Vol 10, No. 1,pp.3.
3. Daniel yergin 2006, Ensuring Energy security. Foreign affairs
2006 vol. 85 No.2, pp 69.
4. Michael Field, A Hundred million dollars a day, sidge wick &
Jack Sew, landow 1975.
5. John Baglas. International and global security in the post cold
war era ,in 2008
6. Morgenthau. H., Politics among nations: The struggle for power
and peace, 5th edition Newyark Alford Knopt 1978
7. Michael Y Pavlov, A New Energy Paradigm for the third
Millennium World Affaries,2006 vol 10,
58
Mr.Pramod D.Sinare
PG Scholar
Dept. of Computer Engineering
Aditya College of Engineering, Beed
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Computer Engineering
Aditya College of Engineering, Beed
Prof.Kadam S.H.
Assistant Professor
Department of Computer Engineering
Aditya College of engineering, Beed
I INTRODUCTION
Graphs and networks actually rank among one amongst the
foremost in style knowledge representation models because of their
universal relevancy to various application domains. the necessity to
research and mine interesting knowledge from graph and network
structures has been long recognized, however solely recently the
advances in info systems have enabled the analysis of graph structures
at immense scales. Analysis of graph and network structures gained
new momentum with the arrival of social networks. whereas the
analysis of social networks has been a field of intensive analysis,
significantly within the domains of social sciences and scientific
discipline, economy or chemistry, it's the emergence of big social
networking services over the online that spawned the analysis into
large-scale structural properties of social networks.. Social networks
exhibit a really clear community structure. Such community structure
part stems from objective limitations (e.g., internal structure structure
of a corporation will be closely drawn by the ties among a selected social
network) or, to some extent, might result from subjective user actions
59
and activities (e.g., bonding with others who share ones interests and
hobbies). Social networks area unit extremely effective in bolstering
cluster formation of similar people. groups of nodes that share common
properties tend to induce connected within the social network. Opinion
mining is that the domain of language process and text analytics that
aims at the invention and extraction of subjective qualities from matter
sources. Opinion mining tasks will be usually classified into 3 varieties.
the primary task is named as sentiment analysis and aims at the
institution of the polarity of the given supply text (e.g., identifying
between negative, neutral and positive opinions). The second task
consists in characteristic the degree of judgment and sound judgment of
a text (i.e., the identification of factual knowledge as critical opinions).
This task is usually named as opinion extraction. The third task is
aims at the invention and/or summarisation of specific opinions on elect
options of the assessed product. Some authors visit the this task as
sentiment analysis. All 3 categories of opinion mining tasks will greatly
take pleasure in extra knowledge which will be provided from the social
network. extra information might include: a nodes spatial relation
indexes, a nodes cluster membership, terminology utilised among the
cluster, average cluster opinion on elect merchandise, groups
coherence and cohesion, etc. of these variables enrich opinion mining
algorithms and supply extra instructive capabilities to created models.
II OBJECTIVE
Example:
allow us to think about the reviews shown in Table one for the 2
domains: books and room appliances. Table one shows 2 positive and
one negative reviews from every domain. we've got stressed the words
that specific the sentiment of the author in an exceedingly review
victimization previous face. From Table one we tend to see that the
words wonderful, broad, top quality, attention-grabbing, and well
60
options for the classifier. Our contributions during this work will be
summarized as follows.
we tend to propose a totally automatic methodology to form a
synonym finder that's sensitive to the sentiment of words expressed in
several domains. we tend to utilize each labeled and unlabeled
information on the market for the source domains and unlabeled
knowledge from the target domain.
we tend to propose a technique to use the created synonym finder to
expand feature vectors at train and check times during a binary
classifier.
we tend to compare the sentiment classification accuracy of our
projected methodology against varied baselines and previously
projected cross-domain sentiment classification strategies for each
single supply and multi-source adaptation settings.
we tend to study the flexibility of our methodology to accurately
predict the polarity of words victimization SentiWordNet, a lexical
resource within which every WordNet synset is related to a polarity
score.
V SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
5.1 Dataset
We use the cross-domain sentiment classification dataset1 ready by
Blitzer et al. [7] to match the proposed technique against previous work
on cross-domain sentiment classification. This dataset consists of
Amazon product reviews for four completely different product types:
books, DVDs, electronics and kitchen appliances. every review is
assigned with a rating (0-5 stars), a reviewer name and location, a
product name, a review title and date, and also the review text. Reviews
with rating > 3 ar labelled as positive, whereas those with rating
< 3 ar labelled as negative. the general structure of this benchmark
64
dataset is shown in Table 6.1. for every domain, there ar 1000 positive
and 1000 negative examples, a similar balanced composition because
the polarity dataset created by Pang et al. [1]. The dataset additionally
contains some unlabeled
reviews for the four domains. This
benchmark dataset has been utilized in a lot of previous work on crossdomain sentiment classification and by evaluating on that we are able
to directly compare the projected technique against existing
approaches. Following previous work, we tend to at random choose 800
positive and 800 negative labelled reviews from every domain as
coaching instances (total range of coaching instances are 16004 =
6400), and also the remainder is used for checking (total range of test
instances ar 4004 = 1600). In our experiments, we tend to choose
every domain successively because the target domain, with one or a lot
of alternative domains as sources.
Note that {when we tend to|once we|after we} mix quite one
supply domain we limit the overall range of supply domain labelled
reviews to 1600, balanced between the domains. as an example, if we
tend to mix two supply domains, then we tend to choose 400 positive
and 400 negative labelled reviews from every domain giving (400 +
400) a pair of = 1600. this permits us to perform a good analysis once
combining multiple supply domains. we tend to produce a sentiment
sensitive synonym finder exploitation labelled knowledge from the
supply domain and unlabeled knowledge from supply and target
domains as delineated in Section 4.
We then use this synonym finder to expand the labelled feature vectors
(train instances) from the supply domains and train an L1 regularised
provision regression-based binary classifier (Classias) 2. L1
regularization is shown to supply a thin model, wherever most
unsuitable options ar assigned a zero weight [22].
65
Kitchen
DVDs
Books
No. Adapt
0.7261
0.6807
0.6272
NSST
0.7750
0.7350
0.7146
SST
0.8518
0.7826
0.7632
In-Domain
0.8770
0.820
0.8040
68
Kitchen
DVDs
electron
Books
Overall
ics
Cosine
0.8342
0. 7826
0.8363
0.7657
0.8047
Lin[19]
0.8367
0. 7826
0.8438
0. 7632
0.8066
Proposed
0.8518
0.7826
0.8386
0. 7632
0.8091
Reversed
0.8342
0.7852
0.8463
0.7632
0.8072
Cosine Similarity: This is the cosine of the angle between the two
vectors that represent two lexical elements u and v. Using the notation
introduced in Section 4, it can be computed as follows:
69
Here, (v) = {x|f(v, x) > 0}, is the set of features x that have positive
pmi values in the feature vector for the element v. Cosine similarity is
widely used as a measure of relatedness in numerous tasks in natural
language processing [23].
Lins Similarity Measure: We use the similarity measure proposed
by Lin [19] for clustering similar words. This measure has shown to
outperform numerous other similarity measures for word clustering
tasks. It is computed as follows:
70
73
VI ALGORITHMS
6.1 Lemmatisation
74
1)
2)
75
Often, stop-list words are present in the sentence solely due to the
requirements of languages grammar. In many cases the use of stoplists improves accuracy and performance of text document
processing
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
For (i=0;i<=length;i++)
{
If(word == removerword[i])
{
Removeword();
}
End for }
6.3 Stemming:
Step 1a:
Remove matching instrumental case if preceded by double
consonants and remainder is a valid word:
al el
Then remove one of the double consonants (digraphs included)
Step 1b
Remove the following noun cases if the remainder is a valid word:
ban ben ba be ra re nak nek tl tl rl rl bl bl hoz hez
76
Step 2
Remove longest matching personal suffix for owned nouns if
remainder is valid word:
ok k 'ak ek
Step 3a
Search for the longest among the following singular owner
suffixes and perform the action indicated:
nk unk nk juk jk uk k em om am m od ed ad d d ja je a e o
Remove if the remainder is a valid word
nk juk m d
Replace with a if remainder is a valid word
nk jk m d
Replace with e if remainder is a valid word
Step 3b
Search for the longest among the following plural owner suffixes
and perform the action indicated:
jaim jeim aim eim im jaid jeid aid eid id jai jei ai ei i jaink
jeink eink aink ink jaitok jeitek aitok eitek itek jeik jaik aik eik ik
Remove if the remainder is a valid word
im id i ink itok ik
Replace with a if remainder is a valid word
77
im id i ink itek ik
Replace with e if remainder is a valid word
Step 4
Search for the longest among the following plural suffixes and
perform the action indicated:
k ok ek ak
Remove if the remainder is a valid word
k
Replace with a if remainder is a valid word
k
Replace with e if remainder is a valid word
6.4 social opinion algorithm:
The method proposed in this paper for determining terms semantic
orientation is a variant of the method used in [1]. The drawback of the
original method is that it assigns maximum or minimum value to all
terms if they occur in only one class, regardless of the number of
occurrences. Therefore, we have proposed an alternative way of
calculating the semantic orientation of a term. Our method is based on
the ratio of term occurence frequency in documents assigned to positive
and negative classes. According to our approach the scoring function for
assigning positive and negative scores to terms to terms becomes
78
This limitation results from the use of the scaling value .The
score value assigned to a term which occurs only once in the
training set is limited by the ratio of cardinalities of classes,
whereas the semantic orientation of terms characteristic to
positive or negative documents is often orders of magnitude
greater. To further reduce the impact of the noise on the
effectiveness of the algorithm, we propose to add filtering by
removing from the dictionary terms that occur in fewer than
documents
the minority class in the training set. Setting the threshold of term
occurrences in the training set allows to eliminate terms that are not
characteristic for any of the document classes, i.e. these terms for
which conditional probabilities of term occurrences are similar for both
classes, but which occurred too rarely in the training set, to have their
evaluation been determined to be equal or close to zero.
79
Experiments:
Test sets
7. Else
8. {
9. Scorer
10. }
11. Counter = 1/scorer
12. }end for
13. Total counter = counter;
14. Update Scorer
6.5 Cross domain analysis algorithm:
Input:
-Dsrc (source domain)
-Dtar (target domain)
Output:
Dsrc
L(Dsrc)
Process:
1)
2)
3)
4)
Dtar
L(Dtar)
If(-ve sentiment)*N
5) Compute a
For all i: 1to n
A=C(i,w)
a=A/N
6) Compute b
For all j: 1to m
B=C(j,u)
b=B/N
81
7) Compute
F = log
8)
( , )/
82
83
VIII CONCLUSION
We planned a cross-domain sentiment classifier exploitation an
automatically extracted sentiment sensitive synonym finder. to
overcome the feature mis-match drawback in cross-domain sentiment
classification, we tend to use labelled data from multiple source
domains and unlabeled data from source and target domains to
calculate the connection of features and construct a sentiment sensitive
synonym finder. we tend to then use the created synonym finder to
expand feature vectors throughout train and check times for a binary
classifier. A relevant set of the options is selected exploitation L1
regularization. The planned technique considerably outperforms many
baselines and reports results that ar comparable previously planned
cross-domain sentiment classification strategies on a benchmark
dataset. Moreover, our comparisons against the SentiWordNet show
that the created sentiment-sensitive synonym finder accurately teams
words that specific similar sentiments. In future, we decide to
generalize the planned technique to resolve different kinds of domain
adaptation tasks.we implement it and compare the results with
expected results.
84
References:
1. B. Pang, L. Lee, and S. Vaithyanathan, Thumbs up? Sentiment
classification using machine learning techniques, in EMNLP
2002, 2002IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON KNOWLEDGE AND
DATA ENGINEERING
2. P. D. Turney, Thumbs up or thumbs down? semantic
orientation applied to unsupervised classification of reviews, in
ACL 2002, 2002
3. B. Pang and L. Lee, Opinion mining and sentiment analysis,
Foundations and Trends in Information Retrieval, vol. 2, no. 12, 2008.
4. Y.
Lu,
C.
Zhai,
and
N.
Sundaresan,
Rated
aspect
11. D. Shen, J. Wu, B. Cao, J.-T. Sun, Q. Yang, Z. Chen, and Y. Li,
Exploiting term relationship to boost text classification, in
CIKM09, 2009
12. T. Briscoe, J. Carroll, and R. Watson, The second release of the
rasp system, in COLING/ACL 2006 Interactive Presentation
Sessions, 2006.
13. T. Joachims, Text categorization with support vector machines:
Learning with many relevant features, in ECML 1998, 1998,
pp. 137142.
14. V. Hatzivassiloglou and K. R. McKeown, Predicting the
semantic orientation of adjectives, in ACL 1997, 1997, pp. 174
181.
15. J. M. Wiebe, Learning subjective adjective from corpora, in
AAAI 2000, 2000, pp. 735740.
16. Z. Harris, Distributional structure, Word, vol. 10, pp..
17. P. Turney, Similarity of semantic relations, Computational
Linguistics, vol. 32, no. 3, 2006.
18. P. Pantel and D. Ravichandran, Automatically labeling
semantic classes, in NAACL-HLT04, 2004,
19. D. Lin, Automatic retrieval and clustering of similar words, in
ACL 1998, 1998,
20. J. Weeds and D. Weir, Co-occurrence retrieval: A flexible
framework for lexical distributional similarity, Computational
Linguistics, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 439475, 2006.
21. S. Sarawagi and A. Kirpal, Efficient set joins on similarity
predicates, in SIGMOD 04, 2004, pp. 743754.
86
87
89
90
Present position:
Indians are conservative by nature. So, their blind faith and age
old superstition stood against the female education. Now, people have
felt the virtue of female education. The do not hesitate to send their
daughters to schools. Now in India we find women professors, lady
doctors, lady scientists, lady politicians and lady ministers. But a large
number of women are still in dark. They should be educated in the
interest of our national progress.
The female education is highly necessary for the society.
Because mothers are the first teachers of the children. They are the
first teachers of the future citizens of the country. If the mothers be
ignorant, they cannot take proper care of the children. They cannot
infuse good qualities in them. Hence, the very foundation of our people
will remain weak, if the females will be ignorant the society will lose
the services of a powerful part of our society. So, female education is
quite necessary for the girls. The women are in no way inferior to men.
In western countries the women are writing books, driving cars and
aero-planes, running banks and big business firms and doing research
in the laboratory. There are women scientists, women officers and
women writers. The typewriters, the news agents, the sales agents the
commercial solicitors are mostly women. Hence, we cannot decry the
women-folk in our country. Educating an Indian woman creates a vital
opportunity for the social and economic development of India. An
educated Indian woman will yield a positive impact in the Indian
society by contributing positively to the economy of both the country
and the society.
An educated woman reduces the chances of her child dying before the
age of five. The chances of controlling the population are high as an
educated woman is likely to marry at a later age as opposed to
uneducated woman.
92
Conclusion:
India is now optimistic in the field of female education. We had the
female philosophers like Gargi, Maritreyi and Viswabara in the Vedic
age. We had Mirabai, Ahalyabi, Durgabati and Laxmibai in the days of
history. They were all learned. Hence, we had a great tradition during
the days of our degeneration. Now, we have revived. So, we will
certainly revive the female education in India.
Reference
1. Anderson, S., and J.-M. Baland. 2002. The Economics of Roscas
and Intrahousehold Resource Allocation. The Quarterly
Journal of Economics, 117(3): 963995.
2. Anderson, S., and M. Eswaran. 2009. What Determines Female
Autonomy? Evidence from
Bangladesh. Journal
of
Development Economics, 90(2): 179 191.
3. Dyson and Moores Thesis with New Data. Population and
Development Review, 30(2): 239268.
4. Dyson, T., and M. Moore. 1983. On Kinship Structure, Female
Autonomy, and Demographic Behavior in India. Population
and Development Review, 9(1): 3560
5. Eeshani Kandpal Kathy Baylis Mary Arends-Kuenning :
Empowering Women through Education and Influence: An
Evaluation of the Indian Mahila Samakhya Program IZA DP
No. 6347 February 2012 http://ftp.iza.org/dp6347.pdf
6. http://www.preservearticles.com/201104306066/short-essay-onwoman-education.html
7. http://www.shareyouressays.com/89159/short-essay-on-womenseducation-in-india
93
94
95
right to vote was granted, equality in the eyes of males was soon to
follow, along with their new influence within politics.
After the right to federal franchise for women was established,
females continued to be disqualified from positions within the Senate
because they were not considered qualified persons as defined by the
British North America (BNA) Act.. It was not until 1929 when five
women from Alberta disputed the BNA Act, and the British Judicial
Committee of the Privy Council determined that women be recognized
as persons within the law.
