CS2060 - High Speed Networks

UNIT I
HIGH SPEED NETWORKS
1. Differentiate Frame relay and X.25 packet-switching service
The Difference between X.25 and Frame Relay are:
i. Call control signaling is carried on a separate logical
connection from user data. Thus, intermediate nodes need not maintain state
tables or process messages relating to call control on an individual perconnection basis.
ii. Multiplexing and switching of logical connections takes
place at layer2 instead of layer3, eliminating one entire layer of processing.
iii. There is no hop-by-hop flow control and error control. Endto-end control and error control are the responsibility of a higher layer, if they
are employed at all
2.

What is jitter?
The packets between a given source and destination may vary in
length, may take different routes, may be subject to varying delays in the
switches they encounter, the overall packet delay can vary substantially. This
phenomenon, called JITTER may not be desirable for some application; for
example in real-time applications including telephone voice and real-time
video

3. List out some of the control functions of LAPF core.

The control functions of LAPF (Link Access Procedure/Protocol for
Frame Relay are:
i.
Frame delimiting, alignment and transparency
ii.
Frame multiplexing/demultiplexing using the address field
iii.
Detection of transmission errors
iv.
Congestion control functions
4. What is called a cell in ATM?
In ATM, the information flow on each logical connection is organized
into fixed size packets called cells
5. What are the planes in protocol reference model?
The Planes in protocol reference models are:
i.
User plane
ii.
Control plane
iii.
Management plane
6. What are the advantages of virtual paths?
The advantage of the Virtual Paths is:
i.
Simplified network architecture
ii.
Increased network performance and reliability
iii.
Reduced processing and short connection setup time
iv.
Enhanced network services

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7.

What is VPI?
The Virtual path identifier constitutes a routing field for the network.
It is 8 bits at the user-network interface and 12 bits at the network-network
interface. The latter allows support for an expanded number of VPCs internal
to the network, to include those supporting subscribers and those required for
network management

8. What is CLP?
The cell loss priority bit is used to provide guidance to the network in
the event of congestion. A value of 0 indicates a cell of relatively higher
priority, which should not be discarded unless no other alternative is available.
A value of 1 indicates that this cell is subject to discard within the network
9. What are the services of ATM?
The ATM services are:
i.
Real time services:
i. Constant Bit Rate (CBR)
ii. Real Time Variable Bit Rate (rt-VBR)
ii.
Non Real time services:
i. Non Real Time Variable Bit Rate (nrt-VBR)
ii. Available Bit Rate (ABR)
iii. Unspecified Bit Rate (UBR)
iv. Guaranteed Frame Rate (GFR)
10. What is Frame Relay network?
A form of packet switching based on the variable length link layer frames.
There is no network layer. Many of the basic functions have been streamlined and
eliminated to provide great throughput
11. What is the message types needed for Frame relay call control?
The message types needed for Frame Relay Call Control is:
i.
SETUP
ii.
CONNECT
iii.
RELEASE
iv.
RELEASE COMPLETE
12. What are the AAL services?
The Services offered by the ATM Adaptation Layer is:
i.
Handling of transmission errors
ii.
Segmentation and reassembly, to enable larger blocks of data to be
carried in the information field of ATM cells
iii.
Handling of lost and misplaced cell conditions
iv.
Flow control and timing control

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13. What are the applications of AAL?
The applications of AAL is:
i.
Circuit emulation
ii.
VBR voice and video
iii.
General data services
iv.
IP over ATM
v.
Multiprotocol encapsulation over ATM
vi.
LAN emulation
14. What is SNP?
The sequence Number Protection field is an error code for detection
and possibly correction on the sequence number field. It consists of a 3 bit
cyclic redundancy check, calculated over the 4 bit SN field, and a parity bit.
The parity bit is set so that the parity of the 8 bit SAR header is even
15. Differentiate bridge and layer2 switch.
Bridge
i. Frame handling alone in software
ii. Analyze & forward one frame at
handle at a time
iii. Store and forward

Layer2Switch
i. Frame handling in hardware
ii. Multiple data paths & can
multiple frames at a time
iii. Can do cut through

16. What are the benefits of 10 Gbps Ethernet over ATM?

The benefits of 10Gbps Ethernet over ATM is:
i. No expensive, bandwidth consuming conversion between Ethernet
packets and ATM cells
ii. Network is Ethernet end to end
iii. IP plus Ethernet offers QoS and traffic policing capabilities approach
that of ATM
iv. Wide variety of standard optical interfaces for 10Gbps Ethernet
17. What is the purpose of Fiber channel?
Fiber channel is designed to combine the best features of both
technologies the simplicity and speed of channel communication with the
flexibility and interconnectivity that characterize protocol based network
communication.
18. List some of the requirements of Wireless LAN.
The requirement of Wireless LAN is:
i.
Throughput
ii.
Number of nodes
iii.
Connection to backbone LAN
iv.
Service area
v.
Handoff/roaming
vi.
Dynamic configuration

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19. What are the IEEE 802.11 services?

