I. Geography. Physical, Human, and Urban

IES COMPLUTENSE
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY

Jorge-Elas de la Pea y Montes de Oca
Geography 3rd CSE
Block I: Physical, human,

and urban geography
Jorge Elas de la Pea y Montes de Oca

Teacher at the Bilingual Section
Department of Geography and History
IES Complutense. Alcal de Henares
1st CSE YEAR
UNIT 1. PREHISTORY
IES COMPLUTENSE

IES COMPLUTENSE

Geography 3rd CSE
UNIT 0:
Descriptive Geography
1st CSE YEAR
UNIT 1. PREHISTORY
IES COMPLUTENSE

UNIT 0: DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY
1. THE WORLD
1
3rd CSE YEAR
UNIT 0. DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY
IES COMPLUTENSE

2. AFRICA
SEAS OF AFRICA/MARES DE FRICA

Atlantic Ocean
Indian Ocean
Mar Mediterrneo
Red Sea
Ocano Atlntico
Mar Mediterrneo
Ocano ndico
Mar Rojo
STRAITS AND CHANNELS OF AFRICA/ESTRECHOS Y CANALES DE FRICA
Strait of Gibraltar
Estrecho de Gibraltar
3rd CSE YEAR
IES COMPLUTENSE

ISLANDS OF AFRICA/ISLAS DE FRICA

Canary Islands
Islas Canarias
Madeira
Madagascar
Comoros
Comoras
Cape Verde
Cabo Verde
So Tom e Prncipe
Seychelles
Santo Tom y Prncipe

GULFS AND BAYS OF FRICA/GOLFOS DE FRICA
Gulf of Guinea
Gulf of Gabes
Gulf of Sidra
Gulf of Aden
Golfo de Guinea
Golfo de Sidra
Golfo de Gabs
Golfo de Adn
CAPES OF AFRICA/CABOS DE FRICA

Verde
Lpez
Good Hope
Buena Esperanza
Agulhas
Guardafui
PENINSULAS OF AFRICA/PENNSULAS DE FRICA

Somalia
MOUNTAIN RANGES OF AFRICA/CORDILLERAS DE FRICA
Mountain Range
Peaks
Atlas
Drakensberg
Tibesti Mountains
Toubkal (4,167 m.)
Sistema montaoso
Picos
Macizo del Tibesti

Ahaggar Mountains
Macizo del Ahaggar

Ethiopian Highlands
Macizo Etope
Cameroon Mountains
Montes Camern
Cameroon (4,070 m.)
Camern
Kilimanjaro (5,895 m.)

Kenya (5,199 m.)
Ruwenzori (5,109 m.)
PLAINS AND PLATEAUS OF AFRICA/LLANURAS Y MESETAS DE FRICA
Congo Basin
Gran Cubeta del Congo
3rd CSE YEAR
South African Plain
Meseta Sudafricana
IES COMPLUTENSE

RIVERS OF AFRICA/ROS DE FRICA

Drainage Basin
River
Mediterranean Sea
Nile (6,650 km.)
Vertiente
Ro
Mar Mediterrneo
Nilo
Senegal (1,790 km.)

Niger (4,180 km.)
Atlantic Ocean
Nger
Ocano Atlntico
Congo (4,700 km.)

Orange (2,200 km.)
Limpopo (1,750 km.)
Zambezi (3,540 km.)
Indian Ocean
Ocano ndico
Zambeze
LAKES OF AFRICA/LAGOS DE FRICA

Victoria
Turkana
Albert
Alberto
Tanganyika
Tanganica
Malawi
Chad
DESERTS OF AFRICA/DESIERTOS DE FRICA

Sahara
Shara
3rd CSE YEAR
Kalahari
IES COMPLUTENSE

3. ASIA
SEAS OF ASIA/MARES DE ASIA

Arctic Ocean
South China Sea
Bering Sea
Philippine Sea
Pacific Ocean
Indian Ocean
Sea of Okhotsk
Arabian Sea
Yellow Sea
Red Sea
East China Sea
Mediterranean Sea
Sea of Japan
Black Sea
Ocano Glacial rtico

Mar de Bering
Ocano Pacfico
Mar de Ojotsk
Mar Amarillo
Mar de la China Oriental
Mar del Japn
3rd CSE YEAR
Mar de la China Meridional

Mar de Filipinas
Ocano ndico
Mar Arbigo
Mar Rojo
Mar Mediterrneo
Mar Negro
IES COMPLUTENSE

STRAITS AND CHANNELS OF ASIA/ESTRECHOS Y CANALES DE ASIA
Strait of Malacca
Strait of Bosphorus
Estrecho del Bsforo
Estrecho de Malaca
Strait of Dardanelles
Formosa Strait
Strait of Ormuz
Bering Strait
Estrecho de los Dardanelos
Estrecho de Formosa
Estrecho de Ormuz
Estrecho de Bering
ISLANDS OF ASIA/ISLAS DE ASIA

Kuril Islands and Sakhalin
Islas Kuriles y Sajaln
Indonesia: Java, Borneo, Celebes, Sumatra,

Timor
Japanese Archipelago: Hokkaido, Honshu,

Shikoku, Kyushu
Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
Taiwan
Maldives
The Philippines: Luzon, Mindanao
Cyprus
Archipilago del Japn:

Taiwn
Filipinas: Luzn,
Ceiln
Maldivas
Chipre
GULFS AND BAYS OF ASIA/GOLFOS DE ASIA

Gulf of Thailand
Golfo de Tailandia
Gulf of Oman
Golfo de Omn
Bay of Bengal
Golfo de Bengala
Persian Gulf
Golfo Prsico
Gulf of Aden
Golfo de Adn
CAPES OF ASIA/CABOS DE ASIA

Comorin
Comorn
PENINSULAS OF ASIA/PENNSULAS DE ASIA
Anatolian peninsula
Malay peninsula
Arabian peninsula
Korean peninsula
Pennsula de Anatolia
Pennsula arbiga
Pennsula de Malaca
Pennsula de Corea
Hindustan
Pennsula del Indostn

Indochina
Kamchatka
Pennsula de Indochina
3rd CSE YEAR
IES COMPLUTENSE

MOUNTAIN RANGES OF ASIA/CORDILLERAS DE ASIA

Mountain Range
Peaks
Himalayas
Everest (8,848 m.)

K2 (8,611 m.)
Tirich Mir (7,690 m.)
Ismoil Somoni/Comunism (7,495 m.)
/Comunismo
Sistema montaoso
Himalaya
Hindu Kush
Pamir Mountains
Meseta del Pamir
Picos
Altay Mountains
Montes Altai
Zagros Mountains
Montes Zagros
Caucasus
Cucaso
Yablonovy Mountains
Montes Yablonovi
Stanovoiy Range
Montes Stanovoi
Verkhoyansk Range
Verjoyansk
Ural Mountains
Urales
Japanese Alps
Alpes Japoneses
Fuji (3,776 m.)
Fujiyama
PLAINS AND PLATEAUS OF ASIA/LLANURAS Y MESETAS DE ASIA

Tibetan Plateau
Iranian Plateau
Deccan Plateau
China Plain
Indo-Gangetic Plain
West Siberian Plain
Meseta del Tbet
Meseta Iran
Meseta del Decn
Llanura de China
Llanura Indo-Gangtica
Llanura de Siberia occidental
RIVERS OF ASIA/ROS DE ASIA

Drainage Basin
Vertiente
River
Ro
Yenisey (4,090 km.)
Yenisi
Arctic Ocean
Ocano Glacial rtico
Ob (2,962 km.)
Obi
Lena (4,472 km.)

Kolyma (2,129 km.)
Kolima
Amur (2,824 km.)

Pacific Ocean
Ocano Pacfico
Huang He/Yellow (5,464 km.)
Huang Ho/Amarillo
Yangtze Kiang/Blue (6,300 km.)
3rd CSE YEAR
IES COMPLUTENSE

Yangts Kiang/Azul
Sikiang/Black (1,930 km.)
Sikiang/Negro
Mekong (4,909 km.)

Brahmaputra (2,900 km.)
Ganges (2,510 km.)
Indus (3,100 km.)
Indian Ocean
Indo
Ocano ndico
Tigris (1,850 km.)

Euphrates (2,850 km.)
ufrates
Amu Darya (2,400 km.)
Amu Daria
Aral Sea
Mar de Aral
Syr Darya (2,212 km.)
Sir Daria
LAKES OF ASIA/LAGOS DE ASIA

Caspian Sea
Lake Baikal
Aral Sea
Lake Balkhash
Mar Caspio
Mar de Aral
3rd CSE YEAR
Lago Baikal
DESERTS
ASIA
Gobi Desert
OF
Desierto del Gobi
ASIA/DESIERTOS
DE
Arabian Desert
Desierto de Arabia
Lago Baljash
IES COMPLUTENSE

4. AMERICA
3rd CSE YEAR
IES COMPLUTENSE

10
SEAS OF AMERICA/MARES DE AMRICA

Arctic Ocean
Antarctic Ocean
Bering Sea
Atlantic Ocean
Pacific Ocean
Caribbean Sea
Ocano Glacial rtico

Mar de Bering
Ocano Pacfico
3rd CSE YEAR
Ocano Glacial Antrtico

Ocano Atlntico
Mar Caribe
IES COMPLUTENSE

STRAITS AND CHANNELS OF AMERICA/ESTRECHOS Y CANALES DE AMRICA

Bering Strait
Strait of Magellan
Estrecho de Bering
Estrecho de Magallanes
ISLANDS OF AMERICA/ISLAS DE AMRICA

Greenland
Puerto Rico
Groenlandia
Baffin
Newfoundland
Trinidad
Lesser Antilles
Terranova
Pequeas Antillas
Falkland Islands
Bahamas
Islas Malvinas
Cuba
Hispaniola
Tierra del Fuego

Galapagos Islands
La Espaola
Islas Galpagos
Aleutian Islands
Jamaica
Islas Aleutianas
GULFS AND BAYS OF AMERICA/GOLFOS DE AMRICA

Baffin Bay
Gulf of California
Baha de Baffin
Golfo de California
Hudson Bay
Baha de Hudson
Gulf of Alaska
Golfo de Alaska
Gulf of Mexico
Golfo de Mxico
CAPES OF AMERICA/CABOS DE AMRICA

Horn
Hornos
So Tom
Santo Tom
So Roque
San Roque
San Lucas
PENINSULAS OF AMERICA/PENNSULAS DE AMRICA

Alaska
California
Yucatn
3rd CSE YEAR
Florida
Labrador
11
IES COMPLUTENSE

MOUNTAIN RANGES OF AMERICA/CORDILLERAS DE AMRICA

Mountain Range
Peaks
Andes
Aconcagua (6,962 m.)

Ojos del Salado (6,891 m.)
Huascarn (6,768 m.)
Chimborazo (6,267 m.)
Sistema montaoso
Picos
Guiana Highlands
Macizo de las Guayanas

Sierra Madre del Sur
Sierra Madre Oriental
Sierra Madre Occidental
Rocky Mountains
Montaas Rocosas
Orizaba (5,747 m.)

Popocatepetl (5,500 m.)
McKinley (6,194 m.)
Appalachian Mountains
Montes Apalaches
Sierra Nevada
Whitney (4,418 m.)
PLAINS AND PLATEAUS OF AMERICA/LLANURAS Y MESETAS DE AMRICA

Altiplano (Bolivian Plateau)
Pampa
Altiplano de Bolivia
Mato Grosso Plateau
Meseta del Mato Grosso
Great North American Plains
Grandes Llanuras Norteamericanas
Amazon Plains
Llanuras del Amazonas

RIVERS OF AMERICA/ROS DE AMRICA
Drainage Basin
Vertiente
River
Ro
Amazon (6,800 km.)
Amazonas
Orinoco (2,140 km.)

Atlantic Ocean
Ocano Atlntico
River Plate: Paraguay (2,621 km.), Paran (4,880

km.), Uruguay (1,600 km.)
Ro de la Plata:
Mississippi (3,764 km.)-Missouri (3,767 km.)
Misisispi-Misuri
Saint Lawrence (1,197 km.)
San Lorenzo
Pacific Ocean
Ocano Pacfico
Arctic Ocean
Ocano Glacial rtico
3rd CSE YEAR
Colorado (2,334 km.)