Soon, it became apparent that legal rights alone would not be
enough for women to acquire an impressive influence within politics.
Within the nineteen sixties, and seventies, women continued to remain
fixtures within the second-class, and unable to alter their status.
Women still performed most of the domestic duties; could not find
adequate, affordable child care; were woefully under-represented in
politics; earned a fraction of the pay men earned; faced spousal abuse,
sexual assault, and sexual harassment; and had no legal access to birth
control. Many of these issues remained unimportant to politicians, and
decision makers, as they did not directly affect them. Multiple womens
groups began demanding care for their children, equal pay,
unrestrictive employment legislation, and the termination of sex-role
stereotyping in schools, and by mass media. Once it became evident
that the government was not concerned with womens rights, groups
began to form in an attempt to correct the setback. Some womens
groups made demands on the state; others provided services for women;
others offered solidarity based on ethnicity, class, ideology, sexual
orientation, and disability.
Decades full of protests for womens rights created several
political gains, as well as improvements in their status; however,
inequality remained. Womens beliefs that political rights would lead to
96
pay,
workplace
harassment,
and
discrimination
99
accrued
to
statehood,
women
on Indias journey
democracy,
progress,
to
self-
modernity,
and
certain groups may lead to a situation where most people are denied
basic facilities, like toilets, and the goal should be to empower
underprivileged groups so that they can claim such facilities.
Empowerment is about power and politics is the field where power is
negotiated. Achieving empowerment requires the womens movement
to operate in the field of politics, not only in the manner in which it
redefines the field (the personal is the political) but also in the arena
where power is brokered the public world of formal, institutionalized
politics. In India the demand for reserved seats in legislative bodies did
not arise from the womens movement, but the alacrity with which a
section of the movement picked it up reflects a political understanding
of empowerment and shifts in the womens movement. A crucial step
has been taken since the 1980s, from protest politics toward the
political mainstream, in order to actualize the movements claims of
playing a transformative role in society and politics. In addition, there
is growing awareness that since governments matter, women must be
part of them. This awareness was reflected in the platform for action
developed at the 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing,
one of the goals of which was to increase womens participation in
political institutions. In fact, the government claimed the reservation
bill to be a fulfillment of the pledge made at Beijing. But despite their
best intentions, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) cannot claim
true and authentic representation of a tenuously defined people
relative to democratically elected governments.Indian women have had
little representation in institutional politics since independence. The
largest share of women in Parliament occurred in 1985, when the
womens movement was at its peak. Since then womens representation
has fallen. The womens constituency is fragmenting rather than
consolidating. There is an urgent need for political intervention. The
issue of reservation is meaningful for womens leadership; feminist
arguments and advocacy now have to deepen into validating claims
103
104
107
108
R Arvind Srivatsan
Department of Production
Engineering
NIT Trichy, India
R Abhishiekh
Department of Production
Engineering
NIT Trichy, India
I. INTRODUCTION
Mumbai has an extensive network of suburban rapid transit system
which transports 7.24 million people daily. Spread over a distance of
432 Km, this suburban system is one of the busiest and crowded rapid
transit systems in the world. There are a total of 136 stations spread
over 3 lines, the Central, Western and Harbor Lines.
Purchasing of tickets for the travel is done by and large on a daily basis
through manual ticketing counters, though a small fraction of people
use monthly passes and smart cards while commuting. Thus, the
queues at the ticketing counters generally overflow during peak hours
causing difficulties to commuters and decreasing the systems
efficiency greatly which calls for optimization.
Since the suburban system is the de-facto lifeline for the citys
transportation needs optimizing its ticketing system would provide a
great deal of logistic and economic advantages. Therefore this paper
aims to achieve the same by considering the system as a multi-server
109
infinite length queuing model and solve for the fundamental quantities
of the system. Using these quantities the number of servers
corresponding to maximum operational economy and minimum
waiting time would be found.
1.1 Introduction to queuing models
Queues are a very common phenomenon experienced by people in their
everyday lives. Merriam Webster dictionary defines a queue as A line
of people who are waiting for something. Common examples of queues
are the ones that are formed at ticketing counters, hospitals, banks etc.
More technical examples include manufacturing systems, computer
networks etc.
In general, a queuing system is one where people who require a
particular service arrive, wait in a queue and then get served by a
server and leave the system [2].
As much as queues form a part of our daily lives so do the delays that
are caused as a result of waiting in it. These delays result in wastage of
precious time and also tend to cause economic losses. Thus, studying
these queuing systems to improve their performance has been of great
research interest.
Queuing Theory is the mathematical study of these queuing systems.
This generally involves the construction of a mathematical model to
predict the waiting times and lengths of a given queue. The concept of
Queuing theory was first devised by Danish mathematician Agner
Krarup Erlang.
1.2 Characteristics of Queuing Models
Arrival and Service Patterns: In Queuing models, customer
arrivals into the system and service times generally follow particular
probability distributions [1]. From these distributions two basic
110
elements of any queuing system are obtained, these are the Arrival
rate and the Service rate.
Arrival rate is the number of arrivals into the system during an
interval of time, it is represented as /hour. Service rate is the number
of services carried out by the server in a queuing system during an
interval of time, it is represented as /hour.
The ratio / is called the server efficiency and for an infinite queue
length the server efficiency >1, this is because if >, then a person
entering the queue might never get served and the queue length always
keeps increasing, for a multiple server queuing system the value of
=/c where c is he number of servers.
An assumption made here is the system is considered to have exhibit a
Markovian or memory less property which is the independence of the
future from the past given the present that is, the property states that
a customer currently in service has t units of service left is independent
of the time elapsed since the commencement of the service [3]. Systems
having markovian property have arrival rates following a poisson
distribution
and
the
service
times
following
an
exponential
distribution.
Number of servers: The systems can be a single server or a multiple
server queuing systems. Common example of a single server type is a
hospital where the patients who wait in a queue are served by one
doctor, whereas the railway ticketing is an example for multiple sever
system. Increasing the number of servers decreases the queue length
and the waiting time but at the same time results in excess cost for
operation of the additional server.
Queue length: This is the maximum allowable length of queue in a
system. The systems can have finite or infinite queue length. In an
infinite queue length model, every person who comes, joins the queue
111
understood that the maximum Queue length and population size are
infinity, since there is no mention of queuing discipline, it is considered
as First in First Out by default.
1.3 Customer Behavior in Queuing Systems
Customer behavior in a queuing system is classified into the following
types:
Balking: If an arriving customer leaves without joining the system
then he is said to balk from the system. Balking is of two types, when
the circumstances force a person to balk from the system, it is called as
forced balking whereas a voluntary balking is called as unforced
balking.
Reneging: If an arriving customers joins the system but exits it before
being served then he is said to renege from the system.
Jockeying: This is a phenomenon that happens in a multiple server
system, a person is said to jockey if he keeps switching from one queue
to another in the queuing system.
In this particular paper the effects of Balking, Reneging and Jockeying
have been ignored.
1.4 Measures of Performance of Queuing Systems
Under steady state conditions the following measures of performance
are determined.
Expected Length of System Ls: This is the expected number of
people present at any given time in the queuing system, this includes
even the number of people who are currently getting served by the
server.
113
(1.1)
Lq = Wq
(1.2)
114
optimsation
of
services
such
as
ATM
and
restaurants.
116
117
The rate of arrival of customers/people coming into the station and the
rate at which they are being served are the quantities that are
measured. The station has a maximum of 4 ticketing counters, thus at
any particular time the number of servers operational were 4 or less.
The study was conducted for a total of 6 days which comprised 5 week
days and a Saturday from 8:30 am to 6:00pm and 8:30 am to 10:00am
during the weekdays and the weekend respectively
Arrival Rate: The number of people arriving during these intervals
and the time in between 2 arrivals were measured using a digital stop
watch and arrival rate for one hour was calculated as: No of people
entering the system in the interval / Total time taken during the
interval.
During weekdays the number of servers operational at various
intervals and the arrival rates during those interval were averaged to
be as follows:
Arrival
Rate
is
calculated
as
Table 3.1:
8:30-10:30
No of
customers
per server
310
620
0.971360531
10:30-12:00
210
420
0.877357899
12:00-13:00
116
348
0.726953688
13:00-15:00
276
276
0.864824215
15:00-16:00
84
252
0.52641474
16:00-16:30
60
240
0.752021057
16:30-18:00
165
330
0.689352635
Time
Interval
No of servers
operational
118
Total Arrival
Rate
Server
Efficiency
No
of
Total
No of servers
customers per
Arrival
operational
server
Rate
Server
Efficiency
142
0.712331056
8:4510:00
341
Note: The Arrival Rate measured here is the net arrival rate into the
station and not the arrival rate for one server.
From Table 3.1 and Table 3.2 it is seen that readings are taken for 7
different shifts, some of these shifts having similar arrival rate and
number of servers were merged and the following new shifts are
established:
Table 3.3:
Shifts
620
391
260
308
Weekends
341
Service Times: Since the station has a total of 4 servers, the time
taken to serve a customer was computed for different servers at
random time intervals throughout the course of 6 days. Again a digital
stop watch was used for this purpose.
119
The average service time for a customer was found as 22.56 seconds.
The average service rate = Number of customers served in one hour
= 3600/Average Service time
= 3600/22.56
= 159.57
Thus = 159.57
3.3 Derivation for Obtaining Quantities of Performance
Measure [2]
Thus the equations for Ls, Lq, Ws and Wq are derived as follows:
We assume the arrival rate of /hour following a Poisson distribution
and the service rate of /hr to following exponential distribution
By assuming markovian property we can conclude that at an instant
only one event can occur. This event can either be an arrival or service.
Since Ls, Lq, Ws and Wq are expected values, these are dependent on
the steady state probability pn that there are n people in the system.
The probability that at any time there are 0,1,2,....n people in the
system is p0,p1,p2..pn.
From the previous assumption of a markovian property:
pn(t+h) = pn-1(t) * One arrival and no service + pn+1(t) * One service and
no arrival + pn(t) * No service and no arrival.
(3.1)
Where pn(t) is the steady state probability that there are n people in
the system at a time.
The probability of one arrival and one service at an interval h is h and
h respectively, substituting in Eq 3.1 we get
pn(t+h) = pn-1(t)*(h)*(1-h) + pn+1(t)*(h)*(1-h) + pn(t)*(1-h)*(1-h)
(3.2)
120
(3.3)
Since system is in steady state left hand side becomes zero thus,
pn(t)*(+)= pn-1(t)* + pn+1(t)*
(3.4)
(3.5)
(3.6)
Since system is in steady state left hand side becomes zero thus,
p1 = p0
(3.7)
(3.8)
p0
(3.9)
p0 = np0
(3.10)
121
=c when n>c
Therefore considering this Eq 3.10 is modified as,
pn =
p0
pn =
(3.11)
p0 When nc
(3.12)
(3.13)
(3.15)
(3.16)
On simplifying we get,
(3.17)
Lq =
Knowing Lq, Ls can be calculated as
(3.20)
122
Ls
Lq
Ws
Wq
Total cost
5.66609
1.78065
4.35871
0.47327
4.0347
0.14926
3.93369
0.04825
Model Calculations:
=
Lq =
Ls = 31.78763 + 3.88544 =35.67307
Wq = Lq/620 = 0.05127
Ws = Ls/629 = 0.05754
123
Fig. 4.1
From the graph it is clearly seen that minimum total cost is obtained
when number of servers is 5.
Current number of servers: 4
Optimal number of servers: 5
4.1.2 10:30 am to 1:00 pm
Table 4.2
No
of
Servers
Ls
Lq
Ws
Wq
8.19336
5.56129
0.07951
0.01324 1252.419
3.33606
0.70399
0.00794
0.00168 1005.90525
2.80416
0.17209
0.00668
0.00041 1137.864
2.67797
0.04589
0.00638
0.00011 1305.322375
2.64411
0.01204
0.0063
0.00003 1480.859625
124
Total cost
Fig. 4.2
Original number of servers: 5
Optimal number of servers: 4
4.1.3 1:00pm to 4:00pm
Table 4.3
No
of
Servers
Ls
Lq
Ws
Wq
4.84529
3.21591
0.01864
0.01237 780.962875
1.96831
0.33894
0.00757
0.0013
1.69522
0.06584
0.00652
0.00025 862.33175
1.6428
0.01342
0.00632
0.00005 1036.245
1.63199
0.00261
0.00628
0.00001 1213.799125
125
Total cost
707.727125
Fig. 4.3
Original number of servers: 2
Optimal number of servers: 3
4.1.4 4:00pm to 6:00 pm
Table 4.4
No
of
Servers
Ls
Lq
Ws
2.67387
0.74368
2.0768
0.14661
1.96316
0.03298
1.93747
0.00728
126
Wq
Total cost
Fig. 4.4
Original number of servers: 2
Optimal number of servers: 3
4.2 Weekends
Table 4.5
No
of
Servers
Ls
Lq
Ws
Wq
3.40127
1.26424
0.00997
0.00371 833.111125
2.37711
0.24012
0.00697
0.0007
2.19352
0.05653
0.00643
0.00017 1084.433
2.15038
0.01336
0.00631
0.00004 1259.15825
2.14001
0.00301
0.00628
0.00001 1436.750875
127
Total cost
921.997125
Fig. 4.5
Original number of servers: 3
Optimal number of servers: 3
V. ANALYSIS
Thus the number of servers for each shift/interval having the lowest
total cost is considered optimal.
These are summarized as follows
Table 5.1
Shifts
Optimal No of Servers
620
391
260
308
Weekends
341
128
Arrival
Rate
No
of
Servers
35.6730
Cost
per
hour
3835.39362
8:30-10:30
620
10:30-12:00
420
8.19336
1252.419
1878.6285
12:00-1:00
348
3.59853
850.371375
850.371375
1:00-3:00
276
6.86153
957.383875
1914.76775
3:00-4:00
252
1.87484
699.5485
699.5485
4:00-4:30
240
3.46183
659.910125
329.9550625
4:30-6:00
330
3.12619
809.041625
1213.562438
Total Cost
14557.62088
Ls
The total cost of the system for 8:30 am to 6:00 pm was found as Rs
14557.62
5.1.1.2 Optimized costs
Table 5.3
Shifts
8:30-10:30
10:30-1:00
1:00-4:00
4:00-6:00
Average
Arrival
Rate
620
391
260
308
Optimal
No
of
Servers
5
4
3
3
Ls
Total
Cost
per slot
5.66609
2.93
1.96831
3.40127
1388.275
970.375
707.727
769.434
Total Cost
2776.55
2425.9375
2123.181
1538.868
8864.5365
129
5.1.2 Weekends
During weekends, we find the original number and the optimal
number of servers are equal, thus the existing system is optimal
Table 5.4
Average
Shifts
Arrival
Optimal No
Rate
of Servers
8:4510:00
Cost
Ls
per
hour
slot
833.111125
1041.388906
3.4012
341
131
also provides drastic reduction in the queue length and waiting times
than the previous model.
Finally the limitations of the paper were briefly discussed paving way
for further improvements to making the study more infallible.
Thus the above considered framework provides an effective method by
helping predict customer flow, reducing cost, waiting times and
ensuring good Quality of Service (QoS).
References
1. H.A. Taha, Operations Research-An Introduction. 8th Edition,
ISBN 0131889230. Pearson Education, 2007.
2. NPTEL, Fundamental of Operations Research.
3. Donald Cross, John F Shortle, James M Thomson, Carl M
Harris, Fundamental of Queuing Theory.
4. Eman Almehdawe, Beth Jewkes, Qi-Ming He, A Markovian
queuing model for ambulance offload delays.
5. Lakshmi C, Sivakumar Appa Iyer, Application of queuing theory
in health care: A literature review.
6. Manish K. Govil and Michael C. Fu, Queuing Theory in
Manufacturing: A Survey
7. H.T.
Papadopoulos,
C.
Heavey,
Queuing
theory
in
132
verification.
Operations Research,
17. Xin-yue Xu, Jun Liu, Hai-ying L, Jian-Qiang, Analysis of
subway station capacity with the use of queuing theory.
18. Wikipedia
the
Free
Encyclopedia,
133
http://en.w
ikipedia.or
Introduction
Improving food security is an issue of considerable significance for a
developing country like India where millions of population suffer from
hunger and malnutrition. It is now widely recognized that food security
is not just a matter of the availability of food, but even more of the
access of households and individuals to sufficient nutritious food. As a
result, food security is analyzed along the axes of availability, access
and absorption and nutritional security becomes an important
component of food security in our country.