The IEEE 802.11 services are:
i.
Association
ii.
Reassociation
iii.
Disassociation
iv.
Authentication
v.
Privacy
20. What are the physical Medias defined in 802.11?
The physical medias defined in 802.11 is
i.
Direct sequence spread spectrum operating in the 2.4 GHz ISM band,
at data rates of 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps
ii.
Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) operating in the 2.4GHz
ISM band at data rates of 1Mbps and 2Mbps
iii.
Infrared at 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps operating at a wavelength between 850
and 950nm
21. Define: Cell lose ratio
It defines the fraction of cells lost during the transmission
22. Define: Cell transfer delay
It is the average time needed for a cell to travel from source to destination.
23. Define: Cell delay variation tolerance
It is a measure of the variation in cell transmission time.
24. Define: Sustainable cell rate.
The SCR is the average cell rate over a long time interval. The actual cell rate
may be lower or higher than this value, but the average should be equal to or
less than SCR.
25. Define: peak cell rate
The Peak cell rate(PCR) defines the senders maximum cell rate. The users cell
rate can sometime reach this pack as long as the cell delivered in error.
26. What is the purpose of pay load type field in ATM cell format?
It is 3 bit information. It indicates type of data in the information field. The
first bit indicates whether it is user data or network management data, second
bit indicate whether it experience congestion or not, third bit indicate SDU
type.
27. What is the purpose of cell lose priority bit in ATM cell format?
It provides guidance to the network in the event of congestion. A value of 0
indicates a cell of relatively higher priority which should not be discarded
unless no other alternatives is available. A value of 1 indicates that this cell is
subject to discard with in the network.

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28. Define: cell sequence integrity
It is the characteristic of virtual channel that can be used for call control(i.e
signaling channel)
29. What are the two types of sub layer used in ATM adaptation layer?
Convergence layer, and Segmentation layer.
30 Compare packet switching(X.25) and frame relay network.
(AU:Nov/Dec. 2007)
Packet Switching(X.25)
Hop by hop flow and error control.
Multiplexing & switching done in layer3
In band signaling.
Data rate-64Kbps.

Frame-relay network
Ene-to end flow and error control
Multiplexing and switching operation are
carried out in layer 2
Common channel signaling
Data rate -2mbps

31.What is the need for AAL? (AU:Nov/Dec 2007)

The use of ATM creates the need for an adaptation layer to support
information transfer protocol but not based on ATM. Example PCM voice,
LAPF.
32. What are the data link control functions that are provide by LAPF core?
(AU:may/june 2008)
Frame delimiting, alignment and transparency.
Frame multiplexing.
Detection of transmission errors.
Congestion control functions
Inspection of frame that it is neither too long nor too short.
33. What are the uses of wireless LAN? (AU:may/june 2008)
It saves the cost of installation of LAN cabling and cases the task of
location and other modification to network structure.
It provides an effective and more attractive alternative in stock
exchanging, warehouses etc.
34. Distinguish between frame relay and ATM. (AU:may/june 2009)
Frame relay
Variable cell size.
2Mbps speed
Less efficient

ATM
Fixed cell size
10-100 Mbps speed
Compared to Frame relay,
ATM is more efficient

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35. What is the difference between class A and class B service offered by ATM?
(AU:may/june 2009)
Class A
Class B
Constant bit rate.
Variable bit rate
ATM adaptation layer.
ATM adaptation layer protocol
used in AAL2

36. Define: minimum cell rate

It is the minimum cell rate acceptable that a sender guaranteed to send.
37. Define: cell error ratio.
It is the fraction of the cell delivered in error.
38 Define: Collision domain.
The maximum distance that data can travel between two station is called
collision domain in Ethernet.
39. Define: Ffabric in fiber channel communication.
The fiber channel communication network consists of one or more switching
elements, which are collectively called as fabrics.
1.21. What is meant by meta signaling channel?
This channel is used to set up a virtual channel that can be used for call control
(i.e signaling channel)
40. What is meant by ad hoc networking?
An Ad hoc network is a peer-to peer network (no centralized server) set uop
temporarily to meet some immediate need.
41. Draw IEEE 802.3 MAC frame format.
Preamble