Yukon (1,984 km.)
Yukn
Mackenzie (1,738 km.)
12
IES COMPLUTENSE

LAKES OF AMERICA /LAGOS DE AMRICA

Great Bear Lake
Gran Lago del Oso
Great Lakes: Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie,

Ontario
Grandes Lagos: , Hurn,
Great Slave Lake
Gran Lago del Esclavo

Lake Winnipeg
13
Lake Titicaca
Lago Titicaca
Lago Winnipeg
DESERTS OF AMERICA/DESIERTOS DE AMRICA
Atacama Desert
Desierto de Atacama
Sonora Desert
Mojave Desert
Desierto de Mojave
Desierto de Sonora
3rd CSE YEAR
IES COMPLUTENSE

5. OCEANIA
14
3rd CSE YEAR
IES COMPLUTENSE

SEAS OF OCEANIA/MARES DE OCEANA

Pacific Ocean
Ocano Pacfico
Timor Sea
Mar de Timor
Indian Ocean
Ocano ndico
Tasman Sea
Coral Sea
Mar del Coral
Mar de Tasmania
15
STRAITS AND CHANNELS OF OCEANIA/ESTRECHOS Y CANALES DE OCEANA

Torres Strait
Estrecho de Torres
Cook Strait
Estrecho de Cook
ISLANDS AND ARCHIPELAGOS OF OCEANIA/ISLAS Y ARCHIPILAGOS DE OCEANA
Australia
Tasmania
New Zealand: North Island, South Island
Nueva Zelanda: Isla del Norte, Isla del Sur

New Guinea
Nueva Guinea
Melanesia: Solomon Islands, Bismarck

Archipelago, New Caledonia, Fiji, Vanuatu
Melanesia: Islas Salomn, Archipilago de

Bismarck, Nueva Caledonia, Fiyi,
Micronesia: Marshall Islands, Caroline Islands,
Mariana Islands, Guam, Palau, Kiribati
Micronesia: Islas Marshall, Islas Carolinas, Islas

Marianas,
Polinesia: Hawaiian Islands, Tuvalu, Samoa,
Tonga, Cook Islands, French Polinesia, Easter
Island
Polinesia: Hawai,, Islas Cook, Polinesia

Francesa, Isla de Pascua
GULFS AND BAYS OF OCEANIA/GOLFOS DE OCEANA

Island
Isla
Gulf or Bay
Golfo
Great Australian Bight

Australia
Gran Baha Australiana

Gulf of Carpentaria
Golfo de Carpentaria
CAPES OF OCEANIA /CABOS DE OCEANA
Island
Cape
Australia
York
Isla
Cabo
PENINSULAS OF OCEANIA/PENNSULAS DE OCEANA

Island
Isla
3rd CSE YEAR
Peninsula
Pennsula
IES COMPLUTENSE

Cape York Peninsula (Australia)
Australia
Pennsula del Cabo York (Australia)
MOUNTAIN RANGES OF OCEANIA/CORDILLERAS DE OCEANA

Island
Isla
Australia
New Zealand
Mountain Range
Peaks
Sistema montaoso
Picos
Great Dividing Range
Kosciusko (2,228 m.)
Gran Cordillera Divisoria

Southern Alps
Cook (3,764 m.)
Alpes Neozelandeses
RIVERS OF OCEANIA/ROS DE OCEANA

Island
Isla
Australia
Drainage Basin
River
Indian Ocean
Murray (2,375 km.)-Darling (1,472

km.)
Vertiente
Ro
Ocano Pacfico
DESERTS OF OCEANIA/DESIERTOS DE OCEANA

Island
Isla
Desert
Desierto
Great Sandy Desert
Gran Desierto de Arena

Great Victoria Desert
Australia
Gran Desierto Victoria

Simpson Desert
Desierto Simpson
Gibson Desert
Desierto Gibson
https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54Dkea1lOXzg5TWFRWDg
3rd CSE YEAR
16
IES COMPLUTENSE

6. EUROPE
17
SEAS OF EUROPE/MARES DE EUROPA

Atlantic Ocean
Black Sea
Arctic Ocean
Sea of Marmara
Mediterranean Sea
Cantabrian Sea
Aegean Sea
North Sea
Adriatic Sea
Norwegian Sea
Tyrrhenian Sea
Baltic Sea
Ligurian Sea
White Sea
Ionian Sea
Barents Sea
Ocano Atlntico
Oceano Glacial rtico
Mar Mediterrneo
Mar Egeo
Mar Adritico
Mar Tirreno
Mar de Liguria
Mar Jnico
3rd CSE YEAR
Mar Negro
Mar de Mrmara
Mar Cantbrico
Mar del Norte
Mar de Noruega
Mar Bltico
Mar Blanco
Mar de Barents
IES COMPLUTENSE

STRAITS AND CHANNELS OF EUROPE/ESTRECHOS Y CANALES DE EUROPA
Strait of Gibraltar
Strait of Dover
Strait of Messina
Paso de Calais
Strait of Bonifacio
Kattegat
Strait of Bosphorus
Denmark Strait
Strait of Dardanelles
English Channel
Estrecho de Mesina
Estrecho de Bonifacio
Estrecho del Bsforo
Estrecho de los Dardanelos
Skagerrak
Estrecho de Skagerrak
Estrecho de Kattegat
Estrecho de Dinamarca
Canal de la Mancha
ISLANDS OF EUROPE/ISLAS DE EUROPA

Iceland
Sardinia
British Isles: Great Britain, Ireland, Isle of

Man, Hebrides, Orkney Islands
Sicily
Islandia
Islas Britnicas: Gran Bretaa, Irlanda, Isla de

Man, Islas Hbridas, Islas rcadas
Channel Islands
Islas Anglo-Normandas
Cerdea
Sicilia
Malta
Shetland Islands
Ionian Islands: Corfu
Faroe Islands
Crete
Danish Islands: Zealand
Cyclades: Andros, Naxos, Santorini
Balearic Islands: Majorca, Minorca, Ibiza,

Formentera
Northern Sporades
Corsica
Dodecanese: Rhodes
Islas Shetland
Islas Feroe
Islas Danesas: Selandia
Islas Baleares: Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza,

Formentera
Crcega
Islas Jnicas: Corf

Creta
Ccladas : Andros, Naxos, Santorini

Espradas Septentrionales
Dodecadeno: Rodas
GULFS AND BAYS OF EUROPE/GOLFOS DE EUROPA

Bay of Biscay
Gulf of Venice
Bay of Cdiz
Bay of Pomerania
Gulf of Valencia
Gulf of Finland
Golfo de Vizcaya
Golfo de Cdiz
Golfo de Valencia
Golfo de Venecia
Golfo de Pomerania
Golfo de Finlandia
Gulf of Lion
Golfo del Len

Gulf of Genoa
Gulf of Bothnia
Golfo de Botnia
Golfo de Gnova
3rd CSE YEAR
18
IES COMPLUTENSE

CAPES OF EUROPE/CABOS DE EUROPA

North Cape
So Vicente
Lands End
Point du Raz
Punta de Tarifa
Finisterre
Matapan/Tainaron
Cabo Norte
San Vicente
Nao
Punta de Raz
Matapn/Tnaro
Roca
PENINSULAS OF EUROPE/PENNSULAS DE EUROPA

Scandinavia
Escandinavia
Kola
Italian peninsula
Peninsula italica
Balkan peninsula
Pennsula Balcnica
Jutland
Peloponnese/Peloponnesus
Iberian peninsula
Crimean peninsula
Jutlandia
Pennsula Ibrica
Peloponeso
Pennsula de Crimea
MOUNTAIN RANGES OF EUROPE/CORDILLERAS DE EUROPA

Mountain Range
Sistema montaoso
Caucasus
Cucaso
Alps
Alpes
Pyrenees
Pirineos
Baetic Ranges
Sistemas Bticos
Ural Mountains
Urales
Balkan Mountains
Balcanes
Peaks
Picos
Elbrus (5,642 m.)

Mont Blanc (4,810 m.)
Monte Rosa (4,634 m.)
Aneto (3,404 m.)
Monte Perdido (3,355 m.)
Mulhacn (3,478 m.)
Veleta (3,398 m.)
Narodnaya (1,895 m.)
Olympus (Olimpo, 2,917 m)
Dinaric Alps
Alpes Dinricos
Carpathian Mountains
Crpatos
Apennines
Apeninos
Central Massif
Macizo Central
Corno Grande (2,912 m.)

Puy de Sancy (1,886 m.)
Scandinavian Mountains
Alpes Escandinavos
Scottish Highlands
Highlands escoceses
3rd CSE YEAR
Ben Nevis (1,344 m.)
19
IES COMPLUTENSE

PLAINS AND PLATEAUS OF EUROPE/LLANURAS Y MESETAS DE EUROPA

Iberian Plateau
Meseta central ibrica

European Plain: North European Plain,
East European Plain
Pannonian Plain
Llanura de Panonia
Gran Llanura Europea: Llanura

septentrional europea, Llanura oriental
europea
20
RIVERS OF EUROPE/ROS DE EUROPA
Drainage Basin
River
Caspian Sea
Volga (3,690 km)

Ural (2,428 km.)
Danube (2,860 km.)
Vertiente
Mar Caspio
Ro
Danubio
Black Sea
Mar Negro
Dnieper (2,290 km.)
Dniper
Dniester (1,352 km.)
Dnister
Mediterranean Sea
Mar Mediterrneo
Don (1,950 km.)

Ebro (960 km)
Rhone (815 km.)
Rdano
Po (682 km.)
Elbe (1,091 km.)
Elba
Rhine (1,236 km.)
Rin
Seine (776 km.)
Sena
Loire (1,012 km.)

Atlantic Ocean
Ocano Atlntico
Loira
Garonne (575 km.)
Garona
Duero (897 km)

Tagus (1,038 km.)
Tajo
Guadiana (818 km.)

Guadalquivir (657 km.)
Thames (346 km.)
Tmesis
Baltic Sea
Mar Bltico
Arctic Ocean
Ocano Glacial rtico
3rd CSE YEAR
Oder (854 km.)

Vistula (1,047 km.)
Vstula
Northern Dvina (744 km.)
Dvina Septentrional
Pechora (1,809 km.)
IES COMPLUTENSE

LAKES OF EUROPE/LAGOS DE EUROPA

Caspian Sea
Lake Onega
Lake Ladoga
Lake Geneva/Lman
Mar Caspio
Lago Ladoga
Lago Onega
Lago de Ginebra/Lemn
21
3rd CSE YEAR
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Geography
3rd
CSE
UNIT 1:
Planet Earth
1st CSE YEAR
UNIT 1. PREHISTORY
IES COMPLUTENSE

UNIT 1: PLANET EARTH

1. THE EARTH
1.1.
The Earth in the Universe
The Earth is the only known inhabited planet. It is located in the Solar System,
which belongs to the Milky Way galaxy.
o In the Universe there are many galaxies (circa 100 billions), nebulae and
black holes.
It is thought that the Universe was created after the Big Bang, circa
13,700,000,000 years ago.
Our closest galaxy is called Andromeda, which is around 2.2 million
light years.
o Within the Milky Way there are more than 250 Solar Systems.
o Our Solar System was created when the big cloud of gas and dust reached
11,000,000C, which permitted the formation of a star, the Sun.
o The Earth was formed around 4.5 billion years ago out of a group of rocks
that revolved around the sun after the Big Bang.
In our Solar System there are eight planets and five dwarf planets.
o They have different sizes and satellites revolving around.
o Moreover there are comets, asteroids, satellites, and meteorites.
Distance to the
sun
(million km)
Planet
Inner
planets
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
58
108
149
228
Outer
planets
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
778
1,428
2,873
4,498
Diameter
(thousand km)
Orbits period
(years)
Rotations period
(days)
1
2
0.24
0.72
1
1.88
58.6
-243
1
1.03
65
62
27
13
11.86
29.46
84.01
164.79
0.414
0.426
0.718
0.675
Satellites
4.8
12.3
12.8
6.9
Asteroids belt
142
120
50.7
48.6
o All the planets of the Solar System revolve around an only star, the Sun,
whose diameter is around 1,391,000 kilometres.
o The orbits on which they revolve are elliptical.
o The inner planets are mostly rocky and small, whereas the outer planets
are gaseous, big and they have many satellites revolving around them.
3rd CSE YEAR
UNIT 1. PLANET EARTH
IES COMPLUTENSE

Dwarf
planet
Distance to the sun

(million km)
Diameter
(km)
Satellites
Orbits
period
(years)
Rotations
period
(days)
Ceres
415.5
952.4
4.59
0.38
Pluto
5850
2,302
247.92
-6.39
Haumea
6501
285.4
0.16
Makemake
6868
309.9
Eris
10,200
2,398
557
The Earth has a spherical shape, but its poles are slightly flattened and the equator is
a little widened. That is the reason why it is said that its shape is a geoid.
o The Earth has an axial tilt of 23 27 from the vertex, whose result is the
seasonal change in climate.
o Its surface is around 510 million square kilometres (the sun is circa
1,300,000 bigger than the Earth).
The 70% consists of water (oceans, seas, rivers, and lakes.
The 30% consists of land (continents and islands).
1.2.
The Revolution of the Earth
The Earth has two kinds of movements:

o Earths orbit around the sun. Our planet moves at 30 km/sec following its
elliptical orbit around the sun, which takes 365 days (that explains the leap
years every four years, which have 366 days).
It fixes the duration of the day and the night according to the season.
It provokes the seasonal change due to the axial tilt.
Spring. In the southern hemisphere it is autumn.
Summer. In the southern hemisphere it is winter.
Autumn. In the southern hemisphere it is spring.
Winter. In the southern hemisphere it is summer.
3rd CSE YEAR
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Climates are caused by this movement. There are three different kind
of climate zones in the world:
One warm zone (Torrid Zone). It is located around the
equator up to the tropics.
Two temperate zones. They are located between the tropics
and the polar circles.
Two cold zones (Frigid Zones). They are above the polar
circles.
o Rotation. The Earth spins on its own axis, which takes 24 hours:
It moves from west to east.
Day and night are caused by the rotation since the sun just lights half
of the Earth.
The revolution of the Earth causes:
o Equinoxes. It is the moment in which the sun is vertical to the equator.
Day and night have the same duration across the world.
There are two during the year:
21 March. It is the vernal equinox (northern hemisphere).
21 September. It is the autumnal equinox (northern
hemisphere).
o Solstices. It is the moment in which the sun falls vertically on one of the two
tropics (located at 23 27 N and 23 27S):
When there is a solstice the day or the night have their maximal
duration (it depends on which solstice it is).
21 June. The sun strikes over the Tropic of Cancer (23
27N) and it makes that the maximal day time is in the
northern hemisphere. It is the summer solstice (northern
hemisphere).
21 December. The sun falls on the Tropic of Capricorn (23
27 S) and it makes that the maximal day time is in the
southern hemisphere. It is the winter solstice (northern
hemisphere).
o Seasons. There are four different seasons in the temperate zones. Their
beginning is marked by the equinoxes and solstices that take place due to the
Earths orbit. They change according on the hemisphere:
o Eclipses. They are caused by the movement of the Earth around the sun and
of the moon around the Earth.
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2. MAPS
2.1.
Geographic network
The geographic network is a grid of imaginary lines that let us locate a place on a
map:
o Meridians. They are the imaginary lines that link the poles (they go from
the north to the south or vice versa). They fix the longitude, which can be
either east or west. All the meridians measure the same and there are 360 (up
to 180E and 180W).
In 1884 it was agreed to fix the location of the Prime Meridian (0)
in Greenwich, hence its name. It has its antipodes at 180.
Meridians fix the time zones, which are 24 in total basing on the
location of each region and the sun (each time zone stretches 15).
The time we use as a reference is called Greenwich Mean Time
(GMT). As we move eastwards, clocks move forward the same
number of hours as time zones travelled. On the contrary, if we move
westwards, clocks go back the same number of hours as time zones
travelled.
o Parallels. They are imaginary lines that are parallel to the equator (parallel
0). There are 180 in total (90N and 90S). They fix the latitude (north or
south) and divide the world into two parts, the northern and the southern
hemispheres. There are several major parallels.
Equator. It is located at 0 and it separates the northern and the
southern hemispheres.
Tropics. They are the imaginary lines that are the maximal point of
perpendicular fall of the sun onto the Earth. They are caused due to
the axial tilt.
Tropic of Cancer. It is located at 2327N.
Tropic of Capricorn. It is located at 2327S.
Polar Circles. They are the imaginary lines above which there is at
least 24 hours of day-time or night-time in a row. They are also
caused by the axial tilt.
Arctic Circle. It is located at 6633N
Antarctic Circle. It is located at 6633S.
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2.2.