Thus, for a country of Indias size and diversity, the question of
providing adequate food to its population is a difficult task and the
difficulty is compounded by lack of access to adequate food for a
sizeable section of its population and in recent periods, the access is
threatened by rising food prices across the world. Given the high
incidence of poverty, under-nutrition and hunger in our country, the
task of ensuring food security becomes a formidable one , particularly
in a situation where the functioning of the governments public
distribution
system
exhibits
weakness,
inefficiency
and
often
Of all the safety net operations that exist in India, the most far
reaching, in terms of coverage as well as Public expenditure on subsidy,
is the public distribution system. PDS has been in operation in some
form or another since the inter-war period; thus it is probably the
earliest publicly-funded safety net in the country. It aims to provide
essential commodities such as rice, wheat, sugar, edible oil, soft cake
and kerosene oil at subsidized prices. State governments, which
manage the public distribution in their respective states, also supply
other commodities like pulses, salt, coarse clothing etc.
(R.Radhakrishna & K.Subbarao,1997). As per (GOI,1991-92, p.55), The
PDS has remained a major instrument to execute the Government of
Indias economic policy to protect the poor. Public Intervention in the
foodgrains market aims at procurement of foodgrains for public
distribution and maintenance of buffer stocks to ensure not only short
term but also long-term stability of prices of essential commodities and
protect the interest of the consumers. Procurement of foodgrains also
ensure remunerative returns to the farmers and provides them
incentives to invest more on agriculture and to ensure that in the event
of any glut or due to any other reason, the market prices do not fall
below the support prices.(Bhaskar Majumder, 2009).
The concept of Public Distribution System in the country was evolved
around 1942 due to shortage of food grains during 2nd World War and
Government intervention in distribution of food started. The drought
and food shortages of the mid-sixties highlighted the need for
strengthening and continuing with a system of food distribution and
the PDS was made a universal scheme in the 1970s. There have been
four phases, broadly speaking, in the history of the PDS in India
(Swaminathan, 2000). The first phase was from 1942 to 1960, a period
when the system was expanded to cities. The Second phase: from 1960
to 1978, The government of India set up the Agricultural Prices
Commission and the Food Corporation of Indi. The Third phase: from
135
136
Review of Literature
Numbers of studies have been done on PDS in India. The past studies
were required to understanding the research problem and in carrying
out the formulated work. Hence various research studies related to the
Public distribution system are as following:
Sharma
Anuradha:
attempted
to
detailed
analysis
of
the
137
Sujata:
Public
under Public
Distribution
system.
2. To know about the perception and satisfaction level of
consumers regarding the overall functioning of
Distribution system in mansa district of Punjab.
138
Public
139
Table:1
Details of Fair Price Shops/No. of Ration Cards (BPL,AAY,APL
& BLUE) has been shown
following table.
Sr.No
Block
Name
APL cards
AAY cards
BPL cards
Blue cards
1.
Budhlada
61123(40.28)
1527(26.94)
3194(25.86)
16075(32.07)
2.
Bhikhi
22359(14.73)
1006(17.75)
1468(11.88)
6164(12.29)
3.
Jhunir
13522(8.912)
1428(25.19)
1221(9.88)
7719(15.40)
4.
Mansa
35980(23.715)
1024(18.06)
2053(16.62)
11913(23.76)
5.
Sardulgarh
18733(12.347)
682(12.03)
4411(35.725)
8247(16.45)
Total
151717(100.0)
5667(100.0)
12347(100.0)
50118(100.0)
BPL
Antyodaya
Blue
card
BPL+
Blue
card
AAY+
Blue
Totl
Card
Urban
22(44.0)
2(4.0)
14(28.0)
8(16.0)
4(8.0)
50(100.0)
Rural
14(28.0)
8(16.0)
22(44.0)
4(8.0)
2(4.0)
50(100.0)
Total
36(36.0)
10(10.0)
36(36.0)
12(12.0)
6(6.0)
100(100.0)
Wheat
Wheat &
Kerosene
Wheat,
Kerosene
& Dal
Wheat &
Dal
Nothing
Total
Urban
26(52.0)
0(0.0)
0(0.0)
16(32.0)
8(16.0)
50(100.0)
Rural
4(8.0)
8(16.0)
36(72.0)
2(4.0)
0(0.0)
50(100.0)
Total
30(30.0)
8(8.0)
36(36.0)
18(18.0)
8(8.0)
100(100.0)
Area
Highly
Dissatisf
Dissatisf
Avera Satisfied
Highl
ied
ge
y
Satisf
ied
iv) Are you satisfied
with
the
service of
FPS dealers.
Total
Responses
100
ied
Urban
26(52.0)
16(32.0)
2(4.0)
6(12.0)
0(0.0)
50(100.0)
Rural
14(28.0)
18(36.0)\
0(0.0)
16(32.0)
2(4.0)
50(100.0)
Rural/
40(40.0)
34(34.0)
2(2.0)
22(22.0)
2(2.0)
100(100.0)
Urban
143
Table:5
Experiences of customers while purchasing food items from
Fair Price Shops
Question-4
i)Inadequat
e and
irregular
supply of
ration items
Total
ii) Unfair
distribution
of food
grains
Total
iii) Rude
behavior of
dealers
Total
iv)Corrupt
practices of
the dealers
Total
v)Preferenc
e to known
people
Total
Disagree
Urban
Rural
Strongl
y
Disagre
e
0(0.0)
2(4.0)
Neutral
Agree
Strongly
Total
8(16.0)
12(24.0)
0(0.0)
0(0.0)
16(32.0)
22(44.0)
26(52.0)
14(28.0)
50(100.0)
50(100.0)
Urban/Rural
Urban
Rural
2(2.0)
2(4.0)
2(4.0)
20(20.0)
6(12.0)
12(24.0)
0(0.0)
0(0.0)
0(0.0)
38(38.0)
12(24.0)
20(40.0)
40(40.0)
30(60.0)
16(32.0)
100(100.0)
50(100.0)
50(100.0)
Urban/Rural
Urban
Rural
4(4.0)
0(0.0)
2(4.0)
18(18.0)
2(4.0)
14(28.0)
0(0.0)
3(6.0)
0(0.0)
32(32.0)
17(34.0)
18(36.0)
46(46.0)
28(56.0)
16(32.0)
100(100.0)
50(100.0)
50(100.0)
Urban/Rural
Urban
Rural
2(2.0)
0(0.0)
0(0.0)
16(16.0)
0(0.0)
12(24.0)
2(2.0)
4(8.0)
2(4.0)
36(36.0)
14(28.0)
16(32.0)
44(44.0)
32(72.0)
20(40.0)
100(100.0)
50(100.0)
50(100.0)
Urban/Rural
Urban
Rural
0(0.0)
0(0.0)
0(0.0)
12(12.0)
0(0.0)
12(24.0)
6(6.0)
0(0.0)
0(0.0)
30(30.0)
20(40.0)
16(32.0)
52(52.0)
30(60.0)
22(44.0)
100(100.0)
50(100.0)
50(100.0)
Urban/Rural
0(0.0)
12(12.0)
0(0.0)
36(36.0)
52(52.0)
100(100.0)
Agree
percent) are agree and only 8(16 percent) of households are disagree
with the non-availability of adequate and good quality food items . In
rural areas, 14(28 percent) of households are strongly agree, 22(44
percent) are agree, 12(24 percent) are disagree and only 2(4 percent)
are strongly disagree with the non-availability of adequate and good
quality food items on time. Majority of respondents are dissatisfied
with non-availability of adequate and good quality food items on time.
Regarding the proper and equitable distribution of food grains,
In
disagree with that their dealers show rude behavior with them. They
have expressed that their dealers show very polite behavior with them.
It is concluded that majority of respondents have complained about the
rude behavior of FPS dealers and only few respondents are satisfied
with the behavior of FPS dealers.
Most of the respondents are of opinion that there is corruption in FPS
as the stocks are
sold in open market and the required quantity is not given to them.
This above table discuss the opinion of consumers about the corruption
practices of the dealers of FPS. 46 (92 percent) respondents from urban
area and 36 (72 percent) respondents from rural area are agree that
there is a corruption in the public distribution system. The total 82
percent respondents of urban and rural areas using PDS felt it to be
corrupt. Regarding the preference given to known people, all the
respondents from urban areas and 38(76 percent) respondents from
rural areas are agree with the preference given to known people. Only
12 (24 percent) respondents are disagree with this.
Conclusion
We got varying responses from the beneficiary households on the
indicators that we considered for performance of PDS in Mansa district
of Punjab. Majority of respondents are dissatisfied with the
performance of PDS on indicators like non-availability of food items on
time at reasonable price, unfair distribution of food grains, Rude
behavior of dealers of FPS, Corrupt practices of the dealers and their
preferences to known people and FPS dealers in collusion with local
political leaders and bureaucrats. The respondents have also been
asked if the good quality commodities supplied under PDS by the FPSs
are available in time on lower price. In response to the questions, the
majority of the respondents have said that the quality of all the food
items is average and food items are not available in time. Most of the
146
148
Dholakia
&
rakesh
Khurana(1979)
Public
149
150
151
154
information. Of the 224 bird species, 100 species were aquatic, 124
species terrestrial, 169 species resident, and 55 species migratory (both
winter and summer visitors,). In the study area insectivorous birds
represented by 96 species dominated, followed by omnivores (50
species), piscivores (32 species), predators (23 species), granivores (14
species) and frugivores (12 species,).
DIVERSITY OF FISHES
The result of present investigations confirmed the occurrence of fourty
six (46) species of fishes belonging to six orders and eighteen families
recorded in commercial catches. The order cypriniformes was dominant
with 18 species followed by order perciformes with 16 siluriformes with
08 species, while the order cyprinidontiformes were represanted by 02
Angulliformes
were
represented
by
01
species
and
order
References
1. Ahmad, N. 1980. Some aspects of economic resources of
Sunderbans mangrove forests of Bangladesh. pp. 50-51. In: P.
Soepadmo (ed.) Mangrove Environment: Research and
Management. Report on UNESCO Asian Symposium, held at
University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 25-29 August
1980.
2. Anonymous, 1991. India 1990. A Refrence Annual. Re-search
and Reference Division, Ministry of Informa-tion and
Broadcasting, Govt. of India, Delhi.
3. Anonymous, 1993. Directory of Indian Wetlands. World Wildlife
Federation, New Delhi
4. Anonymous, 1994. World Development Report. World Bank
Development Report.
5. Chopra, R. 1985. The State of Indias Environment. Ambassador Press, New Delhi.
6. Choudhury, B.C. 2000. Conserving wetlands: emerging scenario.
pp. 131-138. In: A. Bhardwaj, R. Badola & B. M. Rathore (eds.)
Proceedings of the workshop on the Conserving Biodiversity in
the 21st Century, through Integrated Conservation and
Development Planning on a Regional Scale. LBSNA Mussorie
and WII Dehradun.
7. Das, S., S.C. Behera., A. Kar., P. Narendra & S. Guha. 1997.
Hydrogeomorphological mapping in ground water exploration
using remotely sensed data A case study in Keonjhar District,
Orissa. Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing 25: 247250.
8. Das, K.K., S.N. Prasad., P.S. Roy & S.K. Bhan. 1994.
9. Mapping of Potential Crane Habitat in Etawah and Mainpuri
Districts (U.P.) using Satellite Remote Sensing Techniques. A
Project Report: Indian Insti-tute of Remote Sensing, Dehradun
and Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History,
Kalampalayam, Coimbatore.
10. Deepa, R.S., & T.V. Ramachandra. 1999. Impact of Urbanization in the Interconnectivity of Wetlands. Pa-per presented
at the National Symposium on Re-mote Sensing Applications for
Natural Resources: Retrospective and Perspective (XIX-XXI
1999), In-dian Society of Remote Sensing, Banglore.
160
11. Foote Lee, S., Pandey & N.T. Krogman. 1996. Processes of
wetland loss in India. Environmental Conserva-tion 23: 45-54.
12. Gitelson, A., G. Garbuzov., F. Szilagyi., K.H. Mit-tenzwey., A.
Karnielli & A. Kaiser. 1993. Quantita-tive remote sensing
methods for real-time monitor-ing of inland water quality.
International Journal of Remote Sensing 14: 1269-1295.
13. Gopal, B. 1994. Conservation of inland waters in India: an
overview. Verhandlungen der Internationalen Vereinigung fur
Theorestische und Angewandie Lim-nologie 25: 2492-2497.
14. Gopal, B. 1995. Biodiversity in Freshwater Ecosystems Including
Wetlands, Biodiversity and Conservation in India, A Status
Report. Vol. 4, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.
15. Gosselink, J.G. & R.E. Turner. 1978. The role of hy-drology in
fresh water wetland ecosystems. pp. 63-78. In: R.E. Good, D.F.
Whigham & R.L. Simpson (eds.) Freshwater Wetlands:
Ecological Processes and Management Potential. Academic
Press, New York.
16. Hazra, P.B. & B. Bhattacharya. 1999. River shifting and bank
failure problem of Ganga- Padma in West Bengal. pp. 385-390.
In: S. Adiga (ed.). Retrospective and Perspective. Proceedings of
ISRS National Symposium on Remote Sensing Applications for
Natural Resources. Dehradun.
17. Jonna, S. 1999. Remote sensing applications to water resources:
retrospective and Perspective. pp. 368-377. In: S. Adiga (ed.).
Proceedings of ISRS National Symposium on Remote Sensing
Applications for Natural Resources. Dehradun.
18. Jonna, S., K.V.S. Badarinath & J. Saibaba. 1989. Digital image
processing of remote sensing data for water quality studies.
Journal of the Indian Society of Re-mote Sensing 17: 59-64.
19. Kar Devashish., A.V. Nagarathna & T.V. Ramachandra. 2000.
Fish diversity and conservation aspects in an aquatic ecosystem
in India. INTECOL, 6th Interna-tional Wetland Symposium,
August VI -XII, 2000, Quebec, Canada. Organized by
International
Asso-ciation
of
Ecology
(http://www.cqvb.qc.ca/wet-land2000/) and Society of Wetland
Scientists
(http://
www.sws.org/intecol/abstracts_program/index.html).
20. Mitsch, W.I. & I.G. Gosselink. 1986. Wetlands. Van Nostrand
Reinhold, New York.
161
21. Parikh, J. & K. Parikh. 1999. Sustainable Wetland. Environmental Governance 2, Indira Gandhi Insti-tute of
Development Research, Mumbai.
22. Ramsey III, E.W. 1995. Monitoring flooding in coastal wetlands
by using radar imagery and ground-based measurements.
International Journal of Remote Sensing 16: 2495-2502.
23. Samant, S. 1999. Prioritization of biological conserva-tion sites
in India wetland. pp. 155-167. In: Shek-har Singh, A.R.K.
Sastry, Raman Mehta & Visha-ish Uppal (eds.). Setting
Biodiversity Conservation Priorities for India. World Wide Fund
for Nature, India.
24. Sasmal, S.K. & P.L.N. Raju. 1996. Monitoring sus-pended load
in estuarine waters of Hooghly with satellite data using PC
based GIS environment. In: Proceedings of National Symposium
on Coastal Zone Management. Feb. 25-26 Behrampur
University, Behrampur, Orissa.
25. Seshamani, R., T.K. Alex & Y.K. Jain. 1994. An air-borne sensor
for primary productivity and related parameters of coastal
waters and large water bod-ies. International Journal of Remote
Sensing 15;1101-1108.
26. Srivastava, H.S., S.N. Prasad., M.L. Manchanda & S. Adiga.
2001. Radar remote sensing applications in wetland habitats - a
case study with multi-incidence angle radarsat SAR data. pp. 8792. In: I.V. Mu-ralikrishan (eds) Spatial Information Technology
Remote Sensing and GIS. Vol 2. B.S. Publications, Hyderabad.
27. Vijayan, V.S. 1991. Keoladeo National Park Ecology Study. Final
Report. Bombay Natural History So-ciety.