SFD

Destination Source
address
address

PDU

Data
& CRC
padding

42. What do you mean by common channel signaling and in channel signaling?
Common channel signaling: The dates and control signals of a user are
transmitted on separate channel. The control signals of all the users are passed
through a signal common channel.
In channel signaling: The data and control signals of a user are transmitted on
same channel. There are two types
Inband signaling.
Out of band signaling.
43. Compare inband signaling and out of band signaling.
Inband signaling: if data and control signals traveling in same channel have
same frequency then it is inband signaling.
Out of band signaling: If data and control signals traveling in same channel
with different frequencies then it is called out-of band signaling.
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UNIT II
CONGESTION AND TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
1. Difference between multiserver queue and multiple single server.
Multiserver queues
1.It has less waiting time
2.It has infinite populations and infinite
queue size

Multiple single sever queues

1. Waiting time is more since there are
many single servers.
2.Population and queue size is less and
have significant impact on performance

2. Define: Kendall's notation

The notation is given by X/Y/N where
i. X refers to the distribution of inter arrival times
ii. Y refers to the distribution of service times
iii. N refers to the number of server
3. Define: Mean residence time
Residence times is defined as the average time that an item spends in a system,
waiting and being served and it is referred as Tr.
4. List some of the common distributions made.
The Common distributions made are:
i.
G, general distribution of inter arrival times or service times
ii.
GI, general distribution of inter arrival times with restriction that
inter arrival times are independent
iii.
M, negative exponential distribution
iv.
D, deterministic arrivals or fixed length service
5. Why Queuing Analysis is used?
The Queuing Analysis is used for:
i.
Option 1: Will wait and see what happens
ii.
Option 2: Analyst may take the position impossible to project
future demand and degree of certainty
iii.
Option 3: Use of an Analytic model
iv.
Option 4: Use of Simulation model
6. List some of the model characteristics.
The characteristics are
i.
Item population
ii.
Queue size
iii.
Dispatching discipline
7. List the assumption made on input and output.
The assumptions made on input are,
i.
Arrival time
ii.
Service time
iii.
Number of servers
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The assumptions made on output are,
Items waiting
Waiting time
Items queued
Residence time
8. What is the objective of congestion control?
The objective of congestion control is to maintain the number of packets
within the network below the level at which performance falls off dramatically.
9. Differentiate between implicit congestion and explicit congestion.
Implicit congestion
1.It deals with discard and delay
2.Mainly used for connectionless or
datagram configurations such as IP based
internet

Explicit congestion
1.It deals with binary rate and credit
2.It takes place in two direction forward
and backward

10. Define: Backpressure

Backpressure is a method which can be applied in a logical connection used
for connection oriented network and X.25 based packet network in which traffic
generation can be reduced.
11. Define: Choke packet.
Choke packet is control packet generated at a congested node and transmitted
back to a source node to restrict traffic flow.
Eg: ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) and Source quench.
12. List the congestion control mechanism in packet switching networks.
The Congestion Control Mechanism in Packet Switching networks are:
i.
Send a control packet from congested node to some or al source
nodes
ii.
Rely on routing information
iii.
Make use of an end-to-end probe packet
iv.
Allow a packet switching nodes to add congestion information to
packets as they go by
13. List the objectives of frame relay congestion control.
The objectives of Frame Relay Congestion Control are:
i.
Minimize frame discard
ii.
Create minimal network additional traffic
iii.
Maintain, with high probability and minimum variance
iv.
Be simple to implement
v.
Distribute network resource fairly among users
14. What is Discard Strategy?
Discard Strategy deals with the most fundamental response to congestion;
when congestion becomes severe enough, the network is forced to discard frames.

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15. What is Congestion Avoidance?
Congestion Avoidance is used at onset of congestion to minimize the effect on
the network. Explicit signaling mechanism from the network that will trigger the
congestion avoidance
16. What is Congestion recovery?
Congestion recovery procedures are used to prevent network collapse in the
face of severe congestion. These procedure are typically initiated when the network
begun to drop frames due to congestion.
Eg. LAPF , TCP
17. What is committed information rate (CIR)?
Committed information rate is a rate, in bits per second that the network agrees
to support for a particular frame-mode connection. It is vulnerable to discard in the
event of congestion.
18. Define BECN.
Backward explicit congestion notification (BECN) notifies the user that
congestion avoidance procedures should be initiated where applicable for traffic in
the opposite direction of the received frame. It indicates that frames user transmits on
this logical connection may encounter congested resources.
19. Define FECN.
Forward explicit congestion notification (FECN) notifies the user that
congestion avoidance procedures should be initiated where applicable for traffic in the
same direction of the received frame. It indicates that frames user transmits on this
logical connection, has encountered congested resources.
20. What is network response and user response?
Network response is necessary for frame handler to monitor its queuing
behavior. Here the choice is based on end user.
User response is determined by the receipt of BECN or FECN .The simplest
procedure is to use BECN because other one is complex.
21. Write the Littles formula and explain its uses. (AU:Nov/Dec 2007)
(AU:may/june 2008)
Littles formula for single server is
= Ts
Littles formula for multiserver is
= Ts
N
It is used to deduce the average at any given value.