Geographic coordinates
They help find an exact point on a map through imaginary lines. The units taken for
that measure are degrees (), minutes (), and seconds ().
It is essential to understand two terms that are part of these coordinates:
o Latitude. It is the distance between any part of the world and the equator. It
is measured in north or south and there can be up to 90N or 90S.
o Longitude. It is the distance between any part of the world and the Prime
Meridian (Greenwich). It is measured in east or west and there can be up to
180E or 180E.
3. THE EARTHS RELIEF

3.1.
The structure of the Earth
The Earth has an internal composition based on concentric layers:

o Crust. It is the most external and thinnest layer of the Earth.
Continental crust. It is composed by the emerged lands. It can reach
up to 20 or 70 km. Its main composition is based on rocks and sands.
Oceanic crust. It is composed by the land that in submerged under
the sea. It only reaches 10 km under the oceans.
o Mantle. It is mostly composed of magma (molten rock) and constitutes the
70% of the Earths thickness. It is not a rigid layer. The crust lies above this
layer.
Upper mantle. It is just below the crust and has a depth of 70 to 700
km.
Lower mantle. This layer has a depth of 700 to 3,000 km.
o Core. It is the central part of the Earth and is composed of heavy metals,
iron, and nickel. Temperatures are really high in this layer (up to 4,300C).
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The external composition lies on the crust and it consists on different tectonic
plates (like a jigsaw puzzle) that ride on the astenosphere, a viscous and weak
region of the upper mantle of the Earth.
o These plates crash on each other, either under the ocean or in the continents.
o The border areas where they crashed may suffer earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions.
Earthquakes. They are sudden movements of the tectonic plates that
fracture. They can also occur owing to volcanic eruptions.
They have destructive seismic waves that expand the
movement and their origin are really located at two points:
o Hypocentre (focus). It is the position where the strain
energy stored in the rock is first released, marking the
point where the fault begins to rupture. This occurs at
the focal depth below the epicentre.
o Epicentre. It is the point on the Earth's surface that is
directly above the hypocentre, the point where an
earthquake or underground explosion originates.
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3.2.
The intensity of the earthquakes is known thanks to the

seismographs, which base on the Richter magnitude scale.
Submarine quakes are called seaquakes and usually provoke
tidal waves (tsunami), which travel faster than 800 km/h.
These waves can be higher than 15 metres.
Volcanoes. They are openings that expel magma through the vent
and crater. They are usually located at the plate boundaries. They
usually expel lava, ashes, and gases. There are three categories of
volcanoes:
Active volcanoes. They have frequent eruptions.
Dormant volcanoes. They are volcanoes which are
recharging their lava supply. Meanwhile they repose.
Extinct volcanoes. They are unlikely to erupt again because
they have no lava supply.
Types of relief
There can be two kinds of relief: continental relief (on emerged lands) and oceanic
or submarine relief (under the seas and oceans).
The continental relief has several formations:
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o Mountains. They are elevations of the land with different origin.

They were created during the orogenies some million years ago.
The highest mountains emerged in more recent periods. Their
profiles are steeper. They usually form mountain ranges:
The highest mountain range are the Himalayas (Everest is the
highest mountain in the world, 8,848 m).
The longest mountain range is the Andes (together with
Sierra Madre and the Rocky Mountains).
The oldest mountains are lower and rounder. They are called
massifs. They used to be high but they were eroded.
o Plateaux. They are large flat high areas higher than 400 metres. The highest
ones in the world are the Tibetan Plateau and the Altiplano (Bolivia), they
exceed 3,000 metres high. Most of Spain is composed by the Iberian
Plateau.
o Plains. They are flat and low-lying lands that do not exceed 200 metres high.
They are usually along the coast (coastal plains) or by the rivers (river
plains).
Some of them may be sedimentary basins, where eroded material
deposits.
Some others have been produced by the erosion of old mountain
ranges.
o Valleys. They have been created by the rivers in their flow towards their
mouth. They are usually low lands between mountains.
o Depressions. They are large areas located below sea level, such as the Dead
Sea (-395 m), Death Valley (-86 m) or the Caspian Sea (-28 m).
The submarine relief has also several kinds of formations:
o Continental shelf. They are vast coastal plateaux that are not deeper than
200 metres. Their width is around 100-500 km. Most of the fishing grounds
are in this part of the ocean.
o Continental slope. It is a steep step that descends from the continental shelf
to the ocean basin.
o Ocean basin or abyssal plain. It is a major deep plain that is around 3,0005,000 metres deep. There can be two other formations within the ocean
basin:
Oceanic trenches, which are narrow but deep depressions of sea
floor when it sinks below a continental plate (the deepest one is the
Mariana Trench, 11,022 m).
Submarine ridge. They are submerged mountain ranges that are
around 3,000 metres higher than the abyssal plain. They are usually
the boundary of the tectonic plates. Therefore magma comes out
from the summit of these ranges. There can be volcanic islands on
their highest points (Iceland, Azores).
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4. WATER ON THE EARTH

Most of the Earth is covered by water (71%), which is essential for life.
Water is continuously moving on or below the surface of the Earth. That is the
water cycle:
o Water in the seas evaporates and the liquid turns into vapour.
o Water vapour rises, cools and condensates creating clouds
o Wind moves the clouds.
o Condensed vapour falls as precipitation (rain, snow or hail).
o Some water infiltrates into the ground.
o Groundwater goes into the sea.
o River water goes into the sea and other rivers.
4.1.
Land water
Only 3% is fresh water:

o Only 0.014% can be consumed, since the rest is glacial ice (Arctic and
Antarctic).
o Most of the water has been regulated by engineering, such as canals,
reservoirs, dikes, dams for hydroelectric power stations...
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o Fresh water has been polluted due to population growth.

A river is a natural watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, a
lake, a sea, or another river.
o They get its water through rain or thaw.
o The river that flows into another river is called tributary.
o There can be permanent rivers or seasonal rivers (called wadis).
o When a river is analysed it is important to know:
Source. Many rivers start from groundwater which rises and form
springs, whereas some others originate from glaciers or lakes. It will
explain the flow and some other characteristics of the river.
Basin. It is an extent or an area of land where surface water
converges to a single point, where the waters join another river or
sea. The larger it is the more flow the river will have.
Length. It measures the kilometres of the river. The longest ones in
the world are the rivers Amazon (6,800 km) and Nile (6,756 km).
Flow or volume. It measures how much water flows in the river. The
more it rains the larger the flow will be. The river with a largest flow
is the Amazon (average flow: 225,000 m3/sec).
River regime. It depends on what kind of water is supplied to the
river:
Melting regime. The flow of the river just comes out of
snow. The flow will be larger in spring due to the thaw.
Rainfall regime. The flow of the river just comes out of rain,
so the flow will be larger in the rainy season.
o They have different areas where the erosion and sedimentation varies:
Upper course. Erosion is hard due to the fast water flow and to the
slope.
Middle course. The river flows slower and there is less erosion. It is
the part where the eroded materials are carried. It is common that the
river makes meanders owing to the slow speed of the flow.
Lower course. Most of the materials are deposited and the soil is
filled with this alluvial materials.
o Rivers can have three different kinds of mouths:
Estuary. The mouth opens to the sea and is caused by strong tides.
Fresh water mixes with saltwater from the sea. Major examples are
the estuaries of River Plate, Tagus or Thames.
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Delta. They are accumulation of materials deposited by the river in a

shallow part of the coast where it meets the sea. It is usually
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triangular-shaped. Major examples are the deltas of the Nile,

Amazon, Ganges or Ebro.
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Ria. Coastal inlet formed by the partial submergence of a nonglaciated river valley. Major examples can be found on the coast of
Galicia.
A lake is a body of relatively still fresh or salt water of considerable size, localised
in a basin, which is surrounded by land.
o Their surface may vary. The largest one is the Caspian Sea (371,000 sq km)
and the deepest one is Lake Baikal (1,638 m).
o Water can be supplied by rivers, glaciers, and aquifers.
Groundwater runs and is stored under the ground. It is 25% of the water on the
continents.
o Most of groundwater comes from precipitation and infiltration.
o It is stored in aquifers and underground rivers and lakes.
o It can find a way to the surface, a spring.
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Glaciers make up most of the Earths fresh water. They are masses of ice created by
the accumulation of snow.
o They are found in the polar regions and top of mountains.
o They cover 10% of the Earths surface.
o Glaciers have several parts:
Cirque. It is a bow-shaped depression formed at the head of the
glacial valley.
Moraine. It is the accumulation of debris caused by the glacial
erosion.
Glacial valleys or toes. They are the region through which the
glacier flows. They are usually long and narrow and are highly
erosive.
4.2.
Oceans and seas
Sea water is 97% of the Earths waters.

o It is salty due to the salt dissolution.
o It is saltier in hotter and seas surrounded by land (i.e. Dead Sea) where there
is more evaporation.
Seas move constantly:
o Waves. They are caused by the wind and are undulations of the surface of
the water. Their shape changes when they come into contact with the sea
floor.
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o Tides. They are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects
of the gravitational forces exerted by the moon and the sun and the rotation
of the Earth:
High tide. It is the maximal level of the tide.
Low tide. It is the minimal level of the tide.
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o Ocean currents. It is a continuous, directed movement of ocean water

generated by the forces acting upon the water. There can be two kinds:
Surface currents. They are caused by the wind and they influence
over the coastal climates. There can be two kinds:
Warm currents. Their source is in the equator and the
tropics and move towards the poles. They usually temper the
temperatures in high latitudes.
Cold currents. Their source is in polar areas and move
towards the equator. They make rains difficult and are
associated to the best fishing grounds.
Deep currents. They flow around 4 or 5 km deep. They are caused
by the salinity or temperature difference.
5. CLIMATES ON THE EARTH

Climate and weather are different concepts that are usually confused:
o Weather is the present condition of these elements and their variations over
shorter periods. It is studied by the meteorology.
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o Instead, climate is the term for the average atmospheric conditions over
longer periods of time (usually over 30 years). It is studied by the
climatology.
To identify a climate some elements are measured:
o Temperature. It measures how hot the air is.
It can be expressed in several kinds of degrees:
Celsius (C). They base on the different states of water (solid,
liquid, gaseous). Below 0C water freezes, over 100C water
boils and turns into vapour.
Fahrenheit (F). It is widely used in North America and has
no relationship to states of water.
Kelvin (K). It bases on the absolute zero (-273C).
The thermometer measures the temperatures.
They are usually represented on the maps through isotherms.
There are several factors that make temperatures vary:

Latitude. The sun falls on the earth in a different way
according to the latitude, hence the difference of temperatures
of the regions.
Altitude. It descends as we are higher in a proportion of
0.6C every 100 metres (c. 1C every 160 m).
Coastal locations. Sea currents influence over the
temperatures and make them milder. The farther a place is
from the coast the more extreme its temperatures are.
o Precipitations. It is the water fallen from the sky in a solid (snow or hail) or
liquid state (rain).
They are expressed either in millimetres (mm) or litres/square
metre (l/m2).
They are measured with a pluviometer or rain gauge.
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They are represented on the maps through isohyets.

There are also several factors that make precipitations vary:
Latitude. There are many more precipitations in the equator
due to the warm and humid air that eases evaporation.
Altitude. It rains more in high areas.
Coastal location. Warm sea currents also favour rains, but
cold sea currents make them difficult. Anyway coastal
regions are usually rainier than inland regions.
o Atmospheric pressure. It is the weight of air above the surface.
In meteorology it is expressed in millibars (mb) or hectopascals
(hPa).
It is measured with the barometer.
It is represented on the maps through isobars.