162
Asalu cheruvu
17 Mettucheruvu
Arisadu wetlands
Bhavanapadu Creek
area
19 Narasapuram Peddha
Cheruvu
Cheri Cheruvu
20 Narayana Sagaram
Chintada Cheruvu
21 Narayanavalasa
Damodar Sagaram
22 Naupada Swamps
Dhyal Cheruvu
(Dhevunuvalu)
23 Pathatekkali
163
Dunkuru Wetlands
24 Peddapadu Cheruvu
Harichandra puram
petcheruvu
10
Kottabommali Cheruvu
26 Pydibhimavaram Cheruvu
11
Kuddiram Sagaram
27 Rajakaru Cheruu
12
Lakhamdiddi
peddacheruvu
28 Rajulu Cheruu
13
Lanks Cheruvu
29 Sompeta
14
Madduvalasa
30 Telineelapuram Wetland
15
Mahendratanaya
swamps
31 Thamarai Cheruvu
16
Marandupada Cheruvu
32 Vaddidhandra Karricheruvu
Specific services
Examples
categories
Provisioning
services
from
Srikakulam
wetlands
Food
Fish production
Fresh water
Drinking water
Drinking
water
and
supply
Climate regulation
services
Wetlands
regulates
high
164
Water purification
Cultural
Spiritual activities
services
Supporting
services
Religious
activities
are
Sediment retention
Eroded
sediments
are
accumulated in this wetlands
Nutrient cycling
165
S. Khadarvali
I. INTRODUCTION
In the most recent time, fresh energy sources have been planned
and urbanized due to the need and regular increase of expenses of
vestige fuel. On additional hand, vestige fuels have an enormous
pessimistic blow on the atmosphere. In this circumstance, the novel
energy sources are basically non-conventional energies [1]. It is
predictable that the electrical energy generation from non conventional
energy sources will boost from 19% in 2010 to 32% in 2030 most
important to a subsequent decline of CO2 emission [2]. The planetary
PV systems have established that they can produce power to extremely
minute electronic devices up to utility range PV power plant. The
current power system is more and more attractive benefit of solar
power systems incoming the marketplace. Solar PV power systems
setting up in the region of the universal demonstrate a almost
exponential boost. Utility-scale PV plants are typically owned and
operated by a third party and sells the electricity to a market or load
serving entity through a Purchase Power Agreement (PPA). Utility
scale systems that can reach tens of megawatts of power output under
optimum conditions of solar irradiation [3]. These systems are usually
ground mounted and span a large area for power harvesting [16]. The
feat of a PV system is in general evaluate under the standard test
condition (STC), where an regular planetary spectrum at AM1.5 is
used, the irradiance is standardize to 1000W/m2, and the cell hotness is
166
defined as 25oC [10] [11]. On the other hand, under actual working
circumstances with changeable irradiance as well as major temperature
changes in the ground most profitable modules do not automatically
perform as in the condition given by the manufacturers [11].
II.
SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
Several components are needed to construct a grid coupled PV
167
III.
SYSTEM DESIGN
This segment highlights several of the key issues that need to be
(1)
(2)
per string is 20 and the total number of strings per inverter is 100. Here
we required 50 inverters each of capacity 500kW so the total number of
modules for designing a 25MW PV plant are 1, 00,000.
Table 1 Parameters of a CS6P-250P solar module under Standard test
condition (STC) [23].
B.
250W
227.6W
15.54%
+2%
30.1 V
8.30 A
37.2 V
8.87 A
-0.0034 V/K
0.00065 A/K
60X1
169
inverter has been selected and, electrical specifications for the inverter
are given below table 2.
Table 2 electrical specifications SMA SOLAR TECHNOLOGY 500 kW
solar inverter.
Maximum PV power (Pdc) kW
560
Maximum open circuit voltage (Vdc)
1000
MPPT range(Vdc)
430-850
Maximum DC input current (Idc)
1250
Maximum Output power(Pac) KW
500
Nominal output voltage (Vac)
243-310
AC output wiring
3wire w/neut
Maximum Output current (Iac)
1176
Maximum efficiency (%)
98.6
CEC-weighted efficiency (%)
98.4
It is not possible to formulate an optimal inverter sizing strategy
that applies in all cases. While the rule of thumb has been to use an
inverter-to-array power ratio less than unity this is not always the best
design approach. Most plants will have an inverter sizing range within
the limits defined by
0.8 < Power Ratio < 1.2
Where
P
Power Ratio = inverter DC rated
P
PV Peak
(3)
P
Pinverter DC rated = inverter AC rated
100%
(4)
(5)
temperature
temperature
Voc_max = Voc +{(
)(
)}
coefficient of Voc
difference
(6)
temperature
Voc-max = Voc +{(T_min - T_STC )(
)}
coefficient of Voc
(7)
Where
N max
Voc
171
modules
N
min
for
an
inverter
can
be
temperature
temperature
Vmp_min = Vmp +{(
)(
)}
coefficient of Vmp
difference
calculated
as
fallows.
(8)
(9)
temperature
Vmp_min = Vmp + {(T_max - T_STC ) (
)}
coefficient of Vmp
(10)
Where
Nmin = Minimum number of Modules in Series
Vmp = Maximum power voltage
Vmp_min = Minimum expected module maximum power voltage
T_max = Maximum temperature for the site
T_stc = Temperature at Standard Test Conditions
(11)
C.
must be observed. Those are the cable voltage rating, the current
172
carrying capacity of the cable and the minimization of cable losses [20].
DC cabling consists of module, string and main cables as shown in fig.2.
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
173
(16)
(18
(19)
String fuses
The main function of string fuses is to protect PV strings from overcurrents. Miniature fuses are normally used in PV applications. The
faults can occur on both the positive and negative sides, fuses must be
installed on all unearthed cables. To avoid nuisance tripping, the
nominal current of the fuse should be at least 1.25 times greater than
the nominal string current. The string fuse must be rated for operation
at the string voltage using the formula.
String Fuse Voltage Rating = VOC(STC) M 1.15
(20)
F.
Ac cabling
Sizing of transformer
The purpose of transformers in a solar power plant is to provide
suitable voltage levels for transmission across the site and for export to
the grid. In general, the inverters supply power at (LV) Low Voltage.
But for a commercial solar power plant, grid connection is typically
made at upwards of 11 kV. It is therefore necessary to step up the
voltage using a transformer between the inverter and the grid
connection point.
Cables, fuse, switches are standard components meeting with
(NEC) National Energy Commission requirements. The proposed
25MW system needs 1, 00, 000 solar PV modules with 250 watts of
power generation at STC arranged 20 solar PV modules in series for
each string and total of 100 strings connected to one inverter of 500
kW. The selected and simulated components are given in fig.3.
Fig.4. Sun path diagram for utility scale solar PV plant [26].
175
ENGINEERNING
(21)
360(284+ n)
(22)
where tiltangle
declinationangle
latitudeof thesite
n number of days in that month
Inter-row spacing
The choice of row spacing is a compromise chosen to reduce
inter-row shading while keeping the area of the PV plant within
reasonable limits, reducing cable runs and keeping ohmic losses within
acceptable limits. Inter-row shading can never be reduced to zero [24]:
at the beginning and end of the day the shadow lengths are extremely
long, so we can maintain the inter row spacing amoung arrays is two
times to its height.
Orientation
In the northern hemisphere, the orientation that optimizes the total
annual energy yield is true south [20] with tilt angle of 35is shown in
fig.5.
B. Loss analysis
There are various losses are occurred in the large scale solar pv
power plant, the aggregation of those losses in the large scale power
system are shown in the fig.6 and the percentage representation of
losses in the system are also shown in the fig.7.
178
Fig.8. Detailed power losses considered in sizing the power plant [26].
V.
MATLAB/SIMULINK MODELLING
The Matlab/Simulink model of a 25MW utility scale solar PV plant is
shown in fig.9.
PV array
(23)
V + IR S
I d = IS N P {{exp
VT =
(24)
NS
n
VT C} - 1}
(25)
KTOP
q
(26)
2
q Eg
T
1
1
3
IS = I rs [ OP ] (exp
(
))
Tref
Kn Tref Top
I rs =
ISh =
VT =
I sc
qVoc
exp(
)
KCTop n
(27)
-1
(28)
IR S + V
RP
(29)
KTOP
q
(30)
Where
I A PV array output current
I Ph Solar cell photocurrent
Ish Shunt current of PV array
Id
181
Ki
Vt
By grouping all the above equations from (23) (30) and the
data available in the table 1 gives the Simulink model for PV array is
shown in fig.12.
182
B.
Inverter
A three phase inverter is attached to carry out the power change of
the array output power into AC power appropriate for injection into the
grid [19]. Pulse width modulation control is one of the techniques used
to shape the phase of the inverter output voltage. The sinusoidal pulsewidth modulation (SPWM) method produces a sinusoidal waveform by
filtering an output pulse waveform with varying width. A high
switching frequency leads to a better filtered sinusoidal output
waveform. The most wanted output voltage is achieved by changeable
the frequency and amplitude of a reference or modulating voltage. The
variations in the amplitude and frequency of the reference voltage
change the pulse-width patterns of the output voltage but keep the
sinusoidal modulation.
The modulation index [19] is defined as the ratio of the
magnitude of output voltage generated by SPWM to the fundamental
peak value of the maximum square wave. Thus, the maximum
modulation index of the SPWM technique is
MI=
VPWM
V
max-sixstep
Vdc
= 2 = 0.7855=78.55%
2Vdc 4
(31)
Filter
In the grid-connected inverter all the controlled power electronic
devices like IGBT and GTO are to be used which are modulated by the
high frequency PWM. As a result the du/dt and di/dt are ever large [25].
Due to the occurrence of some drifter parameters the current
incorporated high order harmonic flow into the power grid this made the
183
harmonic pollution. The most ordinary filter is L filter in the gridconnected inverter [27]. In order to reduce current ripple, the
inductance have to be increased. As a result, the volume and weight of
the filter increased. While the arrangement and the parameter of the LC
filter are easy the filtering effect is not good because of the uncertainty
of network impedance. LCL filter had an naturally high cut-off
frequency and strong penetrating capability in low frequency. So LCL
filter has come into extensive use in the inverter [27].
Filter inductor design
For the given circumstance of DC bus voltage and AC output
voltage and current as the L value is increasing the ripple content
decreases, tracking speed of current is reduces, weight, volume and cost
increases. Under the idea of the price economy how to design the
inductance parameters for the best consequence is the key question.
Based on great reference, the constraints could be got as
1) Under the rated circumstances the voltage drop of the inductive filter
is smaller than 5% of the network voltage.
2) The peak to peak amplitude of harmonic current will be prohibited
within 10%~20% of the rated value of the inverter.
3) The inrush current of inverter should be as small as possible.
4) In order to attain the best presentation of LCL filter, in the low
frequency range the current should be as smooth as possible and in the
high frequency range the shrinking rate should be as fast as possible.
5) Let the high order harmonic flow through the capacitance, and the
low order harmonic flow through the inductance.
XC =
1
CS
; X L2 = SL 2
(32)
184
(33)
2Vdc
i max = 3 + V
2L f
(34)
i max
2P
* (0.1
0.2)
3Vcos
(35)
Equations (34) and (35) can be derived from constraint 2) and reference
[25].The constraints 2) -5) show that the values of L and C are as bigger
as better.
Filter capacitance
How to design the capacitance parameters is one more key
question. If the Xc value is more, the high frequency harmonics that
flow through the shunt capacitor branch is not enough. As a result, the
great high-frequency harmonic current flow into the grid [27]. If the Xc
got too small, which will lead to the great reactive current flow though
the capacitor branch thereby increasing the inverter output current
and increasing system losses. In general when the resonant frequency
of filter capacitance and inductance is inside the range 1/4 to 1/5 carrier
frequency then the filtering performance is bet. The resonant
frequency of LCL filter could be described as
185
f =
L1 + L 2
L1L 2C
1
2
(36)
1
2
4f L
(37)
P
6fE M
(38)
Considering the equations (37) and (38), the filter capacitance value can
be calculating the filter capacitance value.
WhereEm istherootmeansquarevalues RMS of
grid connected phase voltage,
f1 isthefundamentalfrequency of the grid,
D.
GRID IMPEDANCE
(39)
186
WhereLgleakageimpedanceofthe transformer
PNT power of the grid connected transformer
V1L primarysidelinevoltage of the transformer
f
grid frequency
187
Fig.22.Grid voltage
189
Fig.23.Grid current
CONCLUSION
For developing a 25MW utility scale PV power plant in this paper
a site which has a GHI of 5.65 kWh/m2/day, it requires total area of
160582m2 and annual yield is 41313 MWh. In this paper sizing of basics
components of solar PV plant can be designed using the PV syst
software. The present study of engineering analysis of 25MW solar
photovoltaic (PV) power plant includes the losses analysis and the
module orientation of the PV plant, these are also done by using PV syst
software. The modeling of 25 MW solar PV power plant is done in
MATLAB/SIMULINK environment.
190
References
1. P. Karki, B. Adhikary and K. Sherpa, "Comparative Study of Grid-Tied
Photovoltaic (PV) System in Kathmandu and Berlin Using PV syst," IEEE
ICSET, 2012.
2. H.L. Tsai, C.S. Tu, Y.J. Su, Development of generalized photovoltaic model
using MATLAB/SIMULINK, in: Proceedings of the World Congress on
Engineering and Computer Science, San Francisco, USA, 2008
3. M.G. Villalva, J.R. Gazoli, E.R. Filho, Comprehensive approach to
modeling and simulation of photovoltaic arrays, IEEE Transaction on
Power Electronics 24 (2009) 1198-1204
4. A. A. Hassan, F. H. Fahmy, A. E.-S. A. Nafeh and M. A. El-Sayed,
"Modeling and Simulation of a Single Phase Grid Connected," WSEAS
TRANSACTIONS on SYSTEMS and CONTROL, pp. 16-25, 2010
5. J.T. Bialasiewicz, Renewable energy systems with photovoltaic power
generators: Operation and modeling, IEEE Transactions on Industrial
Electronics 55 (2008) 2752-2758.
6. Jitendra Kasera, Ankit Chaplot and Jai Kumar Maherchandani,(2012).
Modeling and Simulation of Wind-PV Hybrid Power System using
Matlab/Simulink, IEEE Students Conference on Electrical, Electronics
and Computer Science.
7. K. T. Tan, P. L. So, Y. C. Chu, and K. H. Kwan, (2010). Modeling, Control
and Simulation of a Photovoltaic Power System for Grid-connected and
Standalone Applications, IEEE- IPEC.46
8. J. M. Carrasco, L. G. Franquelo, J. T. Bialasiewicz, E. Galvn, R. C.
Portillo-Guisado, M. A. Martn-Prats, J. I. Len, N. Moreno- Alfonso,
Power electronic systems for the grid integration of renewable energy
sources: a survey, IEEE Trans. Industrial Electronics, vol. 53, no. 4,
pp.1002-1016, 2006
9. Soeren Baekhoej Kjaer, Member, IEEE, John K. Pedersen, Senior
Member, IEEE, and Frede Blaabjerg, A Review of Single-Phase GridConnected Inverters for Photovoltaic Modules, IEEE TRANSACTIONS
ON
INDUSTRY
APPLICATIONS,
VOL.
41,
NO.
5,
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2005.
10. Vasareviius D., Martaviius R. Solar Irradiance Model for Solar Electric
Panels and Solar Thermal Collectors in Lithuania // Electronics and
Electrical Engineering. Kaunas: Technologija, 2011. No. 2(108). P. 3
6.
11. M. G. Molina, and P. E. Mercado Modeling and Control of Gridconnected
PV Energy Conversion System used as a Dispersed Generator.978-14244-2218-0/08/2008 IEEE B.
12. Soeren Baekhoej Kjaer, John K. Pedersen, Frede Blaabjerg, Power
Inverter Topologies for Photovoltaic Modules A Review,
191
13. Verhoeven, et. al. Utility aspects of grid connected photovoltaic power
systems, International Energy Agency PVPS task V, 1998
14. M. Meinhardt, D. Wimmer, G. Cramer, Multi-string-converter: The next
step in evolution of string-converter, Proc. of 9th EPE, 2001, Graz,
Austria.
15. S. Rustemli, F. Dincer, Modeling of Photovoltaic Panel and Examining
Effects of Temperature in Matlab/Simulink, ELECTRONICS AND
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 2011. No. 3(109).
16. F.Bouchafaa1, D.Beriber1, M.S.Boucherit, Modeling and control of a gird
connected PV generation system, 18th Mediterranean Conference on
Control & Automation Congress Palace Hotel, Marrakech, Morocco June
23-25, 2010
17. Altas, I. H.; Sharaf, A.M., A Photovoltaic Array Simulation Model for
Matlab-Simulink GUI Environment, Clean Electrical Power, 2007.
ICCEP '07. International Conference on 21-23 May 2007 Page(s):341 345.
18. Huan-Liang Tsai, Ci-Siang Tu, and Yi-Jie Su, Development of
Generalized Photovoltaic Model Using MATLAB/SIMULINK Proceedings
of the World Congress on Engineering and Computer Science 2008
WCECS 2008, October 22 - 24, 2008, San Francisco, USA
19. R. Mechouma, B.Azoui, M.Chaabane, Three-Phase Grid Connected
Inverter for Photovoltaic Systems, a Review, 2012 First International
Conference on Renewable Energies and Vehicular Technology
20. Anita Marangoly George 2012 utility scale solar pv plant a guide for
developers and investors
21. Array to Inverter Matching Mastering Manual Design Calculations solar
weekly By John Berdner
22. Scaling Up for Commercial PV Systems solar weekly By John Berdner
23. Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Modules solar weekly by John Berdner
24. Array Trackers Increase Energy Yield & Return on Investment solar
weekly by Stephen Smith.
25. Juan Luis Agorreta, Mikel Borrega, Jesus Lopez, Modeling and Control
of N-Paralleled Grid-Connected Inverters With LCL Filter Coupled Due to
Grid Impedance in PV Plants Member, IEEE, and Luis Marroyo, Member,
IEEE.
26. PV syst software.
27. F. Liu, X. Zha, and S. Duan, Three-phase inverter with LCL filter design
parameters and research, Electric Power Systems, March 2010, pp. 110115.
192
Dr. D. Thilagavathy
PG Scholar
Department of CSE
Adhiyamaan College of
Engineering
Hosur, Tamil Nadu, India
Professor
Department of CSE
Adhiyamaan College of
Engineering
Hosur, Tamil Nadu, India
I. INTRODUCTION
Internet-based development and use of computer technology has
opened up to several trends in the era of cloud computing. The software
as a service (SaaS) computing architecture together with cheaper and
powerful processors has transformed the data centers into pools of
computing service on a huge scale. Services that reside solely on remote
data centers can be accessed with high quality due to increased network
bandwidth and reliable network connections. Moving data into the
cloud offers great convenience to users since they dont have to care
about the complexities of direct hardware management.
Cloud computing vendors like Amazon Simple Storage Service (S3),
Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2) are well known to all. When
people rely more and more on internet and cloud technology the privacy
of the users must be achieved through an important issue called
security. When data is transformed and processed it is cached and
copied on many systems in the network which is not up to the
knowledge of the users. So there are chances of leaking the private
details of the users via Cloud Service Providers negligence, hackers
intrusion or some legal actions.
193
195
with the help of SeDas. Thus the latency and throughput performance
measures are being improved here in this paper.
V. CONCLUSION
In cloud computing environment many a technique have been used to
provide security for the users data/files. As of the above information
many researchers have given many techniques and ideas for the same.
According to the above analysis many techniques has been taken into
work where the data disappears but without the knowledge of the user.
SeDas makes the sensitive information such as credential details to get
self-destructed without any action on the users part so that the details
are unreadable to anyone after that supported by object-based storage
technique. The Experimental security analysis sheds intuitive
practicableness of the approach. This time-constrained system can
facilitate to produce researchers with any valuable expertise to tell
future of Cloud services.
References
[1] R. Geambasu, T. Kohno, A. Levy, and H. M. Levy, Vanish:
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
201
Dr. M. Prabu
Professor
Department of CSE
Adhiyamaan College of
Engineering
Hosur, Tamil Nadu, India
I. INTRODUCTION
Wireless Sensor Networks is collection of sensing devices that can
communicate wirelessly. Each device can perform three important
tasks such as, Sense, process and talk to its peers. Hence it has
centralized Collection point (sink or base station). A WSN can be
defined as network devices, denoted as node, which can sense the
environment and communicate through wireless links. The data is
forwarded, possibly via multiple hops to sink, that can use its locally or
is connected to other network (e.g. internet) through gateway. The
node can be Stationary or moving. They can be homogeneous or not [1].
The traditional single-sink WSN may suffer from lack of scalability. So
by increasing large number of nodes, amount of data gathered by sink
increases and once its capacity is reached, the network cannot be
increased. Furthermore, for reasons related to MAC and routing
aspects, network performance cannot be considered independent from
the network size.
202
203
Fig. 2. Left side Single-sink scenario and Right side Multi-sinkscenario] [2]
In the ED scenario, the sensor is deployed to detect the events such as,
fire in the forest, Earthquake. In SPE scenario it is deployed to monitor
the physical phenomenon (for example atmospheric pressure in a wide
area or temperature variation in a small volcanic site), which can be
modeled as a bi-dimensional random process (generally non-stationary).
Power consumption plays an important role in the WSN, so the
designers are now mainly focusing on the power aware- protocol and
algorithm for design of energy efficient sensor network. For all the
operations to be performed in the network, such as sensing
information, processing the information and forwarding to the sink
node. Hence the power consumption and power management are more
important in the wireless sensor networks [1].
204
the throughput of the channel and enhance the wireless sensor network
transmission mechanism the simplicity of such independent system is
also compromised. Since choosing the variable packet size leads to the
resource management overhead they choose the fixed size data packets
for energy efficient WSN. Basically, there are three fields in the data
packet.
1) Packet header.
2) Payload/Data Segment.
3) Packet Trailer.
The packet header contains many fields that are usually less important
for WSN nodes and removing those will help us to reduce the packet
size in the WSNs. Those fields include current segment number, total
number of segments, packet identifiers, source and destination
identifiers [7].By employing these method the overall throughput and
efficiency is increased.
206
In this paper [10], they describe that if small packet size produces more
energy efficient in WSN, overhead of each packet is ignored. Tracking
per packet overhead created in WSN will lead to favor large size packet
for this type of resource constrained in tiny sensor node. So it depends
on overhead produced by each packet generation in WSN. There are
some suggested packet sizes as follows
207
There are some other packet formats designed by the researchers for
energy efficiency in wireless sensor networks. In the paper [11] they
describe different header formats and researchers could use predefined
formats for designing their own packets. Designers have to design their
packet header using common header format that is shown in the figure
below
208
the
Wireless
Sensor
Networks
major
factor
deciding
the
210
211
212
216
5. REFILLING
As these energies are so easy to store Filling stations are
setup as for petrol and diesel. The filling of tank of an air car nearly
takes 3 to 4 minutes for cars. Either, we can set up a filling equipment
too in our house, which is quite cheaper.
6. SPECIAL FEATURES
There is absolutely no fuel required and no combustion in the
engine cylinder.
There is no pollution at all as only air is taken in and air is ejected
out.
No Heat is generated, as there is no combustion.
No engine cooling system is required, like water Pump, radiator,
and water Circulating pipes. It was measured practically that the
engine exhaust is a cooled air; its temperature was measured as low
as 5 degrees Celsius.
No air conditioning system in the car is required if used, the
exhaust chilled and clean air can be recirculated partly in the car to
cool it.
The atmospheric temperature can fall down, as the exhaust is a
clean and chilled air, so the problem of pollution can be
permanently eradicated.
Very less maintenance is required as there wont be any soot
formation.
Very low cost materials can be used, as there is no heat
involvement.
Weight of the engine can be reduced in the absence of cooling
system and because of lightweight material, which will improve the
mileage and efficiency.
In case of leakage or accident, there wont be any fire.
Engine vibrations were very less and sound pollution was also
very low.
Operating cost is ten times less than that of gasoline engine.
7. EMISSION OUTPUT
Since the compressed air is filtered to protect the
compressor machinery, the air discharged has less suspended dust in
218
it, though there may be carry-over of lubricants used in the engine. The
car works when gas expands.
ADVANTAGES
Compressed-air vehicles are comparable in many ways
to electric vehicles, but use compressed air to store the energy instead
of batteries. Their potential advantages over other vehicles include:.
Tanks get very hot when filled rapidly. SCUBA tanks are
sometimes immersed in water to cool them down when they are
being filled. That would not be possible with tanks in a car and thus
it would either take a long time to fill the tanks, or they would have
to take less than a full charge, since heat drives up the pressure.
Early tests have demonstrated the limited storage capacity of the
tanks; the only published test of a vehicle running on compressed
air alone was limited to a range of 7.22 km (4 mi).
A 2005 study demonstrated that cars running on lithium-ion
batteries out-perform
both
compressed-air
and fuel
cell
vehicle more than threefold at same speeds.[10] MDI has recently
claimed that an air car will be able to travel 140 km (87 mi) in
urban driving, and have a range of 80 km (50 mi) with a top speed
220
T Nithyoosha
M.Rajeswara Rao
P.G Student
VLSI, Department of E.C.E, SIETK
Tirupati
Assistant Professor
Department of E.C.E, SIETK
Tirupati
1. INTRODUCTION
In very large scale integration (VLSI) systems, full adder circuit is used
in arithmetic operations for addition, multipliers and Arithmetic Logic
Unit (ALU). It is a building block of the application of VLSI, digital
signal processing, image processing and microprocessors. Most of full
adder systems are considered performance of circuits, number of
transistor, speed of circuit, chip area, threshold loss and full swing
output and the most important is power consumption. In the future,
portable devices such as cell phone, laptop computer, tablet etc. need
low power and high speed full adders.
The power consumption for CMOS circuit is given by the following
equation:
Pavg = Pdynamic + Pleak + Pshort-circuit
=CLVddVFclk + IleakVdd +IscVdd
(1)
(2)
Cout = AB + A B Cin
(3)
Cin
Cout
223
224
225
Cout
Sum
C
Fig.5. Double gate 10T full adder
227
(4)
the leakage current waveform of double gate 14T and 10T full adder cell
at 0.7V.
Voltage 10T Full Adder (pA) 14T Full Adder (pA)
0.7
3.646
58.2
0.8
3.915
84.6
0.9
5.165
144
1.0
5.401
220
Table 1. Leakage current at difference voltages of 10t
and 14t full adder
229
(7)
Where,
Cl = load capacitance,
fclk = clock frequency,
= switching activity,
Isc = short circuit current,
Ileakage = leakage current,
Vdd = supply voltage
230
Table 2 shows the active power of 10T and 14T full adder cell using
double gate MOSFET at different supply voltage. Fig 9 and fig 10 shows
the active power waveform of double gate 14T and 10T full adder cell at
0.7V.
4.3 DELAY
Propagation delay is required by a digital signal to travel from that input
of the circuit to the output. The propagation delay is inversely
proportional to the speed of the architecture and hence it is important
performance parameter. The basic equation of delay in presence of sleep
transistor is shown in Eq. (9) the propagation delay for an integrated
circuit (IC) logic gate may differ for each of the inputs. If all other factors
are held constant, the average propagation delay in a logic gate IC
increases as the complexity of the internal circuitry increases.
Some IC technologies have inherently longer tpd values than others, and
are considered "slower." Propagation delay is important because it has a
direct effect on the speed at which a digital device, such as a computer,
can operate. This is true of memory chips as well as microprocessors.
5. CONCLUSION
232
The analysis carried out while analyzing both l0T and 14T full adders
individually and comparing them on the basis of calculation of active
power, leakage current and delay by varying different parameters. The
outcomes of the simulation show that l0T full adder to be a better option
with improved performance over 14T structure. As compare to 14T
double gate full adder active power of 10T full adder is reduced from
13.7W to 9.34 W at 0.7V. As compare to 14T double gate full adder
Leakage current of 10T full adder is reduced from 58.2pA to 3.646pA at
0.7V.As compare to 10T double gate full adder Delay of 14T double gate
full adder is reduced from 171.3ps to 151ps.
References
2. Sun, X.-G., Mao, Z.-G., and Lai, F.-C. A 64 bit parallel CMOS
adder for high performance processors, Proc. IEEE Asia-Pacific
Conf. on ASIC, 2002, pp. 205208.
3. Vahid Moalemi and Ali Afzali-Kusha, Subthreshold 1-bit Full
adder cells in sub-100nm technologies, IEEE Computer Society
Annual Symposium on VLSI (ISVLSI-07), Porto Alegre, Brazil,
March 9-11, 2007 (ISBN 0-7695-2896-1).
4. Lu Junming; Shu Yan; Lin Zhenghui; Wang Ling," A Novel
IO-transistor Low-power High-speed Full adder cell",
Proceedings of 6th International Conference on Solid-State and
Integrated-Circuit Technology, vol-2, pp. 1155-1158,2001.
5. Dan Wang, Maofeng Yang, Wu Cheng, Xuguang Guan,
Zhangming Zhu, Yintang Yang, "Novel Low Power Full Adder
Cells in 180nm CMOS Technology", 4th IEEE Conference on
Industrial Electronics and Applications, ICIEA 2009, pp 430-433.
6. Adarsh Kumar Agrawal, Shivshankar Mishra, and R K. Nagaria,
"Proposing a Novel Low-Power High-Speed Mixed GDI Full
Adder Topology", accepted in Proceeding of IEEE International
Conference on Power, Control and Embedded System (ICPCES),
28 Nov.-1 Dec. 2010.
7. Shipra Mishra, Shelendra Singh Tomar and Shyam Akashe,
Design low power 10T full adder using process and circuit
techniques, 7th IEEE International Conference on Intelligent
Systems and Control(ISCO) Coimbatore 2013, pp. 325-328.
233
234
235
C.Vijaya Bhaskar
P.G Student
VLSI, Department of E.C.E
SIETK, Puttur
Assistant Professor
Department of E.C.E
SIETK, Puttur
I. INTRODUCTION
Power consumption being the major problem in achieving high
performance and it is listed as one of the top three challenges in
electronics industry. The clock system, which consists of the clock
distribution network and flip-flops and latches, is one of the most power
consuming components in a VLSI system. It accounts for 30% to 60% of
the total power dissipation in a system. As a result, reducing the power
consumed by flip-flops will have a deep impact on the total power
consumed. A large portion of the on chip power is consumed by the clock
circuits.
Power consumption is determined by several factors including frequency
, supply voltage V, data activity , capacitance C, leakage, and short
circuit current
P=Pdynamic+Pshort circuit+Pleakage
In the above equation, dynamic power Pdynamic is also called the
switching power,
Pdynamic=CV2.
Pshort circuit is the short circuit power which is caused by the finite rise
and fall time of input signals, resulting in both the pull up network and
pull down network to be ON for a short while
Pshort circuit= Ishort circuitVdd
236
Pleakage is the leakage power. With supply voltage scaling down, the
threshold voltage also decreases to maintain performance. However, this
leads to the exponential growth of the sub threshold leakage current.
Sub threshold leakage is the dominant leakage now.
Pleakage= IleakageVdd.
Flip-Flop is an electronic circuit that stores a logical state of one or more
data input signals in response to a clock pulse. Flip-flops are often used
in computational circuits to operate in selected sequences during
recurring clock intervals to receive and maintain data for a limited time
period sufficient for other circuits within a system to further process
data. At each rising or falling edge of a clock signal, the data stored in a
set of Flip-Flops is readily available so that it can be applied as inputs to
other combinational or sequential circuitry. Such flip-flops that store
data on both the leading edge and the trailing edge of a clock pulse are
referred to as double-edge triggered Flip-Flops otherwise it is called as
single edge triggered Flip-Flops.
In digital CMOS circuits there are three sources of power dissipation,
the first is due to signal transition, the second comes from short circuit
current which flows directly from supply to ground terminal and the last
is due to leakage currents. As technology scales down the short circuit
power becomes comparable to dynamic power dissipation. Furthermore,
the leakage power also becomes highly significant. High leakage current
is becoming a significant contributor to power dissipation of CMOS
circuits as threshold voltage, channel length and gate oxide thickness
are reduced. Consequently, the identification and modeling of different
leakage components is very important for estimation and reduction of
leakage power especially for High-speed and low-power applications.
Multithreshold Voltage Based CMOS (MTCMOS) and voltage scaling
are two of the low power techniques used to reduce power.
237
238
240
241
The flip flop output is depending upon the previous output Qand Qb_kpr
in addition with clock and data input. So the initial condition should be
like when D=1 the previous state of Q should be 0 and Qb_kpr should
be 1. Similarly when D=0 the previous state of Q should be 1 and
Qb_kpr should be 0. Whenever the D=1 the transistor N5 is idle,
Whenever the D=0 input transmission gate is idle.
In high frequency operation the input transmission gate andN5 will
acquire incorrect initial conditions due to the feedback from the output.
The noise coupling occurred in the Q output due to continuous
switching at high frequency. The glitch will be appearing in the Q
output. It will propagate to the next stage which makes the system more
vulnerable to noise. In order to avoid the above drawbacks and reduce
the power consumption in proposed flip flop, we can make the flip-flop
output as independent of previous state. That is without initial
conditions and removal of noise coupling transistors. In addition double
edge triggering can be applied easily for power reduction to the proposed
flip flop. It will be a less power consumption than other flip flops.
242
243
In this proposed Clocked Pair Shared Flip Flop, a high threshold voltage
NMOS transistor is provided with a sleep signal S, which is high in the
active mode and low during the standby mode.Here, the first and the
second stage shares the same clocked pair (M5 and M6). Furthermore,
the pMOS M1 is always turned on and is connected to the power supply
Vdd, thus charging the internal node X all the time. This reduces the
floating of node X and enhances the noise robustness.