Pressure is lower as the altitude increases because there is less air
above those regions.
o Air moisture. It is the amount of water vapour in the air.
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When it is the relative air moisture it is expressed in percentages

(%).
It is measured with the hygrometer.
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Cold air cannot withstand much air moisture. Instead warm air can
do.
o Wind. It is the movement of air due to the pressure differences. It reestablishes pressure balance.
It is expressed in kilometres/hour (km/h).
It is measured with an anemometer.
Its direction is known thanks to the weathercock or weather vane.
There are several climate zones in the world:

o One hot zone between both two tropics. It is due to the sun, which falls on
the surface vertically.
o Two temperate zones between the tropics and the polar circles in each
hemisphere. The sun falls on the surface in an oblique way.
o Two cold zones above each polar circle. Insolation is minimal since the sun
falls on the surface extremely obliquely.
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5.1.
Hot climates
Hot climates. They are located between the tropics and their average temperatures
exceed 18C. They have high insolation:
o Tropical rainforest or equatorial climate. It is located around the equator,
so it is only found in Africa, America, Indonesia and some Oceanias
islands.
Its temperatures are quite stable throughout the year and are usually
25C average.
It is a really humid climate since its precipitations exceed 2,000
mm/year.
There is not any seasonal change.
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o Tropical or savannah climate. It is located between the equator and the

tropics, so it is just found in Africa, America and some parts of Australia. It
is a hot climate that has a dry and a humid season, so there are two kinds of
tropical climates:
Wet tropical climate:
Its temperatures are quite high, although it is warmer during
the humid season. They are never below 18C.
It has a humid season with high precipitations. Total amount
is between 500 and 2,000 mm/year.
It has a short dry season when precipitations are almost
nonexistent.
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Dry tropical climate. This climate gets drier as it gets closer to the
tropic.
Its temperatures are really high.
It has irregular rain during the summer.
This climate is a transition to the desert climate.
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o Hot desert climate. It is usually located close to the tropics.

It is a really hot climate during the day (c. 50C), but it cools during
the night (c. 0C). However its average temperature is above 18C.
It is extremely dry, since it rains less than 250 mm/year. When it
rains it falls as heavy downpours.
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5.2.
Temperate climates
Temperate climates. They are located between the tropics and the polar circles. All
of them have four different seasons with changes in temperatures and precipitations.
o Oceanic or Maritime climate. It is usually a climate located on the west
coasts of the continents at mid-latitude:
Its temperatures are quite mild, since its average is between 10 and
15C.
It has regular and abundant rain, more usual in winter. It exceeds
1,000 mm/year.
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o Mediterranean climate. It is mostly located around the Mediterranean Sea,

although it has some other locations in South Africa, California, Chile, and
Australia:
Its winter is quite mild, but its summer is hot and dry. Its average
temperature is around 15C.
Precipitations are quite irregular and non-abundant (never over 800
mm/year). They are more common in spring and autumn.
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o Continental climate. It is a climate with very little maritime influence since

it is usually inland. It can only be found in the northern hemisphere (Europe,
Asia, North America):
Temperatures vary a lot between summers (hot) and winters (really
cold). Its average temperature is around 9C.
Precipitations are irregular and they fall mostly in summer (circa 700
mm/year).
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o Humid sub-tropical or Chinese climate. It can be mostly found in China,

southeast of the USA, River Plate, and east of Australia:
Its winter is mild and dry.
Summer is really hot (almost tropical) and rainy.
Precipitations are above 1,000 mm/year, whereas the average
temperature is between 15 and 20C.
5.3.
Cold climates
Cold climates. They are located in high latitudes and altitudes.

o Polar climate. It is located above the polar circles:
There is not any warm summer.
Average temperatures are around 0C and they can reach up to -50C.
There are very few precipitations (less than 300 mm/year), although
they remain frozen due to the extremely low temperatures.
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o Alpine climate. It is located in the highest mountains of the world:

Its temperatures are quite low, since their average does not exceed
5C.
It is a rainy climate with more than 1,500 mm/year.
6. NATURAL LANDSCAPES
6.1.
Hot climate landscapes
6.1.1. Equatorial landscapes

This landscape is affected by the equatorial climate.
The typical vegetal formation is the rainforest.
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o
o
o
o

It is really thick and evergreen.

Trees are quite high and do not let sunlight go down.
There are some shrubs, ferns, creepers, and lianas.
The typical trees are mahogany, ebony and rubber trees.
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Rivers are regular and have a large flow. The main examples are the Amazon, and
the Congo.
Its fauna is really varied of species, such as jaguar, monkey (chimpanzee, gorilla,
and orangutan), snake (anaconda), spider, hummingbird, parrots, some
insects...
Soils are quite poor and make agriculture difficult. They are mostly leached and
have very few nutrients.
6.1.2. Tropical landscapes
This landscape varies according to the kind of tropical climate.
The wet tropical climate has a very similar landscape to the equatorial climate.
The dry tropical climate can have several kinds of landscapes:
o The most important formation is the savannah:
It is a grassland ecosystem characterised by the trees being
sufficiently small or widely spaced so that the canopy does not close.
They typical species are acacia and baobab.
The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to
support an unbroken herbaceous layer.
They can grow up to 4 metres in the humid season.
o Around the rivers grows the gallery forest composed of species than need a
lot of water and that make a quite thick forest.
o Next to the desert areas the steppe is usual, since there is very little water
and that does not let trees grow.
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Rivers are slightly irregular with high rises in flow during the humid season and
low water during the dry season. Major tropical rivers are the Orinoco, the
Zambezi, and the upper course of the Nile.
Its fauna is really important since the great mammals live in this kind of landscape,
such as the lion, cheetah, elephant, giraffe, zebra, hyena, rhinoceros,
hippopotamus, antelope...
Soils are not really rich either and that makes agriculture difficult.
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6.1.3. Monsoon Asian landscapes

It is located in Southeast Asia (India, Bangladesh, Burma, Indochina and southeast
China).
This landscape is affected by the monsoon, a kind of wind with two major
characteristics basing on the season:
o Winter monsoon. It is cold and dry wind that blows from Central Asia
towards the Indian Ocean.
o Summer monsoon. It is a warm and humid wind that blows from the Indian
Ocean towards Central Asia.
The vegetation is exposed to massive summer rainfalls:
o Deciduous forest: Teak, shorea.
o Monsoon forest: Bamboo.
Rivers have a large flow and their level rises during the humid season: Ganges,
Brahmaputra, Yangtze (Blue), Indus, Mekong.
It is common to find a varied fauna, such as elephant, tiger, panda, snakes, or
spiders.
Soils are quite rich due to the rainfalls.
6.1.4. Desert landscapes
It is an extremely arid landscape due to the scarce and irregular rainfalls.
Vegetation is quite poor:
o Plants have thick prickles and deep roots to get some water, such as cactus,
esparto grass, or palmetto.
o Around the oasis there is a wider range with palm trees, fig trees, apricot
trees or pomegranate trees.
Rivers are inexistent due to the lack of water. There are just irregular streams when
it rains, which are called wadis. The only permanent waters are the oases.
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There is little fauna which is adapted to the heat such as camels, dromedaries,
coyotes, foxes, lizards, beetles, snakes or scorpions.
There are three kinds of desert landscape:
o Sand desert (erg): It is composed of dunes (hills of sand built by the wind).
o Stony desert (hamada): It is flat and composed of stones.
o Rocky desert (reg): It is a vast extension of land covered of rocks.
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6.2.
Temperate climate landscapes
6.2.1. Oceanic landscape

The mild temperatures and the abundant precipitation let have a lot of vegetation:
o Oceanic deciduous forest: It is mostly composed of high trees such as oak,
beech, chestnut tree, elm or ash.
o Scrubland or moors: In the areas where the oceanic forest disappears it is
common to have bushes such as retama or heather.
o Grasslands: It is common in the plains and it is the basis of the pastures.
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Rivers are quite regular due to the rainfall. They do not have any rise or low levels.
Major rivers are the Rhine, Seine, Loire or Thames.
There is a wide variety of fauna composed of foxes, boars, deer or bears.
Soils are really fertile and help agriculture and stockbreeding.
6.2.2. Mediterranean landscape
The Mediterranean landscape has its vegetation adapted to the irregular rainfall and
to the severe and dry summers:
o Mediterranean forest: It has evergreen trees with very deep roots to get
water. The mains species are the holm oak and the cork oak inland and pine
in coastal areas.
o Scrublands are typical in this landscape due to the reduction of the

extension of the Mediterranean forest. The main formations are:
Maquis. It has high bushes like strawberry tree, rock rose, salvia,
and mastic.
Garrigue. It is composed of minor bushes such as thyme, rosemary,
lavender, and retama.
Steppe. When there is little water and the other scrublands have
disappeared it is common to find palmetto, esparto grass and
asparagus.
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Rivers are quite irregular and have major rises and low level periods.
o Most of them are quite short due to the fact that their source is close to the
sea.
o The main rivers are Ebro, Rhone, and Po.
It has a quite varied fauna composed of rabbits, foxes, deer, wolves, boars,
squirrels, eagles, vultures, and sparrows.
Soils are quite poor, but in the valleys.
6.2.3. Continental climate
The northernmost continental landscape is defined by the coniferous forest (taiga):
o It has evergreen trees such as the pine and fir.
o Some other trees are larch or birch.
The southern continental landscape is defined by two kinds of formations:

o The areas which are cooler and more humid have large prairies, composed
of high grass, such in the American Midwest.
o The areas which are warmer and drier have steppes, composed of low grass,
like in East Europe or Central Asia.
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Rivers have a large flow with important rises in the level in spring because of the
thaw. They are frozen in winter. Major rivers are Volga, Danube or Missouri.
Its fauna is adapted to the extreme temperatures and it is mostly composed by
moose, reindeers, bears, lynxes, wolves, otters, marmots, ferrets, ravens and
owls.
Soils are really different according to the region:
o Prairies are quite fertile and make agriculture possible.
o Steppes and taiga are quite barren.
6.3.
Cold climate landscapes
6.3.1. Polar landscape

It is located above the Polar circles.
There is no vegetation owing to the perpetual ice.
There are not rivers either.
Its fauna is adapted to the extreme cold. There are animals like penguins, whales,
polar bears, seals, and walrus.
In the Arctic and Antarctic Oceans it is common to have floating ice blocks called
icebergs that are fragments which have detached from the icefield that covers the
whole ocean.
Antarctica is a continent completely covered of snow and really thick ice over the
land called ice sheet.
o It is a completely uninhabited continent. Only scientists have settled there to
study it.
Border lands have a milder climate:
o Their vegetation appears after the thaw and it is based on tundra, which is
composed of lichens and moss.
o Their soils are quite infertile and their surface is quite muddy after the thaw,
but it remains frozen in lower strata. They are called permafrost.
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6.3.2. Alpine landscape

This landscape is adapted to the severe cold winters
Vegetation is in tiers and varies according to the altitude owing to the difference of
temperatures and humidity.
o In the lower levels the vegetation has the same features of the region where
the mountains are.
o In middle levels deciduous forest is common, alternating with some conifers.
o In the upper levels meadows and little flowers are the only species that can
grow due to the fact that part of the year this stratum is completely covered
of snow.
The fauna is composed of major birds such as the condor, vulture or eagle and
some mammals such as the mountain goat and chamois.
Soils are not fertile due to the erosion.
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Geography
3rd
CSE
UNIT 2:
The physical landscape of
Spain
1st CSE YEAR
UNIT 1. PREHISTORY
IES COMPLUTENSE

UNIT 2: THE PHYSICAL LANDSCAPE OF SPAIN

1. LOCATION OF SPAIN
Spain has 505,956 km2.
o 493,484 km2 are in the Iberian Peninsula, whose 85% is occupied by Spain.
o The other 12.472 km2 are outside the Peninsula:
7,447 km2 belong to the Canary Islands.
4,992 km2 are part of the Balearic Islands.
32 km2 are composed by Ceuta, Melilla and other islets.
The Iberian Peninsula is located between the rest of Europe, Africa, the Atlantic
Ocean, and the Mediterranean Sea.
o It is linked to the rest of Europe by a 435-km isthmus, the Pyrenees.
o It is four-sided structure that is around 1,000 km long and 850 km wide.
o Its extreme limits are:
Latitude:
Punta de Estaca de Bares (La Corua, 434736N).
Punta de Tarifa o Marroqu (Cdiz, 360018N).
Longitude:
Creus cape (Gerona, 31905E).
Tourin cape (La Corua, 91746W)
The Balearic Islands are located in front of the coasts of Valencia.
Latitude:
Isla de Sanitja o de los Porros (Minorca, 400544N).
Cabo de Barbaria (Formentera, 383832N).
Longitude:
Punta del Esper (Minorca, 41929E)
El Vedr (Ibiza, 11205E)
The Canary Islands are just 115 km away from the Saharan coasts and around
1,100 km from the Peninsula.
Latitude:
Punta Mosegos (Alegranza, 292435N).
Punta de los Saltos (El Hierro, 273812N)
Longitude:
Roque del Este (Lanzarote, 131957W)
Punta Orchilla (El Hierro, 180936W)
Ceuta (355345N, 51728W) is on the African coast at the other side of the
Strait of Gibraltar, whilst Melilla (351715N, 25651W) is eastbound by the
Tres Forcas cape.
3rd CSE YEAR
UNIT 2. THE PHYSICAL LANDSCAPE OF SPAIN
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2. SPANISH PHYSICAL ELEMENTS
SEAS OF SPAIN/MARES DE ESPAA

Atlantic Ocean
Ocano Atlntico
Mediterranean Sea
Cantabrian Sea
Mar Cantbrico
Mar Mediterrneo
STRAITS OF SPAIN/ESTRECHOS DE ESPAA
Strait of Gibraltar
ISLANDS OF SPAIN/ISLAS DE ESPAA
Balearic Islands: Majorca, Minorca, Ibiza,
Formentera, Cabrera
Islas Baleares: Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza,

Formentera, Cabrera
Canary Islands: Tenerife, La Gomera, La

Palma, El Hierro, Gran Canaria,
Fuerteventura, Lanzarote
Medas
Columbretes
Islas Canarias:
3rd CSE YEAR
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North African Islands: Chafarinas Islands,

Pen de Alhucemas, Pen de Vlez de la
Gomera, Perejil
Islas norteafricanas: Islas Chafarinas,

Galician Atlantic Islands: Ces, Slvora, Ons
Islas atlnticas gallegas: Ces,
Alborn
GULFS AND BAYS OF SPAIN/GOLFOS DE SPAIN

Gulf of Rosas
Golfo de Rosas
Gulf of San Jorge
Golfo de San Jorge
Gulf of Mazarrn
Golfo de Mazarrn
Gulf of Almera
Gulf of Valencia
Golfo de Almera
Bay of Cdiz
Gulf of Alicante
Bay of Biscay
Golfo de Valencia
Golfo de Alicante
Golfo de Cdiz
Golfo de Vizcaya
CAPES OF SPAIN/CABOS DE ESPAA

Creus
San Vicente
San Jorge
Roca
San Antonio
Finisterre
Nao
Punta de Estaca de Bares
Palos
Gata
Sacratif
Punta de Tarifa
Trafalgar
Ortegal
Peas
Ajo
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Machichaco
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PLAINS AND PLATEAUS OF SPAIN/LLANURAS Y MESETAS DE ESPAA

Iberian Plateau
Meseta Central: Submeseta norte o septentrional, Submeseta sur o meridional.