The flip flop works, when both clk and clkdb are at logic 1. Pseudo
nMOS and conditional mapping technique both are combined using the
above scheme. The nMOS M3 is controlled by a feedback signal. For
input D=1and S=1,Q will be high, switching ON the transistor M8, and
turning OFF M3 thus parrying redundant switching activity and flow of
shortcircuit current at the node X. When D transits to 1 the output Q is
pulled up by pMOS M2 whereas M4 is used to pull down Q when D=0
and Y=1 at the arrival of clock pulse. When the input D transits from 0-1
the short-circuit occurs for once even though M1 is always ON, thus
disconnecting the discharge path and turning off M3 after two gates
delay by feedback signal. There will be no short-circuit even if the input
D stays high as M3 disconnects the discharge path. The output of the flip
flop depends upon the state previously acquired by Q and QB along with
the clock and the data signal inputs provided.
T-FLIP-FLOP MTCMOS TECHNIQUE
The below diagram which shows the extension of the MT-CPSFF.T
flip-flop which uses for the reducing switching activity and also power
consumption. This is the another proposed MTCMOS technique, The
schematic of MT-CPSFF is shown in Fig.5.2
245
CDFF
CDMFF
CPSFF
MT-CPSFF
MT-CPSFF
AREA
26
SWIT
ICHIN
G
TRANS
ISTOR
13
20
17
21
27
7
4
4
4
FREQUENCY
500MHZ
700MHZ
POWER CONSUMPTION
1.5
9.7
1.9
1.3
1.2
1.1
SUPPLY VOLTAGE
3
1.5
3V
54.8
14.6
82.0
49.6
2.7
53.7
22.9
2.5
32.8
7.7
2.12
11.6
7.5
2.00
10.5
VII CONCLUSION
In this paper, a new design for D and T flip-flop is introduced to reduce
internal switching activity of nodes and stand by leakage power; along
with this variety of design techniques for low power clocking system are
reviewed. This proposed flip-flop reduces local clock transistor number
and power consumption as well. The proposed MT-CPSFF outperforms
previously existing CDFF, CDMFF and CPSFF in terms of power and
good output response by approximately 20% to 85%. Furthermore,
248
several low power techniques, including low swing and double edge
clocking, can be explored to incorporate into the new flip-flop to build
system.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
250
S.Shafil Mohammad
P.G Student
VLSI, Department of E.C.E
SIETK, Tirupati
T.Prasad
Assistant Professor
Department of E.C.E
SIETK, Tirupati
1. INTRODUCTION
Wireless communication is vulnerable to eavesdropping due to the
broadcast nature of wireless medium. In broadcast channel where one
transmitter disperses the information to the multiple users, the
importance of security becomes more emphasized. Wyner introduced the
information theoretic view of the physical-layer security in [1]. From
this perspective, the effective transmission with the multiple antennas
and the cooperative jammer (CJ) to improve the security were studied in
[2][5].
Recently, with the ever-increasing demand of broadcast services (e.g.
downlink communication in cellular networks and wireless local
networks (WLAN)), the concern on broadcast channel with the
confidential messages has been growing. Specially in multiuser system,
since all users within the communication range can overhear the
wireless signal, there occurs a possibility that the licensed users might
be the maliciouseavesdroppers1.Thus, we should counteract two sorts of
eavesdroppers such as internal and external. If they are from
legitimate user set of the transmitter, we call them internal
eavesdroppers and otherwise external eavesdroppers. Authors of [6] and
[7] investigated the secure transmission against a single external
eavesdropper. For coping with the internal eavesdroppers, [8] proposed
251
the transmission technique for the base station (BS) via semi definite
programming (SDP).
In this paper2, we aim at designing the optimal transmission in
downlink cellular network against the multiple
internal
eavesdroppers. In our scenario, BS desires to send the private message to
one of K mobile users (MUs) while keeping the privacy from the K-1
remaining MUs, i.e. internal eavesdroppers. For the secrecy
enhancement of the intended user, we design a novel secure
transmission which jointly optimizes both BS and CJ for the
multiple-antenna link. This joint cooperation has the robustness for the
case where BSs are in the severe fading conditions or where the
eavesdropper is close to BSs or MUs. Additionally, the employment of CJ
can lessen the complexity burden compared to the beam forming
solution solely at BS with no help of CJ such as [8]3.Unlike the studies
enlisting the aid of optimization software tools for the transmission
design in multiuser setting [8], [10][12], our strategy is also grounded
on an explicit parametrization for an arbitrary number of users and
antennas with the constructed programming problem.
2. SYSTEM MODEL
The system model under consideration is illustrated in Fig.1. The
cellular network consists of a base station (BS), K mobile users (MUs)
and a single cooperative jammer (CJ).
All users can have two types of data traffic such as private and open, but
in this paper we suppose that each user has only
252
253
255
258
260
261
262
4.BLOCK DIAGRAM:
From the above Fig4.Single channel Access point with one transmitter
and one jammer is used for the prototype model.
6.CONCLUSIONS
We have considered the secure communication in the K user downlink
cellular system. For the secrecy improvement
of the intended user, we develop the joint transmission strategy with the
assistance of CJ based on the framework of power gain region. The
numerical results verify the performance improvement of the proposed
scheme.
References
1. A. D. Wyner, The wire-tap channel, The Bell Sys. Tech. J., vol.
54,no. 8, pp. 13551387, Oct. 1975.
2. X. Tang, R. Liu, P. Spasojevic, and H. V. Poor, Interference
assisted secret communication, to appear in IEEE Trans. Inf.
Theory. Preprint available on arXiv:0908.2397, Aug. 2009.
3. S. Goel and R. Negi, Guaranteeing secrecy using artificial
noise, IEEE Trans. Wireless Commun., vol. 7, no. 6, pp.
21802189, June 2008.
4. A. Khisti and G. Wornell, Secure transmission with multiple
antennasI: the MISOME wiretap channel, IEEE Trans. Inf.
Theory,vol. 56, no. 7, pp. 30883104, Jul. 2010.
5. E. A. Jorswieck, Secrecy capacity of single- and multi-antenna
channels simple helpers, in Proc. 2010 Int. ITG Conf. on Source
and Channel Coding, pp. 16.
6. A. Khisti, A. Tchamkerten, and G. Wornell, Secure broadcasting
over fading channels, IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory, vol. 54, no. 6, pp.
17, Jun.
2008.
7. A. Mukherjee and A. L. Swindlehurst, Utility of beamforming
strategies for secrecy in multiuser MIMO wiretap channels, in
264
relay
networks
with
multiple
Signal Process. Lett., vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 3538, Jan. 2013.
13. E. G. Larsson and E. A. Jorswieck, Competition versus
cooperation on the MISO interference channel, IEEE J. Sel.
Areas Commun., vol. 26 no. 7, pp. 10591069, Sept. 2008.
14. Y. Liang, G. Kramer, H. V. Poor, and S. Shamai, Compound
wire-tap channels, in Eurasip J. Wireless Commun. and
Networking, vol. 2009, no. 5, Mar. 2009.
15. R. Mochaourab and E. A. Jorswieck, Optimal beamforming in
interference networks with perfect local channel information,
submitted to IEEE Trans. Signal Process. Preprint available on
arXiv:1004.4492, Oct.
265
Udatha Hariprasad
K Riyazuddin
M.Tech Student
Department of Electronics &
Communication Engineering
Annamacharya Institute of
Technology and Sciences, Rajampet
Assistant Professor
Department of Electronics &
Communication Engineering
Annamacharya Institute of
Technology and Sciences, Rajampet
I. INTRODUCTION
On
the
other
hand,
data
breakthrough
and
267
269
274
275
276
V. CONCLUSION
277
278
V.Viswanath
Assistant Professor
Department of E.C.E, SIETK
Tirupat
1. I NTRODUCTION
Flip-ops (FFs) are the basic storage elements used extensively in all
kinds of digital designs. In particular, digital designs nowadays often
adopt intensive pipelining techniques and employ many FF-rich
modules. It is also estimated that the power consumption of the clock
system, which consists of clock distribution networks and storage
elements, is as high as 20%45% of the total system power [1]. Pulsetriggered FF (P-FF) has been considered a popular alternative to the
conventional masterslave-based FF in the applications of high-speed
operations [2][5]. Besides the speed advantage, its circuit simplicity is
also benecial to lowering the power consumption of the clock tree
system. A P-FF consists of a pulse generator for generating strobe
signals and a latch for data storage. Since triggering pulses generated
on the transition edges of the clock signal are very narrow in pulse
width, the latch acts like an edge-triggered FF. The circuit complexity
of a P-FF is simplied since only one latch, as opposed to two used in
conventional masterslave conguration, is needed. P-FFs also allow
time borrowing across clock cycle boundaries and feature a zero or even
negative setup time. P-FFs are thus less sensitive to clock jitter.
Despite these advantages, pulse generation circuitry requires delicate
pulsewidth control in the face of process variation and the conguration
of pulse clock distribution network [4]. Depending on the method of
279
280
281
282
283
285
edge of the clock. Due to the extra voltage boost from transistor P3,
pulses generated to capture input data 1 are signicantly enhanced in
their heights and widths compared with the pulses generated for
capturing data 0 (0.84 V versus 0.65 V in height and 141ps versus 84
ps in width). In the MHLL design, there is no such differentiation in
their pulse generation. In addition, no signal degradation occurs in the
internal node of the proposed design. In contrast, the internal node in
MHLLF in MHLLF design is degraded when Q equals to 0 and data
equals to 1. Node Q thus deviates slightly from an intact value 0
and causes a DC power consumption at the output stage. From Fig. 4,
the height of its pulses at node Z is around 0.68 V. Furthermore, node
is oating when clock equals 0 and its value drifts gradually. To
elaborate the power consumption behavior of these FF designs, ve test
patterns, each exhibiting a different data switching probability, are
applied. Five of them are deterministic patterns with 0% (all-zero or allone), 25%, 50%, and 100% data transition probabilities, respectively.
The power consumption results are summarized in Table I.
286
287
The CCFF design is ranked in the second place in this evaluation with
its optimal setup time as 67ps. The setup time of the conventional
TGFF design is always positive and has the smallest PDPDQ
performance of each design under different data switching activities.
The proposed design takes the lead in all types of data switching
activity. The SCCER and the CCFF designs almost tie in the second
place. Fig. 6(b) shows the PDPDQ performance of these designs at
different process corners under the condition of 50% data switching
activity. The performance edge of the proposed design is maintained as
well. Notably, the MHLLF design has the worst PDPDQ performance
especially at the performance especially at the SS process corner due to
a large
generation circuit.
288
D-
to-Q delay, and PDP. Coupled with these design merits is a longer holdtime requirement inherent in pulse-triggered FF designs. However,
hold-time violations are much easier to x in circuit design compared
290
292
INTRODUCTION
Turn insulation failures are seen in the stator coils as melted copper
conductors and hole in the main insulation due to earth fault.
Induction motors have been widely used in many industrial
applications, because of simplicity of control[1]. Owners of electrical
machines expect a high reliability and a long lifetime of its equipment.
This can only be achieved by a consistent quality assurance throughout
the whole product life cycle on both, the product- and process level[2].
The process level includes research and development, continuous
design improvement, quality control during production/commissioning
and online/off line testing in service. In the beginning, natural products
such as silk, wool, cellulose and flax together with natural varnishes
and petroleum derivatives were used for insulation. Due to
optimization, these materials were displaced or materials like asbestos,
quartz or other minerals have been added. The main reasons of
winding insulation deterioration as described in [2] and [3] are thermal,
electrical, mechanical, or environmental stress. Moreover, the class of
insulation and the application of the motor have a strong influence on
the condition and aging of the insulation system. Many approaches
have been proposed to detect the faults and even the early deterioration
of the primary insulation system (phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase)
and the secondary insulation system (turn to- turn). The testing and
293
294
the motor fails, as well as the general operating conditions, should also
be taken into consideration. Furthermore, the maintenance history can
be consulted to determine the problems that lead to failure.
Considering all these aspects, a method can be developed in order to
analyze and classify insulation failures [10].
B. Root Causes for the Failures of the Stator Insulation System:
Aging Mechanisms: Insulation in service is exposed to high
temperature, high voltage, vibration, and other mechanical forces as
well as some unfavorable environmental conditions. These various
factors act together and individually to wear out or age the insulation.
1) Thermal Stress: One of the thermal stresses insulation is subject to
is the thermal aging process. An increase in temperature accelerates
the aging process and thus reduces the lifetime of the insulation
significantly. Under normal operating conditions, the aging process
itself does not cause a failure but makes the insulation more susceptible
to other stresses, which then produce the actual failure. In order to
ensure a longer lifetime and reduce the temperature. influence of the
aging process, one can either work at low operating temperatures or
use an insulation of higher quality, i.e., use a higher insulation class.
Another thermal stress that has a negative effect on the insulation
lifetime is thermal overloading, which occurs due to voltage variations,
unbalanced phase voltages, cycling, overloading, obstructed ventilation,
or ambient temperature. For example, even a small increase in the
voltage unbalance has an enormous effect on the winding temperature.
It should be ensured that the flow of air through the motor is not
obstructed since the heat cannot be dissipated otherwise and that the
winding temperature will increase. If this is not possible, however, this
should be taken into account by upgrading the insulation system or
restricting the winding.
296
physical
insulation
and
in to two different
stator/rotor
insulation.
Electrical Aging: Loose stator winding will vibrate within the stator
slots. Fretting against the stator
298
300
301
voltage between the turns, the surge test is able to overcome this
limitation and thus this test is an overvoltage test for the turn
insulation, and may fail the insulation, requiring by passing of the
failed coil, replacement or rewind . Low voltage tests on form-wound
stators, such as inductance or inductive impedance tests, can detect if
the turn insulation is shorted, but not if it is weakened. Only the surge
voltage test is able to directly find stator windings with deteriorated
turn insulation. The test is valid for any random wound or multi-turn
form wound stator, and the test method for form wound stators is
described in IEEE 522.
The surge test duplicates the voltage surge created by switching on the
motor. The surge test is a destructive go-no go test. If the turn
insulation fails, then the assumption is that the stator would have
failed in service due to motor switch-on, PWM inverter voltage surges
or transients caused by power system faults. If the winding does not
puncture, then the assumption is that the turn insulation will survive
any likely surge occurring in service over the next few years.
The first generation of surge test sets was called surge comparison
testers. They consisted of two energy storage capacitors, which were
connected to two phases. The waveform from each phase is monitored
on an analog oscilloscope. The assumption is that the waveform is
identical for the two phases. As the voltage is increased, if one of the
waveforms changes (increases in frequency) then turn to turn puncture
occurred in the phase that changed. This approach has lost favor now
since it is possible for two phases to have slightly different inductances
due to different circuit ring bus lengths, mid-winding equalizer
connections or even due to rotor position (since it affects the
permeability). Modern surge testers use a digitizer to capture the surge
voltage waveform on a phase, as the voltage is gradually raised. Digital
analysis then provides an alarm when the waveform changes at a high
voltage, due to a turn fault [6]. The test voltages are described in IEEE
302
522.
There have been a lot of controversies about the risk of surge testing
[21][23]. A comprehensive study about this issue disproves the
statement that surge testing significantly reduces the lifetime of a
machine [45], [46]. The effect of the surge rise time is also a topic that
has been widely discussed [24]
B. Signature Analysis After Switch-Off
A technique that uses motor, the signature analysis of the terminal
voltage immediately after switch-off to diagnose turn faults, is
introduced in [15]. The advantage, compared to online techniques using
current signature analysis, is that the voltage unbalance of the source
does not influence the result since the supply is off. The faulty machine
model used for simulation is also included in the paper.
IV. ONLINE MONITORING
On-line monitoring performed during normal operation of the motor
.Various monitoring methods have been developed using different
physical quantities to detect the health condition of the stator
insulation system [2], [3]. These methods utilize different motor
parameters like magnetic flux, temperature, stator current, or input
power for the monitoring purpose. The induction motor model with a
turn-to-turn fault, introduced in [36][40], is required for some of the
methods. Online condition monitoring is usually preferred in the
applications, which have a continuous process, such as petro/chem,
water treatment, material handling, etc. The major advantage is that
the machine does not have to be taken out of service. As a result, the
health condition while the motor is operating can be assessed.
Predictive maintenance is made easier because the machine is under
constant monitoring, an incipient failure can immediately be detected,
and actions can be scheduled to avoid more severe process downtime.
303
Reference
Insulation
Resistance
(IR)/
Mega ohm
[2]
[11]-[15]
Winding
resistance/DC
conductivity
Test
Polarization
index (PI)
(DC HIPOT)
DC High
potential test
[6]
[11]-[13]
(AC HIPOT)
AC High
potential
Test
[2]
[12],[13]
[2]
[11]-[13]
Growler
SurgeTest
[2],[4],[11]
[16]
Signature
Analysis of
Terminal
voltage after
switch-off
Partial
Discharge
[16]
Dissipation
factor
[2],[1]
[2],[14],[15]
Insulation
tested &
Diagnostic
value
Finds
contamination
and defects in
phase-to-ground
insulation.