DEPRESSIONS OF SPAIN/DEPRESIONES DE ESPAA
4
Guadalquivir
Ebro
MOUNTAIN RANGES OF SPAIN/CORDILLERAS DE ESPAA

Mountain Range
Sistema montaoso
Ranges
Peaks
Sierra de Aylln
Ocejn (2,049 m.)

Pico de las Tres Provincias
(2,130 m.)
Pealara (2,428 m.)
Pico del Moro Almanzor
(2,592 m.)
Pea de Francia (1,723 m.)
Sierras
Picos
Somosierra
Sistema Central
Sierra de Guadarrama
Sierra de Gredos
Sierra de Gata
Montes de Toledo
Montes de Len
Teleno (2,188 m.)

Macizo Asturiano
Cantabrian Mountains
Cordillera Cantbrica
Iberian System
Sistema Ibrico
Sierra Morena
Macizo Galaico
Torre Cerredo (2,650 m.)

Pea Vieja (2,617 m.)
Pea Santa de Castilla (2,598
m.)
Naranjo de Bulnes (2,519 m.)
Picos de Europa
Montaa cntabra
Montes de Oca
Sierra de la Demanda
Picos de Urbin
Sierra del Moncayo
Sierra de Albarracn
Serrana de Cuenca
Sierra de Javalambre
Sierra de Gdar
Sierra del Maestrazgo
Sierra Madrona
Sierra de los Pedroches
Sierra de Aracena
Sierra del Faro
Sierra del Courel
Sierra del Eje
Sierra Segundera
Cabeza de Manzaneda (1,781

m.)
Sierra de Queixa
Basque Mountains
Montes Vascos
3rd CSE YEAR
Moncayo (2,313 m.)
Sierra de los Ancares

Sierra de Aralar
Aizgorri
Gorbea
Aizgorri (1,528 m.)

Pea Gorbea (1,482 m.)
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Western or Navarran Pyrenees
Pirineos occidentales o navarros

Pyrenees
Pirineos
Central or Aragonese Pyrenees
Pirineo central o aragons
Eastern or Catalan Pyrenees
Pirineo oriental o cataln

Catalan Coastal Range
Cordillera Costero Catalana

Baetic System: Cordillera
Penibtica
Sistemas Bticos: Cordillera

Penibtica
Baetic System: Cordillera
Subbtica
Sistemas Bticos: Cordillera

Subbtica
Sierra de Tramontana
(Majorca)
Sierra de Tramontana
(Mallorca)
Canarian volcanoes
Volcanes canarios
3rd CSE YEAR
Sierra del Montseny

Sierra de Monstserrat
Sierra de Montsant
Serrana de Ronda
Mulhacn (3,482 m.)

Veleta (3,398 m.)
Sierra Nevada
Sierra
Sierra
Sierra
Sierra
Sierra
Sierra
Sierra
Sierra
Mesa de los Tres Reyes

(2,424 m.)
Aneto (3,404 m.)
Monte Perdido (3,355 m.)
Maldito (3,350 m.)
Maladeta (3,308 m.)
Pica dEstats (3,140 m)
Puigmal (2,909 m.)
Tur de lHome (1,712 m.)
de Gdor
de los Filabres
de Grazalema
Mgina
de Cazorla
de Segura
de Espua
de Aitana
Puigmajor (1,445 m.)
Teide (Tenerife, 3,718 m.)
Roque de los Muchachos (La
Palma, 2,426 m.)
Pico de las Nieves (Gran
Canaria, 1,949 m.)
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RIVERS OF SPAIN/ROS DE ESPAA

Drainage Basin
Vertiente
Cantabrian Sea
Mar Cantbrico
River
Tributary
Bidasoa (67 km.)

Nervin (69 km.)
Pas (57 km.)
Besaya (58 km.)
Sella (56 km.)
Naln (129 km.)
Eo (79 km.)
Tambre (134 km.)
Ulla (126 km.)
Lrez (60 km.)
Mio (310 km.)
Narcea
Ro
Afluente
Duero (897 km.)
Tagus (1,038 km.)

Atlantic Ocean
Tajo
Ocano Atlntico
Guadiana (818 km.)
Sil
Pisuerga (Arlanza, Carrin)
Valderaduey
Esla
Adaja-Eresma
Tormes
gueda
Jarama (Henares,
Manzanares, Tajua)
Guadarrama
Alberche
Titar
Alagn
Guadiela
Almonte
Cigela
Zncara
Jabaln
Zjar
Matachel
Ardila
Odiel (121 km.)

Tinto (93 km.)
Guadalquivir (657 km.)
Guadiana Menor
Genil
Guadara
Guadalimar
Guadalete (173 km.)
3rd CSE YEAR
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Guadalhorce (154 km.)
Almanzora (105 km.)
Segura (325 km.)
Jcar (498 km.)
Turia (280 km.)
Mijares (156 km.)
Mediterranean Sea
Mar Mediterrneo
Mundo
Sangonera o Guadalentn
Cabriel
Aragn (Ega, Arga)

Gllego
Segre (Cinca, Noguera
Pallaresa, Noguera
Ribagorzana)
Jaln (Jiloca)
Guadalope
Ebro (960 km)
Llobregat (157 km.)

Ter (209 km.)
Fluvi (98 km.)
LAKES OF SPAIN/LAGOS DE ESPAA
Lagunas de Ruidera
Baolas
Sanabria
3. SPANISH COASTS
Most of the peninsular coasts are quite straight, but there are some differences:
o Cantabrian coasts. They are quite straight and they have major cliffs, some
beaches and some estuaries and rias.
o Galician coasts. They are extremely jagged coasts due to the existence of
numerous rias.
o Andalusian Atlantic coasts. They are low and sandy where we can find
marshes, beaches, and dunes created by the wind.
o Mediterranean coasts:
Next to the Baetic Ranges, Catalan Coastal Range, and Sierra de
Tramontana (Majorca), there are many cliffs and some coves.
The rest of the coasts are quite low and sandy (even in the Balearic
Islands). There are many beaches, some deltas, and some sea
lagoons.
The coasts in the Canary Islands are quite straight buy high, since there are many
cliffs caused by the volcanoes. There are few volcanic beaches, but in the
easternmost islands.
4. SPANISH SOILS
The soils in Spain are different basing on the rock nature. Hence, there are four
major types:
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o Siliceous zone. It is mostly constituted by granite, slate, gneiss, and

quartzite.
o Limy zone. Its common stones are limestone, sandstone, and gypsum. It
can be highly eroded and creates Karst landforms.
o Clayey zone. Its materials are quite soft and are mostly clay and
marlstones. They are common in plains.
o Volcanic zone. It can be just found in the Canary Islands and some places of
the Iberian Peninsula, such as Campo de Calatrava (Ciudad Real), Cabo de
Gata (Almera), Campo de Cofrentes (Valencia), and La Garrocha (Gerona).
They are composed by materials that have been erupted by volcanoes.
5. SPANISH CLIMATES
5.1.
Maritime or Oceanic Climate
It is located on the Cantabrian coast and in Galicia.

Its precipitations are quite high and regular all year round.
o It rains more than 1,000 mm/year.
o The maximal precipitations fall on Oyarzun (Guipzcoa), circa 2,000
mm/year.
o It is a soft rainfall, so it eases infiltration.
o There are two maximum dry months.
o As it is farther from the coast it rains less.
Temperatures are mild and they are between 12C and 15C average.
o Annual temperature range is quite low, although there are differences
between the coast and inland.
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On the coast the sea makes summers (22C) and winters (6-10C)
milder.
In inland areas there is not any sea influence and that makes winters
much colder (under 6C) and its diurnal temperature range is around
12-15C.
5.2.
Mediterranean Climate
It is the largest climate area in Spain, since it occupies the entire peninsula at the
south of the Oceanic climate area, as well as the Balearic Islands, Ceuta, and
Melilla.
Precipitations are scarce and irregular.
o They never exceed 800 mm/year.
o Their distribution is quite irregular since drought is common in summer.
Most of the rain falls in spring and autumn, save in those areas close to the
Atlantic Ocean, where it rains more in winter.
o Downpours are quite common, they thus erode soil.
Temperatures are not homogeneous since they are varying from the coast to inland
areas and from the north to the south.
There are three different sub-types of Mediterranean climate.
5.2.1. Coastal Mediterranean climate
It is located by the Mediterranean coast (save the southeast), South Atlantic coast,
Balearic Islands, Ceuta, and Melilla.
Precipitations stretch from 300 to 800 mm/year and there are differences between
the Mediterranean and South Atlantic coasts.
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o It rains less on the Mediterranean coasts (save in north Catalonia). The

maximal precipitations fall in autumn due to the cold drop.
o On the South Atlantic coasts precipitations are higher due to the arrival of
more depressions. Most of the rain falls in winter or at the end of autumn.
Temperatures are higher as we go southwards and there is a medium annual
temperature range (12-16C).
o Summer is hot since it exceeds 22 C average.
o Winters are mild due to the influence of the sea; the coldest month is not
colder than 10C.
o Annual average temperatures vary from 15C in Gerona to 18C in Mlaga.
5.2.2. Inland or Continental Mediterranean climate
It occupies all the inland regions of the peninsula but the mid-Ebro valley.
It has not got any sea influence. Hence it has continental characteristics.
Precipitations stretch from 300 to 800 mm/year with important differences.
o It rains less on the Castilian depressions and Ebro valley due to the
mountains that surround these areas. The rainiest seasons are winter and
autumn.
o In the western area precipitations are higher because of the depressions that
come from the Atlantic Ocean. The rainiest month in January.
Temperatures are quite extreme and there is a high annual temperature range that
exceeds 16C. Average temperatures stretch from 7 to 19C. Hence there are several
sub-types:
o North Plateau, Teruel, and Highlands of Guadalajara and Cuenca have mild
summers (lower than 22C) and really cold winters (between -3 and 6C).
Frosts and fogs are common in winter. vila and Soria show the lowest
average temperatures (10.4C).
o South Plateau and borders of the Ebro valley have hot summers (the hottest
month exceeds 22C) and cold winters, but with less frosts. The annual
average temperatures stretch from 12.2C in Cuenca to 15C in Toledo.
o Extremadura and the interior of Andalusia have really hot summers and mild
winters (6-10C). This area has the highest average temperatures of Europe:
18.8C in Seville and 18C in Cordova.
5.2.3. Dry or Sub-desert Mediterranean climate
It occupies the southeast and the mid-Ebro valley.
Precipitations are under 300 mm/year.
o Depressions cannot reach these areas easily.
o Cabo de Gata is the driest place in Europe with around 150 mm/year.
Temperatures vary according to the area:
o The coastal southeast is a torrid steppe. Its average temperature is between
17 and 18C. Winters are not cold (never under 10C).
o Interior southeast and mid-Ebro valley is the cold steppe. Its average
temperature is lower than 17C and winters are moderate or cold (-3 to
10C).
5.3.
Alpine climate
It occupies those areas above 1,000 metres high.

Precipitations increase and temperatures decrease as altitude is higher.
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Precipitations exceed 1,000 mm/year.

Temperatures are cool (<10C) with mild summers (never above 22C) and cold
winters (below 0C).
Pyrenees and Cantabrian Range have not got any dry month.
All the other mountain ranges have less rainfall in summer, when temperatures may
exceed 22C in some areas.
5.4.
11
Sub-tropical climate
It is just located in the Canary Islands.

It is really influenced by the trade winds, which make the northward mountains be
more humid and have milder temperatures.
Precipitations vary according to the altitude and to the location of the islands.
o The east islands (Lanzarote, Fuerteventura) have less than 150 mm/year.
o On the other islands it changes basing on the altitude:
The lowlands have 150-300 mm/year.
Highlands located to windward have more than 1,000 mm/year
because of the trade winds.
o Most of the rain falls in winter.
Temperatures are hot during the entire year in the lowlands (not less than 17C) with
a low temperature range (<8C).
o Highlands are much cooler.
6. SPANISH VEGETATION
6.1.
Atlantic vegetation
Deciduous forest. It has high trees with straight and smooth trunks and big leaves
that fall in autumn.
o It has few species but they create large forests, such as beech, oak, and
chestnut tree. There are also elms, hazels, lime trees, and ash trees.
o There are some evergreen species such as holly and yew.
o Eucalyptuses and pines have been recently grown for industrial purposes.
o Its understorey is composed of fern and moss due to its shady and wet
atmosphere.
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Scrublands or moors. There is dense vegetation of high shrubs.

o The most common species are heather and retama.
Grasslands occupy large areas and they have grass for pasture.
12
6.2.
Mediterranean vegetation
Evergreen forest. Its trees are not very high and are quite adapted to drought. Their
roots are quite deep and their crowns are wide. Some of the leaves may have
prickles.
o The most common trees are holm oak, cork oak (in more humid areas), and
pine.
o Understorey is composed of retama, mastic, sarsaparilla, rock rose, and
strawberry tree.
o In Extremadura and Salamanca it is common to find dehesas, where cork
oaks are combined with stockbreeding and sheepherding.
Scrublands are typical in this landscape due to the reduction of the extension of the
Mediterranean forest. The main formations are:
o Maquis. It has high bushes like strawberry tree, rock rose, salvia, and
mastic.
o Garrigue. It is composed of minor bushes such as thyme, rosemary,
lavender, and retama.
o Steppe. When there is little water and the other scrublands have disappeared
it is common to find palmetto, esparto grass and asparagus. It is the
typical vegetation in the southeast.
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13
6.3.
Alpine vegetation
Vegetation is in tiers basing on temperature and precipitations given by the altitude.

It changes according to the kind of mountains:
o Pyrenees (typical Alpine mountain). Above the common oak and holm oak
forest (Montane level) we can find:
Sub-alpine level (1,200-2,400 m). It is composed of conifers like
firs, and different kinds of pines. Its understorey is composed of
rhododendron, cranberry, blueberry, and juniper.
Alpine level (2,400-3,000 m). It is composed of grassland that is
covered by the snow around 7 or 8 months per year. There can also
be some flowers.
Snow level (>3,000 m). There are just some rock plants such as moss
or lichens. There is no vegetation on flat areas since they are covered
by the snow.
o Other mountains have not got any sub-alpine level. From the montane level
it passes to Super-forest level composed of shrubs. Above that there are
grasslands.
6.4.
Vegetation of the Canaries
It is extraordinary and really varied and belongs to the Macaronesia region.

There are some endemism (exclusive vegetal formations) and relics (common
vegetation from other geological and climate periods). They are around 50% of the
plants of the archipelago.
The different species are in tiers:
o Foothill level (<300-500 m.). It is a completely arid level and the common
species may have prickles. We can find Canary Island spurge and some
Euphorbia species.
o Intermediate level (200-800 m.). It is marked by the decrease of
temperatures and increase of moisture. Hence there are palm trees, drago,
junipers.
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o Termocanario level (800-1,200 m). Vegetation is adapted to the mist created

by the trade winds on the windward side, and to the low sunshine.
Laurisilva. It is composed of more than 20 species and it is a relic. It
is common to find laurel
Faya-Heathland. It is the result of human degradation of the
laurisilva.
o Canario level (1,200-2,200 m). It is composed of conifers, whose main
species in the Canary Island pine, which adapts to cold and aridity. At
higher altitudes there may be Canary Island cedars.
o Supracanario level (> 2,200 m). It just exists on Tenerife and La Palma.
There is not any tree but shrubs. None the less it is really rich and we can
find Teide violet, Teide bugloss, Teide daisy, and Teide white broom.
7. PROTECTED AREAS
At the article 45 of the Spanish Constitution (1978) it is recognised the right to have
the environment protect and it foresees sanctions to all those who attack it.
None the less, the environmental protection began in 1916 when the Marquis of
Villaviciosa stimulated the National Parks Act. Since them many other acts have
been passed to protect our environment.
There are many protected spaces in Spain that occupy around 7% of the national
area:
o Parks are spaces with a very high environmental and natural value which
have been scarcely transformed by human being. There are some kinds:
National Parks (there are 14). They have very important geologic,
hydrologic, animal, and botanic characteristics. Their preservation is
essential and that function dominates over the others.
Montaa de Covadonga y Picos de Europa (1918, Asturias,
Len, Cantabria). It was enlarged in 1995 to incorporate the
Picos de Europa. It has 65,000 Ha with common Atlantic
mountain and glacier modelling.
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Ordesa y Monte Perdido (1918, Huesca). It was enlarged in

1982 to include Monte Perdido. 16,000 Ha of Alpine
mountains are protected.
Aiges Tortes y Lago San Mauricio (1955, Lrida). It has
protected 14,000 Ha of glaciers, mountain lakes, and alpine
vegetation.
Caldera de Taburiente (1954, La Palma). 4,700 Ha of
volcanic geology and endemic vegetation of the Canary
Islands.
Caadas del Teide (1955, Tenerife). Circa 19,000 Ha of
volcanic structures are protected.
Coto de Doana (1969, Huelva, Seville). Its 50,000 Ha
protect wetlands, dunes and cork oak fields. It has major
examples of Iberian fauna, such as the lynx.
Tablas de Daimiel (1973, Ciudad Real). These wetlands
have around 1,900 Ha.
Timanfaya (1974, Lanzarote). There are 5,100 Ha of perfect
volcanic morphology.
Garajonay (1981, La Gomera). 4,000 Ha of the best
preserved laurisilva forest of the Canary Islands.
Archipilago de Cabrera (1991, Balearic Islands). This park
comprises of land and sea areas. It has major meadows of
Posidonia.
Cabaeros (1995, Ciudad Real). 40,000 Ha of a perfect
example of Mediterranean vegetation on the Montes de
Toledo.
Sierra Nevada (1999, Granada, Almera). 82,000 Ha of
perfect Mediterranean mountain.
Islas Atlnticas de Galicia (2002, Pontevedra). It has 8,400
Ha protected with sea and land areas. It has major meadows
of Posidonia.
Monfrage (2007, Cceres). A perfect example of dehesa
and a really varied fauna.
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Natural Parks (there are 106). They are less and they let the
exploitation of primary resources. They are controlled by the
Autonomous Regions.
o Natural Reserves (there are 184). They protect spaces whose biotic
elements are not common or are endangered.
o Natural Monuments (there are 84). Natural formations that are specially
singular, strange or beautiful.
o There are also some spaces protected by the European Union as Natura
2000 (there are 1,096 Special Areas of Conservation) or by the UNESCO
with the Biosphere Reserves (there are 22 across Spain).
8. NATURAL RESOURCES
Natural resources are given by nature and they are essential for our development.
Their rational use is basic so that they may last more time and to avoid their
depletion.
There are several kinds of resources in Spain:
o Relief. It is basic for settlement and for infrastructures.
Plains are highly demanded to build new towns.
Our relief makes construct roads or railways very difficult since
many bridges and tunnels are needed.
Agriculture is difficult in Spain due to the steep areas.
Relief also affects mining and mineral resources.
Tourism can be attracted by the coasts and mountain areas.
o Soil. Its quality is quite low, so new techniques must be developed to get
more profit in crops.
The construction of houses is also affected by the quality of soil,
since stable soils are necessary.
o Climate. It affects human beings in many ways:
Settlement. Places with abundant rains are preferably sought by
humans to settle.
Agriculture and stockbreeding.
Renewable sources. Wind power or solar power are highly
developed in Spain due to its characteristics.
Tourism can be attracted by sunshine, high temperatures and low
rainfall on the coast.
o Water. It is quite limited in Spain due to periodical droughts but it is basic
for many uses:
Human consumption.
Agriculture and stockbreeding.
Industry.
Energy production, such as hydroelectricity.
o Vegetation. They provide raw materials (wood, resin, cork...). It also
protects soils and prevents any pollution.
o Sea. Spain has many coasts and sea provides many resources such as fish,
water (desalinisation), trade routes, and they also attract tourism.
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Geography
3rd
CSE
UNIT 3:
Population
3rd CSE YEAR
UNIT 3. POPULATION
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UNIT 3. POPULATION
1. DEMOGRAPHIC SOURCES
Demography is the science that studies population and it has some sources to know
about its characteristics and evolution:
o Censuses. They are done periodically (every 10 years) and count how many
people live in a country and their social, cultural and economic characteristics. In
Spain they have been carried out every year that ends in 1 since 1981 (although
the first census was done in 1857) and they are executed by the Instituto
Nacional de Estadstica (INE).
o Municipal registers. They are local registers that show the people that live in a
municipality. They also collect personal data such as sex, place and date of birth,
nationality...
o Registry office. It is the official organism that registers births, deaths, marriages,
divorces... It is compulsory to be registered at this office.
2. WORLD POPULATION
2.1.
Evolution of population
Censuses are taken to know the amount of population in every country of the world.
In 2011 there were around 7 billion people on the Earth (c. 52 inhabitants/sq km).
There have been different periods of demographic growth:
o Until mid 18th century:
Worlds population was stable, with slight increases and decreases.
o Between mid 18th century and mid 20th century:
Growth has been continuous due to the Industrial Revolution.
Decrease of death rate.
Increase of life expectancy.
Developed countries were affected first
Worlds population has duplicated every 25 years during the 20th century.
World's population evolution (1800-2050)

9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
8500
6000
2600
1000 1300
World's
population
(millions)
1800
1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050
o After the mid 20th century:
3rd CSE YEAR
UNIT 3. POPULATION
IES COMPLUTENSE

Growth began to be slower in richer countries, which are ageing. None

the less population in underdeveloped countries still grows quickly.
Worlds population grows 77 million inhabitants every year (1.2% of
annual growth).
By 2050 85% of worlds population will live in underdeveloped countries
basing on UNs estimations.
By the end of the 21st century it is estimated that there will be 12 billion
inhabitants on the Earth.
Evolution of the population per continents (in million inhabitants)

Year
Asia*
Europe*
Africa
America
631
146
102
24
1800
903
295
138
165
1900
1,393
395
219
330
1950
3,696
506
872
835
2000
4,939
574
1,510
1,081
2025**
Oceania
2
6
13
30
39
*Russian population is included in Asia.

**UNs estimations.
2.2.
Stages of demographic growth
There are several models that characterise every demographic period (demographic
transition model):
Stage one (Traditional model).
o Birthrate is high or slightly decreasing (circa 35 0/00).
o Death rate is high too (higher than 30 0/00).
o Infant mortality higher than 200 0/00.
o Natural increase is thus low or slightly negative.
o This is the common model up to mid 18th century.
Stage two (Demographic transition).
o Birthrate is high (circa 40 0/00).
o Death rate decreases notably (circa 15 0/00).
o There is a big natural increase; hence it causes a demographic explosion.
o This is the common model of the Industrial Revolution.
Stage three (Modern demographic model).
o Birthrate decreases a lot (circa 15 0/00).
o Death rate stabilises in low levels (around 11 0/00).
o Infant mortality is around 15 0/00.
o Natural increase is thus low or inexistent.
o This is the common model of the second half of the 20th century.
Stage four.
o Birthrate is very low (10-15 0/00).
o Death rate increases a little due to populations ageing (higher than 30 0/00).
o Natural increase is thus low or slightly negative.
o This is the common model of the current developed countries.
3rd CSE YEAR
UNIT 3. POPULATION
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Demographic stages
50
40
30
20
Death rate
Birthrate
10
0
Stage 1
2.3.
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
Distribution of population
Populations distribution is completely uneven:

o 90% of the people live in the Northern Hemisphere (between 20 and 60).
o Instead, only 10% of the people live in the Southern Hemisphere.
o The largest concentrations of population are:
South and East Asia.
China has around 1.3 billion inhabitants.
India is inhabited by 1.2 billion people.
Europe. It is a historically populated continent that counts on around 700
million inhabitants. Some of its countries are inhabited by over 500
inhabitants/km2.
North American Atlantic coast. There is a megalopolis that stretches from
Boston to Washington D.C. where 120 million people live. Moreover
there are vast cities like Mexico City (c. 20 million inhabitants).
o On the contrary, the largest empty spaces are:
Cold and desert areas: Poles, Sahara Desert, Kalahari Desert, Gobi
Desert.
Moist and hot areas: Congo Basin, Amazon Basin.
There are some factors that explain why the land is occupied:
3rd CSE YEAR
UNIT 3. POPULATION
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o Physical factors.
Climate. People are attracted by temperate climates with sufficient
rainfall.
Water. It is necessary to have enough water to live, so it is common to
settle next to rivers or other water sources.
Altitude. Most of the people live in areas that are close to the sea (60% of
the population live below 200 metres).
Soil. Fertile soils have always been demanded.
Energy resources. Modern society claims for resources. Hence minerals,
petrol or other natural resources are a reason to settle somewhere.
o Human factors.
Age of settlement. The most inhabited areas have always been populated.
Social growth.
Migrations.
Wars.
Economic and urban development.
In order to make demographic studies it is essential to know the population density.
o It shows how many people live in a place.
o It is obtained by making a simple operation:
Lands population
o Population density (inhabitants/sq km)=
Area
3. NATURAL MOVEMENT OF POPULATION

The natural increase is the difference between birthrate and death rate.
Births - deaths
o Natural growth rate =
x100
Total population
o Birthrate (or natality): it is the number of births that take place in a population
over a year. There is a formula to know the proportion of born people compared
to the total population:
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Number of born people in one year