Detects shorted
turns, no
predictive value
Positive Features
Negative
Features
Easy to perform,
applicable to all
windings except for
rotor of a squirrel
cage IM
Easy to perform
Results in strong
temperature
dependent
Finds
contamination
and defects in
phase to-ground
insulation
Finds
contamination
and defects in
phase to-ground
insulation
Easy to perform,
Less sensitive to
temperature than
IR-test
----
Easy to perform, if
test doesnt fail the
insulation is likely
to work flawlessly
until the next
maintenance
periodmore
predictive character
than PI and IR
More effective than
DC Highpot
In case of failure,
repair is required
( destructive )
Applicable to both
low voltage and
High voltage
machines
It is only a offline
test that measures
the integrity of the
turn insulation
Signature analysis
without influence of
supply voltage
unbalance
Specifically applied
to armature and
rotors
Good practical
results
Not applicable to
low voltage
machines,
difficulty in
interpretation of
the data.
Measurements on a
regular basis
Finds
contamination
and defects in
phase to-ground
insulation
Detects shorted
coils, no
predictive value
Detects
worsening of the
turn-to-turn
insulation.
Detects turn to
turn insulation
Detects
deterioration of
the
turn-toturn and phaseto-ground
insulation
Detects
deterioration of
304
Able to determine
the cause of
Not as so easy to
perform like DC
Highpot.
Test can be
destructive
Inductive
Impedance
[2]
the
phase-toground and
phase-to-phase
insulation
Detects shorted
turns, no
predictive value
deterioration
required in order
to trend the data
over time.
----
Not as easy to
perform as the
winding Resistance
Test
TABLE I
DIFFERENT METHODS TO TEST THE STATOR INSULATION SYSTEM OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES
A. HF Impedance/Turn-to-Turn Capacitance
A nonintrusive condition monitoring system using the highfrequency
(HF) response of the motor is introduced in [34]. It is able to observe
the aging and, thus, the deterioration of the turn-to-turn insulation by
detecting small changes in the stator windings turn-to-turn
capacitance. It is shown that the turn-to-turn capacitance of the stator
winding and, thus, its impedance spectrum are changing under the
influence of different aging processes. Since it is not possible to use an
impedance analyzer for the purpose of an online test, it is suggested to
inject a small HF signal into the stator winding. Its frequency has to be
close to the series resonance frequency of the system. The flux of the
305
Reference
Insulation
tested &
Diagnostic
value
Detects turn-toturn faults
Negative
sequence
current
[31],[34]
Sequence
Impedance
Matrix
[51]-[52]
Zero sequence
Voltage
[49]
Pendulous
oscillation
phenomenon
Airgap Flux
signature,
Axial leakage
Flux
Current
signature
analysis
Vibration
signature
analysis
[50]
[54]
[55]-[56]
[57]-[58]
Positive Features
Negative
Features
Non-invasive,
methods available to
take non-idealities
in to account
Non-invasive,
methods available to
take non-idealities
in to account
Non-invasive,
methods available to
take non-idealities
in to account
Non-idealities that
complicate fault
detection
Non-invasive, able to
compensate for nonidealities.
Non-idealities that
complicate fault
detection, neutral
of the machine has
to be accessible
---Invasive, results
strongly depend on
the load.
Non-invasive,
interpretation of
results subjective.
----
Online partial
discharge
[7],[41]-[48]
Good practical
results
Ozone
[6]
By-product of PD
High
Frequency
Impedance
[34]-[36]
Detects
deterioration of
the turn-to-turn
insulation
Capable of
monitoring the
deterioration of
turn-to-turn
insulation.
307
Non-idealities that
complicate fault
detection
Further research
advised to
generalize results.
Non-invasive,
Further research
advised to
generalize results.
Difficulty in
interpretation of
the data, not
applicable to low
voltage machines,
additional
equipment
required.
Invasive (gas
analysis tube or
electronic
instrument).
Invasive (search
coil), not tested
widely yet.
[6],[24],[27][35]
Detects
deterioration in
phase-to-ground
and faults in
turn-to-turn
insulation
Non-invasive,
capable of
determining the
cause of
deterioration.
Leakage
currents
[32],[33]
Non-invasive,
capable of
determining the
cause of
deterioration.
Condition
Monitors and
Tagging
compounds
[6],[24]
Detects
deterioration in
phase-to-ground
and phase-tophase insulation
Detects faults
and problems
with phase-toground and
turn-to-turn
insulation
----
Invasive if sensors
are required, a lot
of data and
additional
information like
ambient
temperature
required.
----
Invasive
(equipment for
detection of
particles required
and chemicals have
to be applied to
machine)
TABLE II
DIFFERENT METHODS TO TEST THE STATOR INSULATION SYSTEM OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES
The major problem with this method is that not only a turn-to-turn
fault contributes to the negative-sequence component of the current
but also supply voltage imbalances, motor and load inherent
asymmetries, and measurement errors have an effect on this quantity.
The methods suggested in [35] account for those nonidealities by using
the negative-sequence voltage and impedance and a database. Another
way to consider the nonidealities is the use of artificial neural networks
(ANNs). A method to determine the negative-sequence current due to a
turn fault with the help of those ANNs is proposed in [40]. The neural
network is trained offline over the entire range of operating conditions.
Thus, the ANN learns to estimate the negative-sequence current of the
healthy machine considering all sources of asymmetry except for the
asymmetry due to a turn fault. During the monitoring process, the
ANN estimates the negative-sequence current based on the training
under healthy condition. This value is compared to the measured
negative-sequence current.
308
309
rid of higher order harmonics. It is pointed out that the method is not
sensitive to supply or load unbalances. In order to take inherent
machine imbalances into account, different procedures are suggested.
The main drawback of this procedure is that the neutral of the machine
has to be accessible.
C. Signature Analysis:
1) Current Signature Analysis: Current Signature Analysis (CSA)
monitoring has revolutionized the detection of broken rotor bars and
cracked short circuit rings in squirrel cage induction motor rotors [4].
CSA can also find problems with rotor balance that lead to rotor
eccentricity. In CSA, the current on one of the power cables feeding the
motor is analyzed for its frequency content. Specific frequencies in the
current indicate the presence of defective rotor windings during normal
operation of the motor. Broken rotor bars by CSA can sometimes be
detected by bearing vibration analysis. Motor current signature
analysis is a popular method to detect broken rotor bars and airgap
eccentricity [55]. In [56], it has been shown that it is also possible to
use this technique to detect turn faults. This approach is based on the
fact that the magnitude of the stator current harmonics changes after a
turn fault developed. The method for detecting a turn fault seems to be
subjective though. The various approaches use different frequency
harmonics to detect a fault. For example, in [55], it is suggested to
observe the change in the third harmonic and some other frequency
components. Unfortunately, the sensitivity of those components under
loaded conditions is not very high, and they are also sensitive to
inherent motor asymmetry and supply unbalance.
2) Axial Leakage Flux: If an induction machine is in perfectly
balanced condition, there should be no axial leakage flux present. Due
to production imperfection, there is always a small asymmetry in the
motor that causes an axial leakage flux. Since a turn fault also creates
310
some asymmetry in the machine and thus some axial leakage flux, the
monitoring of this flux can be used for detecting turn faults. This
technique has been the topic of several publications [54]. The
theoretical and practical analyses carried out show that certain
frequency components of the axial leakage flux are sensitive to
interturn short circuits. One of the main disadvantages of this method
is the strong dependence on the load driven by the motor. The highest
sensitivity can be reached under fullload conditions. Another drawback
is that a search coil to detect the axial flux has to be installed. Another
publication [54] not only detects turn-to-turn faults but also uses the
axial leakage flux to find broken rotor bars and end rings.
3) Vibration Signature Analysis:
Another quantity whose signature analysis can be used to get
information about the condition of the insulation system is the
electrically excited vibration. This topic has been examined in [58]. The
results show that deteriorated and faulted windings can be identified. It
is indicated that the method is good to provide additional information
supplementary to other monitoring techniques. Further research has to
be made in order to gain full access to the potential of this method. An
obvious disadvantage is the required installation of vibration sensors.
D. Temperature Monitoring
The constant monitoring of the temperature and trending over time
can be used by maintenance personnel to draw conclusions about the
insulation condition [2]. In many motors, the temperature is monitored
and the motor is turned off if a certain temperature is exceeded.
Temperature sensors can be embedded within the stator windings, the
stator core, or frame or even be part of the cooling system. There are
different types of temperature sensors employed like resistance
temperature detectors or thermocouples. Recently, there has also been
a lot of work done on temperature estimation techniques [28]-[31],
311
312
V. CONCLUSION
The main objective of this paper is to evaluate existing offline and
online-monitoring methods for the stator winding insulation of lowvoltage induction machines in order to give engineers a broad overview
over recent developments in this area, to show the capability and
boundaries of those methods, and to point out possible directions for
future research activities. A comprehensive literature survey on the
existing methods for low-voltage induction motor winding insulation
condition monitoring and fault detection has been presented, and it has
been identified that turn-to-turn faults count most for induction motor
winding insulation faults [4], [5]. Various online methods have been
developed that are capable of identifying a turn fault even in the
presence of nonidealities. The offline surge test is not only able to
identify a fault but also capable of revealing a weakness in the turn
insulation prior to a fault. Despite all progress made in the field of
monitoring motor drive systems, there is still no online-monitoring
method widely applied in industries and accepted in the diagnosis
community, which is capable of monitoring the deterioration of the
turn-toturn insulation of low-voltage machines. Thus, based on the
survey results, the authors suggest the development of an onlinemonitoring method applicable to low-voltage machines, which is
capable of diagnosing the deterioration of the turn-to-turn insulation
prior to a fault and is also reasonable from a cost standpoint.
References:
1.
2.
3.
313
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
314
315
316
317
I.
Dr. P V Ramaraju
G.Nagaraju
Professor
Department of ECE
SRKR Engg. College
Bhimavaram, India.
Asst.Professor,
Department of ECE
SRKR Engg. College
Bhimavaram, India.
V.Rajasekhar
M.Tech Student
Department of ECE
SRKR Engg. College
Bhimavaram, India.
INTRODUCTION
Robust binarization gives the possibility of a correct extraction
of the sketched line drawing or text from its background. For the
binarization of images many algorithms have been implemented.
Thresholding is a sufficiently accurate and high processing speed
segmentation approach to monochrome image. This paper describes a
modified logical thresholding method for binarization of seriously
degraded and very poor quality gray-scale document images.
In general there are two types of image thresholding techniques
available: global and local. In the global thresholding technique a gray
level image is converted into a binary image based on an image
intensity value called global threshold which is fixed in the whole image
domain whereas in local thresholding technique, threshold value can
vary from one pixel location to next. Thus, global thresholding converts
an input image I to a binary image G as follows G(i, j) = 1 for I (i, j)
T, or, G(i, j) = 0 for I (i, j) < T, where T is the threshold, G (i, j) =
1 for foreground and G (i, j) = 0 for background.
Whereas, for a local threshold, the threshold T is a function over
the image domain, i.e.,T= T(x, y). In addition, if in constructing the
threshold value/surface the algorithm adapts itself to the image
intensity values, then it is called dynamic or adaptive threshold.
318
T=
well for many real world images where a significant overlap exists in
the gray level histogram between the pixel intensity values of the
objects and the background due to un-even and poor illumination.
As many degraded documents do not have a clear bimodal
pattern, global thresholding [4][7] is usually not a suitable approach
for the degraded document binarization. Adaptive thresholding [8]
[14], which estimates a local threshold for each document image pixel,
is often a better approach to deal with different variations within
degraded document images. For example, the early window-based
adaptive thresholding techniques [12], [13] estimate the local threshold
by using the mean and the standard variation of image pixels within a
local neighborhood window.
The local image contrast and the local image gradient are very useful
features for segmenting the text from the document background
because the document text usually has certain image contrast to the
neighboring document background.
The image gradient is defined as follows
1
G(x,y)=fmax(x, y) fmin(x,y )
The Local contrast is defined as follows
D ( x, y )
f
f
max
max
( x, y)
( x, y)
min
min
( x, y)
( x, y)
PROPOSED METHOD
based on the local threshold that is estimated from the detected text
stroke edge pixels. Some post processing is further applied to improve
the document binarization quality.
A. Contrast Image Construction
The image contrast in Equation 2 has one typical limitation that
it may not handle document images with the bright text properly. This
is because a weak contrast will be calculated for stroke edges of the
bright text where the denominator in Equation 2 will be large but the
numerator will be small. To overcome this over-normalization problem,
we combine the local image contrast with the local image gradient and
derive an adaptive local image contrast as follows
Da ( x, y) D(x, y) (1 )( fmax (x, y) fmin ( x, y)) 3
Where
D(x,
y)
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
(a)
(b)
322
(c)
Fig. 3. Contrast Images constructed using (a) local image gradient, (b)
local image contrast [15], and (c) our proposed method for the original
sample document images which are shown in Fig. 1 and 2, respectively.
Fig. 3 shows the contrast map of the sample document images in Fig. 1
and 2 that are created by using local image gradient, local image
contrast [15] and our proposed method in Equation 3, respectively.
B. Local Threshold Estimation
The text can then be extracted from the document background
pixels once the high contrast stroke edge pixels are detected properly.
Two characteristics can be observed from different kinds of document
images [15]: First, the text pixels are close to the detected text stroke
edge pixels. Second, there is a distinct intensity difference between the
high contrast stroke edge pixels and the surrounding background
pixels. The document image text can thus be extracted based on the
detected text stroke edge pixels as follows
Ne N min&& I ( x , y ) Emean Estd / 2
R ( x , y ) 1..
5
0..otherwise
Where Emean and Estd are the mean and the standard deviation of
the image intensity of the detected high contrast image pixels (within
the original document image) within the neighborhood window that can
be evaluated as follows
E mean
I ( x, y ) * (1 E ( x, y ))
neighbor
Ne
323
E std
(( I ( x , y ) Emean ) * (1 E ( x , y ))) 2
neighbor
6: if The pixels in the pairs belong to the same class (both text or
background) then
7: Classify the foreground and background pixels based on pixel values.
8: end if
9: end for
10: Remove single-pixel artifacts [16] along the text stroke boundaries
after the document thresholding.
11: Store the new binary result to Bf .
D. Parameter Selection
In the first experiment, we apply different to obtain different
power functions and test their performance. is close to 1 when is
small and the local image contrast Da dominates the adaptive image
contrast Da in Equation 3. On the other hand, Da is mainly influenced
by local image gradient when is large. At the same time, the variation
of for different document images increases when is close to 1. Under
such circumstance, the power function becomes more sensitive to the
global image intensity variation and appropriate weights can be
assigned to images with different characteristics.
The proposed method can assign more suitable to different images
when is closer to 1. Parameter should therefore be set around 1
when the adaptability of the proposed technique is maximized and
better and more robust binarization results can be derived from
different kinds of degraded document images.
III. RESULTS
This section evaluates the results for proposed document image
binarization techniques. Given a degraded document image, an
adaptive contrast map is first constructed. The text is then segmented
based on the local threshold that is estimated from the detected text
325
Example 2
327
Fig. 10. Binarization results of the sample document image in Fig. 1(b)
produced by different methods. (a) OTSU [2]. (b) SAUV [12]. (c) NIBL
328
[13]. (d) BERN [8]. (e) GATO [17]. (f) LMM [15]. (g) BE [16]. (h)
Proposed.
Example 2
Fig. 11. Binarization results of the sample document image (PR 06) in
DIBCO 2011 dataset produced by different methods. (a) Input Image.
(b) OTSU [2]. (c) SAUV [12]. (d) NIBL [13]. (e) BERN [8]. (f) GATO
[17]. (g) LMM [15]. (h) BE [16]. (i) LELO [18]. (j) SNUS. (k) HOWE
[19]. (l) Proposed.
V.
CONCLUSION
References
1. R. C. Gonzalez and R. E. Woods, Digital Image Processing,
Pearson prentice Hall, 2005.
2. N. Otsu, A threshold selection method from gray level
histogram, IEEE Transactions on System Man Cybernatics,
Vol. SMC-9, No.1, pp. 62-66, 1979.
3. P.K. Sahoo, S. Soltani, A.K.C. Wong, and Y. Chen, A survey of
thresholding techniques, Computer Vision Graphics Image
Processing, Vol. 41, 1988, pp. 233 260.
4. A. Brink, Thresholding of digital images using two-dimensional
entropies, Pattern Recognit., vol. 25, no. 8, pp. 803808, 1992.
5. J. Kittler and J. Illingworth, On threshold selection using
clustering criteria, IEEE Trans. Syst., Man, Cybern., vol. 15,
no. 5, pp. 652655, Sep.Oct. 1985.