Crude birthrate =
(born/1,000 inhabitants)
x1,000
Total population
o Birthrate is commonly related to the fertility rate, which shows the average
number of births women have during their fertile lifetime (15-49 years old). The
average number of children per woman helps us know the future population
growth. In order to maintain the population and guarantee replacement rates,
women should bear an average of 2.15 children.
o Mortality: it is the number of deaths that take place in a population over a year.
There is another formula to know the proportion of deceased people compared to
the total population:
Number of deceased people in one year
Crude death rate =
x 1,000
(deceased/1,000 inh.)
Total population
o When the birthrate is higher than the death rate, therefore the natural increase is
positive. On the contrary, it is negative when the death rate is higher than the
birthrate.
o None the less, it is more accurate to know the infant mortality rate to determine
the health system of a country:
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Number of dead children under one year old

o Infant mortality rate =
(dead children/1,000 born)
x 1,000
Total born children
o It is also interesting to calculate the life expectancy, which is the average years
that one person may expect to live. It also shows welfare and the economic and
social status of a country.
Birthrate
Infant mortality rate
Life expectancy
Developed countries
Below 20 0/00
Below 20 0/00
More than 72 years
Developing countries
20-40 0/00
20-100 0/00
60-70 years
0
0
Third World
Above 40 /00
Above 100 /00
Less than 60 years
The overall growth rate takes migration into account to know the real increase of the
population of a country:
o Overall growth rate = Natural increase + Net migration rate
There are several factors that explain the differences between the countries:
o Biological factors.
When people age there is a higher death rate.
When people are young there is a higher birthrate.
o Social, economic, and cultural factors.
Feeding and health level.
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Working women.
Economic level.
Birth control traditions.
Government policies of birthrate.
4. MIGRATIONS
A migration is physical movement by humans from one area to another.
o Emigration. It happens when a person goes away from a territory to another
country or region.
o Immigration. It is the arrival of people that have gone away from a territory and
arrive in another country or region.
To explain the migrations there may be several reasons:
o Economic reasons:
Search for better life conditions.
o Natural reasons:
Disasters, like earthquakes, floods, droughts, volcanic eruptions...
o Political reasons:
Flight from a hostile territory to a safer one.
Forced migrations.
Refugees.
When it is spoken about migrations, there are several kinds:
o Basing on the origin and destinations:
Internal migrations. They take place within a same country.
It is usually from the countryside towards the city: rural exodus.
International migrations. They involve the change of country and they
can be either continental or transcontinental.
In the past it was common that migration went from Europe to
some American countries (USA, Canada, Argentina or Brazil) or
to Australia. Later it changed and those migratory movements
took place within Europe (mostly to Germany, France or the UK).
Nowadays those migrations take place from the poorer countries
(mostly in Africa, Asia, and some Latin American areas) towards
Europe, North America or Australia.
o Basing on the duration:
Seasonal migrations. Residence is just changed a part of the year due to
work or holidays.
Pendular migrations (commuting). They are daily round trips between
the residence and the working places.
Permanent migrations. They involve a stable change of residence.
The USA received millions of immigrants until the beginning of the 20th century.
Currently it is Western Europe the area that receives large amounts of immigrants from
Eastern Europe, Africa, and some parts of Asia.
Migrations cause several consequences:
o Consequences for origin countries.
Loss of population.
Birthrate decrease due to the emigration of young people.
Population ageing.
Loss of enterprising people.
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Initial enhancement of the economic situation when emigrants send

foreign currency to their families.
o Consequences for destination countries.
Population increases.
Birthrate increases.
Rejuvenation of population.
Cultural exchange.
Initial coexistence problems:
Failure to adapt to the new situation.
Difficult integration.
Some people may take advantage of their difficult situation.
5. COMPOSITION OF POPULATION
It is based on the amount of youngsters, adults or elderly people and on the sex ratio
between men and women.
o Sex composition.
There is not the same amount of men and women (in 2010 there were
101.6 males to every 100 females in the whole world).
There are more men in underdeveloped countries.
Instead there are more women in developed countries.
More boys are born than girls (105/100).
There is a higher death rate among men.
Balance takes place in mature ages.
In elderly ages there are fewer men than women (up to the half).
Women have longer life expectancy.
Number of men or women
Sex ratio =
x 100
Total population
Number of men
Masculinity rate =
x 100
Number of women
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Number of women
Feminity rate =
x 100
Number of men
o Age composition.
Youngsters. They are the people who are under 15 years of age. They
represent 26.9% of worlds population (2010).
The amount of youngsters is really high in the underdeveloped
world; they even reach to be circa 50% of the total population.
Adults. They are the people who are between 16 and 64 years of age.
Elderly people. They are the people who are 65 years of age or more.
They represent 7.6% of worlds population (2010).
The amount of elderly people is considerably higher in the
developed countries.
o Economic composition.
Active population. They are people who want to work and have the legal
age (although unemployed).
Inactive population. They are either young or elderly people or others
who cannot or do not want to work.
Economic sectors:
Primary sector. Agriculture, stockbreeding, fishing, and mining.
In the developed countries the people that work in this sector is
lower than 10%, whereas in the underdeveloped is more than
50%.
Secondary sector. Industry, construction. In the developed
countries it may be between 25 and 35% of the population, whilst
it may not exist in some underdeveloped areas.
Tertiary sector. Services. In the developed countries the people
who work in this sector exceeds 60% of the employees.
The age and sex composition is reflected in the population pyramid.
o It is a graphical representation divided into two sexes:
In the vertical axis the groups of age are shown (in 5-year groups).
In the horizontal axis it is found the percentage of people or the total
amount for each group of age.
o There are different kinds of population pyramid:
Expansive pyramid (pyramid-shaped).
It has large birthrate and death rate.
Its base is wide and its summit is quite narrow.
It is common in the underdeveloped countries.
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10
3rd CSE YEAR
Stationary or stable pyramid (bell-shaped).

Birthrate is moderate and death rate is low instead.
It is common in the developing countries.
Constrictive pyramid (urn-shaped).

Birthrate is low.
The summit is really wide (it shows long life expectancy).
It is common in the developed countries.
UNIT 3. POPULATION
IES COMPLUTENSE

Ace of spades-shaped pyramid.

There is a mark in the intermediate groups caused by wars,
migrations or natural catastrophes.
11
6. SPANISH POPULATION
Spain had 47.129.783 inhabitants on 1 January 2013, so 93.15 inhabitants per km2.
6.1.
Population distribution
Spanish density is slightly lower than the density of the European Union.
There are serious differences in the distribution of population:
o Most populated provinces (2013)
Madrid (6,495,551).
Barcelona (5,540,925).
Valencia (2,566,474).
Alicante (1,945,642).
Seville (1,942,155).
o Most unpopulated provinces (2013).
Soria (93,291).
Teruel (142,183).
Segovia (161,702).
Palencia (168,955).
vila (168,825).
Concerning regions there are also important differences:
o Andalusia has 8.440.300, Catalonia 7.553.650, and Madrid 6,495,551 inhabitants
(2013).
o Instead, La Rioja is just populated by 322.027, Cantabria by 591.888, and
Navarre by 644.477 inhabitants (2013).
Most of the people live along the coastline, whereas inland regions are almost
unpopulated (save Madrid), due to the rural exodus carried out between the 1950s and
1970s.
o Rural and mountain areas are quite uninhabited. On the contrary, population is
concentrated in provincial capitals.
o The provinces with a higher density are (2013):
Madrid (809.11).
Barcelona (716.99).
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Vizcaya (521.63).
Guipzcoa (360.51).
Alicante (334.48).
o Instead, the ones which have a lower density are (2013):
Soria (9.05).
Teruel (9.60).
Cuenca (12.36).
Huesca (14.47)
Zamora (17.83).
Concerning regions, there are major differences:
o The most densely populated are (2013):
Comunidad de Madrid (809.11).
Basque Country (302.93).
Canary Islands (284.50)
o The least densely populated are (2013):
Castilla-La Mancha (26.44).
Extremadura (26.55).
Castilla y Len (26.74).
Aragn (28.23).
12
Spanish population (1900-2010)

50
40
30
20
10
0
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
Population 18,6
3rd CSE YEAR
20
21,4
23,7
26
28
30,5
34
37
39,4
41,1
47,2
UNIT 3. POPULATION
IES COMPLUTENSE
6.2.

Natural movement
Spains natural movement is:

o Low birthrate (circa 10.50/00). It even reached 9.10/00 in 1998.
o Low death rate (circa 80/00).
o Low infant mortality rate (circa 2.50/00).
o Low natural increase (circa 2.50/00).
There are several reasons that may explain that change in the evolution:
o People marry much later than before.
o Women have incorporated to the labour market.
o Increase of single-person homes and single-parent families.
o Social and political changes since the 1970s.
The fastest population growth takes place in areas with higher immigration (Madrid,
coastal areas, Balearic Islands, Ceuta, and Melilla), whereas the growth is slower or it is
negative in some regions such as Asturias, Castilla y Len, and Galicia.
6.3.
Population structure
The characteristics of the Spanish structure are very similar to the other developed
countries of the world.
Spanish population composition is:
o Sex. There are slightly more women than men because they live more (none the
less more baby boys than girls are born):
23,283,187 men, so 49.34% (2011).
23,907,306 women, so 50.66% (2011).
o Age. Spanish population is ageing.
10,014,178 youngsters, so 21.22% (2011).
29,083,229 adults, so 61.63% (2011).
8,093,557 elderly people, so 17.15% (2011).
6.4.
Migration
Internal migration was very important between the 1950s and 1980s:
o Rural exodus was very common from the countryside to the provincial capitals
or to Madrid, Barcelona, Bilbao, and Valencia.
3rd CSE YEAR
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13
IES COMPLUTENSE

Nowadays there is another kind of internal migration:

o Many people have moved from the capitals to satellite towns on the outskirts of
major cities.
o Many retired people have moved to coastal areas or have gone back to their
original towns from those cities they had migrated in the 1950-1980s.
Concerning foreign migration, until the 1970s Spanish population used to emigrate to
Latin America, Switzerland, France, and Germany.
o Spain has recently received many immigrants that are around 10% of present-day
population.
o Immigrants mostly come from Eastern Europe (mostly Romania, Bulgaria, and
Ukraine), Latin America (mostly Ecuador, Colombia, and Argentina), and Africa
(mostly Morocco or Gulf of Guinea).
o The main destinations for the immigrants are Madrid, Catalonia, Valencia,
Andalusia, and the Balearic Islands.
3rd CSE YEAR
UNIT 3. POPULATION
14
IES COMPLUTENSE

15
IES COMPLUTENSE

Geography 3rd CSE
UNIT 4:
Rural and urban spaces

SPACES
IES COMPLUTENSE

UNIT 4. RURAL AND URBAN SPACES

1. SETTLEMENTS
Settlement refers to the action of people settling down in an area.
These settlements can be either rural (in the countryside) or urban (in cities),
depending on their nature.
2. RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Settlements in the countryside are called rural settlements.
o The size of these settlements vary according to the country (i.e., in Spain it is
every place under 10,000 inhabitants, instead in Sweden it must be under 200).
There are several kinds of rural settlements:
o Scattered settlements.
Buildings are dispersed among the fields, forests and farms.
There is not any group of houses.
It is common in the USA, Canada, Australia and some parts of Europe.
o Clustered or nucleated settlements.

Buildings are grouped together and separate from farming land.
Agricultural activity is located around the village or town.
It is common from most of Europe, Asia, and Africa.
3rd CSE YEAR
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o Interdispersed settlements.
There are isolated buildings between villages.
Following the plan of those villages, they can be classified in different types:
o Linear villages. When all the houses are making a row following a road.
o Nucleated villages. When they are completely clustered and grouped.
o Radial villages. They have a central space out of which all the main streets
depart.
We can distinguish several kinds of rural housing:
o Single farmhouse unit. The area designed for living is connected to the area for
animals.
o Farmhouse with outbuildings. People and animals live in different buildings
arranged around a courtyard.
o Shapes, materials and sizes vary according to the traditions of each region.
3. URBAN SETTLEMENTS
3.1.
Origin of the cities
Cities appeared in Mesopotamia, Egypt, India and China around 5000 BC.
o The greatest evolution of the cities took place after the Industrial Revolution
(mid 18th century).
o The foundation of cities may be caused by several reasons, although the most
common ones were strategic, military, economic, political and/or religious.
o Greeks founded cities with two main parts: acropolis and agora.
o Romans did grid-layout cities around a cardo and a decumanus, which met in the
forum.
o Mediaeval cities were completely walled and irregular-planned.
o In the Modern Age cities were beautified by noble families, the kings or the
Church.
o Instead after the Industrial Revolution (mid 18th century), cities grew a lot by
attracting people to the factories. The size of the cities may change forever.
3.2.
Urbanisation processes
The urbanisation process refers to the movement of rural people to the cities.
o This process has been common in the Western countries since the Industrial
Revolution (mid 18th century).
Only 3% of the population of the world lived in cities in 1800.
o It has become common across the world since the 1950s, when it reached 30% of
worlds population.
o In 2008 the global urbanisation rate was around 50%, but it is foreseen to reach
circa 70% by 2050.
In advanced countries it is common that 75% of the population lives in
cities, whereas in non-advanced countries it is circa 40%.
The process is now really important in the developing countries, where
the greatest metropolises are concentrating.
The causes of the urbanisation may vary basing on the country:
o Developed countries.
It began in the Industrial Revolution associated to industrialisation.
3rd CSE YEAR
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There are very few large cities, although there are some megacities (they
exceed 10,000,000 inhabitants), such as Tokyo (more than 35 million),
New York or Moscow.
Whereas it is more common to have medium-size cities.
o Developing countries.
This process began at the beginning of the 20th century in America, in the
1920s in Asia and in the 1960s in Africa.
Rural exodus and demographic growth are the causes of the urbanisation.
Most of the megacities are in these countries:
There are 20 out of 26, such as Mexico City, Lagos, Mumbai, or
So Paulo.
They are quite unbalanced and do not provide equal services.
It is common to have many slums and shantytowns around these cities.
The largest cities in the world are foreseen to exist in these countries.
3.3.
Characteristics of the cities
Cities are commonly found in areas with a lot of industry and services.
To define a city there are two criteria that may be useful:
o Quantity criterion. It defines the city as a space with a densely concentrated
population. None the less this criterion is not homogeneous since the countries
change the figures to speak about cities. Thus, Sweden understands that a city is
every populated centre with more than 200 inhabitants, whilst Japan increases
that figure up to 30,000 people. In Spain the minimum to be considered a city by
the Instituto Nacional de Estadstica (INE) is 10,000 inhabitants.
o Qualitative criterion. It refers to the functions of the city and its economic
activities. Therefore the most common sectors in a city are industry and services,
never agriculture or stockbreeding.
As a result, the main characteristics of the cities are:
o They have a high population density with a large number of inhabitants.
o They have great influence over the surrounding area.
o They have many functions: economic, social, health, cultural, political,
religious...
3rd CSE YEAR
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3.4.

Urban functions
The main function of a city is to provide many services to the surrounding area; hence it
has many different functions:
o Commercial and industrial functions. It is the most common function cities
provide since they have always been the economic centre of the regions.
o Political and administrative functions. These functions may be found in the
capital cities (either national or regional). They host the main headquarters of the
administration.
o Military functions. Some cities have been created to host different military
barracks to protect boundaries or some regions of the country.
o Educational functions. Some educational levels are only provided in the main
cities, such as the universities. Some cities have grown basing on this function,
such as Bologna, Oxford, Cambridge, Salamanca, Coimbra or Uppsala.
o Cultural functions. This function is common in most of the cities, since they
have museums, theatres, cinemas...
o Religious functions. Cities have always concentrated the religious functions of
the surrounding regions, but there have been some cities that have grown basing
on this function, such as Jerusalem, Mecca, or Santiago de Compostela.
o Entertainment functions. Some cities have been founded as entertainment
places where people go to have fun, like Las Vegas.
The more important the city is the more functions it provides (multifunctional cities),
that is to say that not all the cities provide all of them, only a few of them.
3.5.
Elements of the cities
The site is the place where a city is located: on a hill, on a plain, in a valley, on an
island...
o Historical cities are commonly built on hills due to defensive reasons.
o Instead, modern cities are built on plains to enhance communication and trade.
The location of the cities fixes their connection to others
o A city can be on the coast or inland, in the centre of a country or in an extreme...
o Communication has always been essential; hence most of the cities are located
by rivers, main harbours or trading posts.
The urban layout can be represented by the map or street plan of the city. It shows the
structure of the city and its historical evolution:
o Irregular layout.
It is characterised by winding and narrow streets that have no pattern.
There are few and small squares
It is common of the historical centres of the cities.
3rd CSE YEAR
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o Regular layout. There is a model which is followed to build the city. There are
two kinds of regular patterns:
Grid pattern (or checkerboard).
It has Greek and Roman origins and bases on perpendicular and
parallel streets that form right angles.
It is common in the USA and in most of the modern cities
(included 19th centurys enlargements).
3rd CSE YEAR
Radial pattern.
It is based on concentric rings, with streets radiating from its
centre and cross streets forming circles around it.
It can be found in some cities such as Paris, Moscow, and Milan...
IES COMPLUTENSE

Linear plan.
It follows a road or a river and it becomes a long and narrow city.
The urban housing can be varied depending on the function. Size, height and
architectural design.
o Old buildings can be palaces, churches, town halls... They have historical value
and most of them are protected.
o Blocks of buildings are very common. They have several floors and they can
reach to be skyscrapers. They can be offices, residential flats, commercial
areas...
o Single-family houses are very common nowadays. There are detached, semidetached or terraced houses with one or two floors. They usually have a garden
and they are commonly on the outskirts.
o Shacks or shanties. They are made with scrap materials and inhabited by very
poor people.
3.6.
Structure of the city
It is easy to distinguish several parts within a city:

o CBD (Central Business District). It is usually in the centre and most of the
commercial and financial activities develop there. Not too many people live there
since most of the buildings are offices (usually skyscrapers).
o Historical centre. It is the oldest part in the city and the attraction for tourists. It
is full of historical buildings such as palaces, churches, and some official offices.
3rd CSE YEAR
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o Enlargements. They were built in the 19th and early 20th centuries. They are
close to the historical centre and they usually show a grid layout. They are
expensive areas with many bank offices and shops.
o Periphery. It extends around the central area of the city and has two major parts:
Residential areas. Most of the people live here and there can be both
blocks of flats and low houses. Most of the services are located here
(schools, hospitals, sport facilities, commercial centres...).
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3.7.
Industrial estates and business parks. They lie next to the main roads
and they host factories and different companies.
Urban hierarchy
Cities may have a greater influence, not only over its surrounding region, but also across
the world. As a consequence there are different types of cities that are interlinked basing
on the urban hierarchy:
o International metropolises.
Their influence extends across the world.
They host the headquarters of most of the multinational companies.
They are world stock exchange markets.
All technology and press media are attracted to these cities.
New York, London, Paris and Tokyo are the best examples of this type of
metropolis.
o National metropolises.
They are usually the capitals of the countries and their influence extends
over the whole country.
They are connected to the international metropolises.
That is the case of Berlin and Madrid.
o Regional cities.
They may be large cities but they depend on national and international
metropolises.
Their functions are less than in the other groups and thus their influence,
which is only applied to the region where they lie.
That is the case of Milan and Munich.
o Smaller cities and towns.
Their influence is very limited.
It is the case of most provincial capitals.
3.8.
Urban agglomerations
Cities may have different kinds of settlements.

o According to their size, they may be small, medium or large cities.
o Large cities have formed urban agglomerations around which some other
cities or towns have grown.
Metropolitan areas.
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They are the result of the growth of a big city (metropolis) that
has absorbed surrounding towns.
There are satellite towns around that major city that depend on it.
It can be found in Paris, London, New York, and Madrid...
Conurbations.
They are the result of the physical union of more than one city
with the same characteristics and size.
It can be found in Amsterdam-Rotterdam (Netherlands) or
Liverpool-Manchester (UK).
Urban regions.
They are caused when a large territory has several major
individual towns.
The Ruhr region in Germany may be the best example.
Megalopolis.
It is a large territory that includes several metropolises and
conurbations.
The result is a chain of metropolitan areas that extend a lot.
The best examples can be found in the East coast of the USA
(Boston-Washington DC) and in Japan (Tokyo-Fukuoka).
Metropolitan areas Millions of inhabitants
Tokyo
37
Mexico City
22.7
New York
22.7
Seoul
22.5
Mumbai
20.4
So Paulo
19.6
Manila
18.4
Jakarta
18.2
New Delhi
18
Los Angeles
17.9
4. URBAN PROBLEMS
The main problems of the cities can be:
o Deterioration of certain areas.
There is overexploitation of the land and that is why there are very few
green areas.
Speculation has raised the prices of the plots of lands and houses.
Lack of planning has existed in prior times in the developed countries,
whereas it is still common in the developing countries.
o Pollution.
It is mostly caused by cars, heating systems, and factories.
Public authorities try to reduce the impact of this pollution on
environment.
o Transportation.
Due to the size of the cities, it has been necessary to provide new means
of transportation so that people may move:
Bus.
3rd CSE YEAR
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Underground.
Railway.
Parking has become almost impossible in some cities, mostly in the
centre. That is why some car parks have been built.
o Rubbish.
Cities produce a lot of rubbish that cannot be easily processed.
Most of the rubbish is taken to dumping sites, whereas some other is
incinerated.
In the developed countries recycling has become common in the cities.
o Poverty.
It is associated to the urban life and causes social exclusion.
It is much more common in the developing countries, where there are
many shantytowns.
5. SPANISH SETTLEMENTS
5.1.
Rural spaces
Rural spaces in Spain have less than 10,000 inhabitants.

Agriculture and stockbreeding have been the most common functions in these areas.
There are two typical rural settlements in Spain:
o In the North and in the mountains (Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, Basque Country
and Navarre) it is common to have dispersed settlements, with separated country
houses and farmhouses.
o In the rest of Spain (both Castiles, Aragon, Extremadura, and Andalusia)
settlement is clustered.
In the Duero and Ebro valleys they are commonly small and are close to
each other.
In the south of Spain, Mediterranean area and Balearic Islands villages
are bigger and farther from each other.
There have been major changes in the last years:
o Interior and mountain areas are highly uninhabited due to the rural exodus. Now
there is some revitalisation due to rural tourism.
o In coastal areas they grew a lot thanks to the arrival of tourism.
o Some villages close to big towns have taken on urban functions and are part of
their metropolitan area.
5.2.
Spanish cities
According to the Instituto Nacional de Estadstica in Spain a city must exceed 10,000
inhabitants.
o The Spanish urbanisation rate is close to 80%.
Spanish cities have changed a lot in history:
o Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians founded the first cities in Spain, which
were quite small and were like trading posts on the coast.
o Romans founded many cities across Spain and had military, commercial and
administrative functions.
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o During the Middle Ages, cities changed with Muslims and Christians. Their
layout was quite irregular and they were fortified. Some of them grew following
the Way of St. James.
o In the 16th and 17th centuries there were some changes in the Spanish cities, like
the construction of the Plaza Mayor.
o In the 18th century cities enhanced their gardens and promenades and became
more monumental.
o Instead, in the 19th century cities grew due to the industrialisation and it was
common to build ensanches, such as Madrid, Barcelona, Bilbao or Lens. They
had grid layout with wide avenues with buildings for middle class families.
o During the 20th century there were three main stages:
Before 1960 the urban growth stopped due to the Civil War and the
economic situation.
Between 1960 and 1985 cities grew a lot because of the development of
the country and the rural exodus favoured that growth. It was common to
build working class quarters at the peripheries and the growth of satellite
towns around. Urban expansion was not really controlled by the public
authorities.
After 1985 public authorities paid attention to the urban growth and
promoted some laws to limit it and to control the planning of the new
quarters. Buildings should be lower and new green areas were promoted.
In Spain the urbanisation process has caused:
o Rural exodus. Most of the countryside is now empty and only the villages
around major cities have survived.
o Demographic imbalance. Old people have stayed in the countryside, what
means that after some time it will be even emptier.
o Size of cities. There are just two large cities that exceed 1,000,000 inhabitants,
such as Madrid and Barcelona. Instead there are four other cities that are between
500,000 and 1,000,000, which are Valencia, Seville, Zaragoza, and Mlaga. Most
of the Spanish cities are smaller than 500,000 inhabitants (commonly they are
under 250,000).
o Urban hierarchy:
National metropolises. They have influence over the whole country,
they are Madrid and Barcelona.
Regional metropolises. They are commercial, cultural, administrative
and educational centres of some Spanish regions. Cities such as Valencia,
Seville, Bilbao, Mlaga, Bilbao, La Corua, and Valladolid may be part
of this category.
Sub-regional metropolises. These cities provide specialised services to
their surrounding areas, like Alicante, Granada, Murcia, Oviedo, San
Sebastin, Palma de Mallorca, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, or Santa
Cruz de Tenerife.
Smaller cities and towns. Medium-size cities are very common in Spain
(50,000-250,000 inhabitants), whereas there are many smaller towns that
do not exceed 50,000 inhabitants.
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12
The modern Spanish cities have several parts:

o Historical centre. It is the origin of the city, where the monumental area stands
and its layout is usually irregular. It is commonly an area for commerce and
restaurants.
o Ensanche. It was built in the 19th and early 20th centuries and it has blocks of
houses for medium-class families in wide avenues and luxurious buildings. There
are many shops there too.
o Periphery. It can have different kinds of uses:
Residential areas. They are occupied by houses which can be both for
working classes and for middle classes. There can be both blocks of
buildings or individual low houses (they are usually closer to the
suburbs).
Communal areas. They include all the public services for the
population: sport facilities, parks, schools, hospitals... They can be
usually found at the outskirts of the city.
Industrial estates. They are commonly at the outskirts and they are
occupied by factories and business parks, which need cheap and large
spaces which may be well communicated.
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I. Geography. Physical, Human, and Urban

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DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY

Geography 3rd CSE

Block I: Physical, human,

Jorge Elas de la Pea y Montes de Oca

1st CSE YEAR

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY

Geography 3rd CSE

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY

UNIT 0: DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY

3rd CSE YEAR

UNIT 0. DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY

SEAS OF AFRICA/MARES DE FRICA

STRAITS AND CHANNELS OF AFRICA/ESTRECHOS Y CANALES DE FRICA

3rd CSE YEAR

UNIT 0. DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY

ISLANDS OF AFRICA/ISLAS DE FRICA

Santo Tom y Prncipe

CAPES OF AFRICA/CABOS DE FRICA

PENINSULAS OF AFRICA/PENNSULAS DE FRICA

Toubkal (4,167 m.)

Macizo del Tibesti

Macizo del Ahaggar

Cameroon (4,070 m.)

Kilimanjaro (5,895 m.)

Gran Cubeta del Congo

3rd CSE YEAR

South African Plain

UNIT 0. DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY

RIVERS OF AFRICA/ROS DE FRICA

Nile (6,650 km.)

Senegal (1,790 km.)

Congo (4,700 km.)

LAKES OF AFRICA/LAGOS DE FRICA

DESERTS OF AFRICA/DESIERTOS DE FRICA

3rd CSE YEAR

UNIT 0. DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY

SEAS OF ASIA/MARES DE ASIA

South China Sea

East China Sea

Ocano Glacial rtico

3rd CSE YEAR

Mar de la China Meridional

UNIT 0. DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY

STRAITS AND CHANNELS OF ASIA/ESTRECHOS Y CANALES DE ASIA

Estrecho del Bsforo

Estrecho de los Dardanelos

ISLANDS OF ASIA/ISLAS DE ASIA

Islas Kuriles y Sajaln

Indonesia: Java, Borneo, Celebes, Sumatra,

Japanese Archipelago: Hokkaido, Honshu,

Ceylon (Sri Lanka)

The Philippines: Luzon, Mindanao

Archipilago del Japn:

GULFS AND BAYS OF ASIA/GOLFOS DE ASIA

CAPES OF ASIA/CABOS DE ASIA

Pennsula del Indostn