6. N. Otsu, A threshold selection method from gray level
histogram, IEEE Trans. Syst., Man, Cybern., vol. 19, no. 1, pp.
6266, Jan. 1979.
7. N. Papamarkos and B. Gatos, A new approach for
multithreshold selection, Comput. Vis. Graph. Image Process.,
vol. 56, no. 5, pp. 357370, 1994.
8. J. Bernsen, Dynamic thresholding of gray-level images, in
Proc. Int. Conf. Pattern Recognit., Oct. 1986, pp. 12511255.
9. L. Eikvil, T. Taxt, and K. Moen, A fast adaptive method for
binarization of document images, in Proc. Int. Conf. Document
Anal. Recognit., Sep. 1991, pp. 435443.
10. I.-K. Kim, D.-W. Jung, and R.-H. Park, Document image
binarization based on topographic analysis using a water flow
model, Pattern Recognit., vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 265277, 2002.
330
331
B.Naresh Babu
Assistant Professor
N.Pushpalatha
Assistant Professor
I INTRODUCTION
SCAN-BASED testing is the most widely used design for test
(DFT) methodology due to its simple structure, high fault coverage, and
strong diagnostic support. However, the test power of scan tests may be
significantly higher than normal functional power because circuits may
en ter non-functional states during testing. The test power required to
load or unload test data with shift clock control is called shift power,
and the power required to capture test responses with an at-speed clock
rate is called capture power. Excessive shift power can lead to high
temperatures that can damage the circuit under test (CUT) and may
reduce the circuits reliability. Excessive capture power induced by test
patterns may lead to large current demand and induce a supply voltage
drop, known as the IR-drop problem. This would cause a normal circuit
to slow down and eventually fail the test, thereby inducing unnecessary
yield loss.
To estimate shift power and capture power, several metrics have
been proposed.
1. The circuit level simulation metric
a. The most accurate one.
b. Time consuming and memory intensive.
332
2. Most previous works use simpler metrics. The toggle count metric
considers the state changes of nodes (FFs or gates) and the weighted
switching activity (WSA) metric considers both node state changes
and fanouts of nodes. Metrics that consider paths are also proposed.
3. The critical capture transition (CCT) metric assesses launch
switching activities around critical paths, and the critical area
targeted (CAT) metric estimates launch switching activities caused
by test patterns around the longest sensitized path. In this paper, we
will employ the WSA metric as it is highly correlated to the real
capture power and has been used in most related work to determine
power-safe test patterns.
4. The capture-power-safe patterns: To address the capture-safe-power
problem, numerous methods have been proposed.
a) The hardware-based methods attempt to reduce test power by
modifying the circuit/clock in test structures or by adding some
additional hardware to the CUT.
I. In scan chain segmentation methods are proposed to reduce both
shift and capture power.
II. In a partial launch on- capture (LOC) scheme is proposed to reduce
the capture power, which allows only partial scan cells to be
activated during the capture cycle.
Advantages:
1. Some clock gating schemes have also been proposed to limit the
test power consumption.
2. They effectively reduce test power.
Disadvantages:
1. They may increase circuit area
333
Vector to obtain the final states and uses these states to fill the Xbits to get more realistic patterns. Although both the Preferred Fill
and the ACF methods can quickly assign the X-bits in PPI, they
cannot ensure capture power safety because they do not consider
the power constraint of the circuit. Another problem with the
above two methods is that they try to assign values to all X-bits in
all test patterns to reduce test power as much as possible. However,
not all of the test patterns are power-risky [19].
334
335
Disadvantages:
1. Although both the Preferred Fill and the ACF methods can
quickly assign the X-bits in PPI, they cannot ensure capture
power safety because they do not consider the power constraint
of the circuit.
2. They try to assign values to all X-bits in all test patterns to reduce
test power as much as possible.
337
338
paper
proposed
novel
capture-power-safe
test
pattern
339
proposed procedure refines power-safe patterns to detect the powerrisky faults and discards the power-risky patterns to ensure the capture
power safety. The capture power of newly generated patterns is also
guaranteed to be under the power constraints. The experimental
results show that more than 75% of power-risky faults can be detected
by refining the power safe patterns, and that the required test data
volumes can be reduced by 12.76% on average under the appropriate
power constraints without fault coverage loss.
References:
1. N. Ahmed, M. Tehranipoor, and V. Jayaram, Transition delay
fault testpattern generation considering supply voltage noise in
a SOC design,in Proc. Design Autom. Conf., 2007, pp. 533538
2. Y. Bonhomme, P. Girard, L. Guiller, C. Landrault, and S.
Pravossoudovitch,A gated clock scheme for low power scan
testing of logicICs or embedded cores, in Proc. Asian Test
Symp., 2001, pp. 253258.
3. K. Enokimoto, X. Wen, Y. Yamato, K. Miyase, H. Sone, S.
Kajihara,M. Aso, and H. Furukawa, CAT: A critical-areatargeted test setmodification scheme for reducing launch
switching activity in at-speedscan testing, in Proc. Asian Test
Symp., 2009, pp. 99104
4. T.-C. Huang and K.-J. Lee, A token scan architecture for low
powertesting, in Proc. Int. Test Conf., 2001, pp. 660669.
5. K.-J. Lee, S.-J. Hsu, and C.-M. Ho, Test power reduction with
multiplecapture orders, in Proc. Asian Test Symp., 2004, pp.
2631.
6.
J. Li, Q. Xu, Y. Hu, and X. Li, X-Filling for simultaneous shiftandcapture-power reduction in at-speed scan-based testing,
340
IEEE Trans.Very Large Scale Integr. Syst., vol. 18, no. 7, pp.
10811092, Jul.2010.
7. E. K. Moghaddam, J. Rajski, S. M. Reddy, and M. Kassab, Atspeedscan test with low switching activity, in Proc. VLSI Test
Symp., 2010,pp. 177182.
8. K. Miyase and S. Kajihara, XID: Dont care identification of
testpatterns for combinational circuits, IEEE Trans. Comput.
Aided DesignIntegr. Circuits Syst., vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 321326,
Feb. 2004.
9. I. Pomeranz and S. M. Reddy, Switching activity as a test
compactionheuristic for transition faults, IEEE Trans. Very
Large Scale Integr. Syst.,vol. 18, no. 9, pp. 13571361, Sep. 2010.
10. S. Remersaro, X. Lin, Z. Zhang, S. M. Reddy, I. Pomeranz, andJ.
Rajski, Preferred fill: A scalable method to reduce capture
powerfor scan based designs, in Proc. Int. Test Conf., 2006, pp.
110.
341
Santhosh.P
Saravana Muthu.K
S.Lakshmanan, M.E.
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Department
Veltech Multitech Dr.RR & Dr.SR
Engineering College
343
3. MATERIALS USED
Material
Specifications
No.
Bicycle
standard
Thermocol
M.S.Sheet
3mm thickness
M.S.Sheet
6 mm thickness
M.S.Sheet
1 mm thickness
Iron rod
Lorry hinges
Standard
Chain drive
Standard
Sprocket
Standard
Hub
Hub
4. THERMOCOL
Thermocol is one of the major raw materials of our project. Four blocks
of thermocol are used to create buoyancy force that makes the cycle to
float in water. The thermocol blocks are cut in aerodynamics shape to
provide better displacement in water.
Before cutting
After cutting
Fig. 4.1
Fig. 4.2
344
5. THE L - CLAMPS
The L-clamps are made of mild steel of thickness 3mm and 6 mm. The
clamp is foldable and can be folded while operating the bicycle on the
land. The folding is done by fixing hinges. The thermocol blocks can be
fitted and locked by using bold and nuts. The thermocol can be
attached or detached according to the riders wish. The supporting rod
should be fitted while moving in water.
9. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
Average speed in water : 4 to 5 km/hr
Average speed on land
: 15 to 20 km/hr
: 2 to 3 mins
: 1 to 2 mins
displaced fluid. For this reason, an object whose density is greater than
that of the fluid in which it is submerged tends to sink. If the object is
either less dense than the liquid or is shaped appropriately (as in a
boat), the force can keep the object afloat. This can occur only in a
reference frame which either has a gravitational field or is accelerating
due to a force other than gravity defining a "downward" direction. In a
situation of fluid statics, the net upward buoyancy force is equal to the
magnitude of the weight of fluid displaced by the body.
11. PROPERTIES OF EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE
(THERMOCOL)
Typical Properties:
Density Range
15-30 Kg/m3
0.8-1.6 Kg/cm
1.4-2.0 Kg/cm
Tensile Strength
3-6 kg/cm
Application Range
300 C
Melting Range
100-200C
12.WORKING OF VERSATILE BICYCLE
In versatile bicycle, thermocol blocks are used to create buoyancy force.
There are 4 blocks of even volume to give balance in the water .The
thermocols are attachable and detachable in the L-clamps and the Lclamps itself is foldable.
348
The movement in the water is given through rotating paddles that are
fixed at the back of the versatile bicycle. These paddles are connected to
the rear wheel of the bicycle through chain drive. Double threaded hub
has been used to put on two sprockets. In one sprocket, the normal
chain is connected to the pedals and in another sprocket, the chain
drive that rotate the paddles are connected. Thus, the movement is
given. These paddles can be adjusted according to the weight of the
rider when inside the water. There is an adjustable rod that increases
or decreases the altitude of the position of the paddles. The paddles
should be half inside and half outside the water to maximum
displacement.
13. ADVANTAGES OF VERSATILE BICYCLE
Single vehicle is used instead of two vehicles while crossing
water bodies.
Reasonable speed on water is achieved.
No major unease or discomfort to rider while riding on land.
The thermocol blocks are detachable, hence weight is reduced
while riding on land.
There is no sucking of water by thermocol as its of high density
quality.
In overall, the vehicle is very robust and can be used in any
conditions.
As the vehicle is cycle, its pollution free and environmental
friendly.
No extra fuel or energy required.
As the factor of safety given is 2, the chances of drowning is
zero.
14. DESIGN CALCULATIONS
Density of water
1 g/cm3
Density of thermocol
= 20 kg/m3 =>
0.02g/cm3
Material
Weight
Bicycle
25 kg
Rider
75 kgs
Total
Newtons
350
Can be used for small scale fishing process in lakes and ponds.
Can be used by children for having fun in water ride and also
serves as normal bicycle.
352
fixed.
18. COST OF FABRICATION
S.NO
1
2
3
4
5
6
COMPONENTS
BICYCLE (used)
THERMOOL
M.S.SHEET
MISCELLENEOUS
(HUBS,SPROCKETS,CHAINS ETC)
FABRICATION
(LABOR,TRANSPORTATIONS ETC)
TOTAL
COST
2000
1000
1000
1000
2000
7000
BICYCLE
References
1. Fluid Mechanics by R.K. Purohit
2. Fluid Mechanics By Victor Streetor , Benjemin Wylie and
K.W.Bedford
3. Introduction to Polymer Chemistry by Charles E. Carraher,
Jr.
4. An Introduction to fluid dynamics by Batchelor
5. An Introduction to Computational Fluid Dynamics : The
Finite Volume Method (English) 2nd Edition byVersteeg.
354
I.
Balaji V.R
Under Graduate Student
SSN College of Engineering
Kalavakkan,Tamilnadu,India
Amitesh Jain
Under Graduate Student
SSN College of Engineering
Kalavakkan,Tamilnadu,India
A.Kirthivasan
Under Graduate Student
SSN College of Engineering
Kalavakkan,Tamilnadu,India
D.Ananthapadmanaban
Associate Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engg.
SSN College of Engineering,
Kalavakkam, Tamilnadu, India
Introduction
356
Fig.1 Crash of the Wright Flyer, 1908. Courtesy of the National Air and
Space Museum,Smithsonian Institution Photo A-42555-A[1]
Conversely, failures can also lead to improvements in engineering
practices. The spectacular failures of the Liberty ships during World
War II were studied extensively in subsequent decades, and the
outcome of these efforts was a significantly more thorough
357
358
360
Fig. 5 The assembly fractured along the weld interface (a ferrite band
with oxides), etched, 2% natal[6]
A lap welded steel joint had failed when it was operated under very
high speeds[7]. This joint was fabricated by a laser beam welding using
high energy coherent optical source of heat at low pressure. The steel
sheets used for this purpose was 0.5 mm thick. The components of the
debris was put into failure analysis for metallurgical investigation. The
sheet and plate used to form this joint were analysed for their chemical
composition.
The results showed that both were made of the same steel grade
X2NiCoMo18-8-5. The samples were cut from both defected and nondefected regions and were analysed using optical microscopy. From the
analysis it was observed that welding bead had serious problems due to
the oxidation of the plate. The surface of metal plate was deposited by
oxidation products due to under machining of the plate, before welding.
Hence during welding, the oxidation products get entrapped within
weld bead or may appear on the surface of the weld. This weakens the
weld thereby causing failure.
IV.
Root-Cause Analysis
363
of
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_cause_analysis
9. http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/ap-cm-announcesexgratia-for-telugu-victims-in-chennai-buildingcollapse/article6159984.ece
365
P.Manjulamma
B.Sreenivasan
Assistant Professor
Department of ECE, AITS
Annamacharya Institute of
Technology and Sciences
Tirupati, India
N.Pushpalatha
Assistant Professor
Department of ECE, AITS
Annamacharya Institute of Technology and Sciences
Tirupati, India
I. INTRODUCTION
There has been a growing interest in recent years in high
dynamic range (HDR) images, where the range of intensity levels could
be on the order of 10,000 to 1. This allows for accurate representations
of the luminance variations in real scenes, ranging from direct sunlight
to faint starlight [1]. With recent advances in imaging and computer
graphics technologies, HDR images are becoming more widely
available. A common problem that is often encountered in practice is
how to visualize HDR images on standard display devices that are
designed to display low dynamic range (LDR) images. To overcome this
problem, an increasing number of tone mapping operators (TMOs) that
convert HDR to LDR images have been developed, for examples [2][5].
Because of the reduction in dynamic range, tone mapping procedures
inevitably cause information loss. With multiple TMOs available, one
would ask which TMO faithfully preserves the structural information
in the original HDR images, and which TMO produces natural-looking
366
369
PERCEPTUAL
IMAGE
QUALITY
ASSESSMENT
375
376
function (CSF) [21]. A CSF formula that fits well with data collected in
various psychological experiments is given by [25]
A( f ) 2.6[0.0192 + 0.114 f ] exp[(0.114 f )1.1]
where f denotes spatial frequency. This function is normalized
to have peak value 1, and thus only provides relative sensitivity across
the frequency spectrum. In practice, it needs to be scaled by a constant
to fit psychological data. In our implementation, we follow Kellys
CSF measurement [26].
Combining this with above, we obtain
s( f ) =1/ A( f ).
This threshold value is calculated based on contrast sensitivity
measurement assuming pure sinusoidal stimulus. To convert it to a
signal strength threshold measured using the standard deviation of the
signal, we need to take into account that signal amplitude scales with
both contrast and mean signal intensity, and there is A 2 factor
between the amplitude and standard deviation of a sinusoidal signal. As
a result, a threshold value defined on signal standard deviation can be
computed as
( f ) = / 2 A( f )
where is the mean intensity value. Based on Croziers law [21], [24],
we have
( f ) = ( f )/ k
We can then define the mapping between and ` as
local
a sliding window that runs across the image space. This results in a
map that reflects the variation of structural fidelity across space. The
visibility of image details depends on the sampling density of the image,
the distance between the image and the observer, the resolution of the
display, and the perceptual capability of the observers visual system. A
single scale method cannot capture such variations. Following the idea
used in multi-scale [16] and information-weighted SSIM [17], we adopt
a multi-scale approach, where the images are iteratively low-pass
filtered and down sampled to create an image pyramid structure [27],
as illustrated in Fig. 1. The local structural fidelity map is generated at
each scale. Fig. 2 shows two examples of such maps computed at
multiple scales for the LDR images created from two different TMOs. It
is interesting to observe these fidelity maps and examine how they
correlate with perceived image fidelity. For example, the structural
details of the brightest window regions are missing in Image (b), but
are more visible in Image (a). For another example, there are detailed
structures in the top-right dark regions that are not easily discerned in
Image (a), but are better visualized in Image (b). All of these are clearly
reflected in the structural fidelity maps.
At each scale, the map is pooled by averaging to provide a single score:
where xi and yi are the i -th patches in the HDR and LDR images
being compared, respectively, and Nl is the number of patches in the lth scale. In the literature, advanced pooling strategies such as
information content based pooling [17] have been shown to improve the
performance of IQA algorithms.
378
Fig. 5 Run time versus the number of image pixels of the proposed
algorithm
383
385
386