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22. Compare multi server and multiple single server queues. (AU:Nov/Dec 2007)
Multiple single server queue
Multiserver queue
Congestion statistics for this model are in Congestion statistics for this model is in
two cases
case of M/M/N
M/MI
M/DI
Probability can be
Probability of number of items in the
system is greater than or equal to number
Zero
of servers.
Ratio less than I
Ratio close to I
Ratio greater than I

23. What are the drawbacks of Backpressure? (AU:may/june 2009)

It can be used only in connection oriented network that allows hop by hop
flow control. Neither frame relay nor ATM has any capability for restricting flow on
hop by hop basis.
24.What are the causes for congestion? (AU:may/june 2009)
The causes for congestion are:
Limitation in queue size.
Load exceeds the network capability.
25. When queue will be formed in a network?
Queue is formed if the service required by a user is not available immediately.
That is, if the current demand for a particular service exceeds the capacity of service
provider then queue will be formed.
26. What are the characteristics of queue process?
The characteristics of queuing process are
Arrival pattern of data from user
Service pattern of server
Queue discipline
System capacity
Number of servers.
27.What is meant by congestion avoidance?
It is the procedure used at beginning stage of congestion to minimize its effort.
28. What is meant by implicit congestion signaling? (AU: Nov/Dec 2010)
When network congestion occurs, packets get discard and acknowledgement
will be delayed. As a result, source understands that there is congestion implicitly.
Here, users are notified about congestion indirectly.
29. Define: Committed burst size(Bc)

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This is the maximum number of bits in a predefined period of time that the
network is committed to transfer without discarding any frames.
30. Define: Committed information rate(CIR)
CIR is a rate in bps that a network agrees to support for a particular frame
mode connection. Any data transmitted in excess of CIR is vulnerable to discard in
event of congestion. CIR is less than access rate.

31. Defin: Access rate.

For every connection in frame relay network, an access rate (bps) is defined.
The access rate actually depends on bandwidth of channel connecting user to network.
32. Define: Excess burst rate (Be).
This is the maximum number of bits in excess of B c that a user can send
during a predefined period of time. The network is committed to transfer these bits if
there is no congestion. Frames with Be have lower probability to transfer than frames
with Bc.
33. What is meant by explicit congestion signaling?
In this method, congestion is indicated directly by a notification. The
notification may be in backward or forward direction.
34. What do you mean by choke packet?
Choke packet is a control packet generated at a congested node and
transmitted back to a source node to restrict traffic flow. A choke packet is the ICMP
(internet control message protocol) source quench packet.
35. Write Kendalls notation.
A convenient notation called kendall notation, have been developed for
summarizing the principle assumption that are made in developing a queuing model.
The notation is given as ( a / b / c) : (d / e)
Here a distribution of inter arrival time
b- distribution of service time.
c number of server
d maximum number allowed items in system
e queuing discipline used.
36. Define: Coefficient of variation
The ratio of standard deviation of service time and mean service time is called
coefficient of variation.
37. List the different congestion techniques.
Discard strategy.
Congestion avoidance (Explicit signaling)
Congestion recover ( implicit signaling)
38. What do you mean by traffic control management?

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If user does not respond to congestion notices, then frame relay network has to
discard frames. This method is called traffic control management.
39. List the mechanisms used for congestion control in packet switching network.
Mechanisms used are:
Congestion node sends a control packet called choke packet to source nodes.
As a result, it will limit the transmission.
Depending on routing algorithm, routing decision may influence the rate at
which new packets are produced.
Timestamp is added in header of packet and it measures the delay between
two particular points.
Congestion notification information is added to packet, to inform about
congestion to source and destination.

UNIT-III
TCP & ATM Congestion Control
1. List the various retransmission strategies in the implementation of TCP.
The various retransmission strategies are as follows:
i. First-only
ii. Batch
iii. Individual

2. What is meant by self-clocking?

TCP automatically senses the network bottleneck and regulates its flow
accordingly. This has been referred to as TCPs self-clocking behavior.
3. What is meant by binary exponential back off?
Binary Exponential Back off is a simple technique for implementing
RTO back off is to multiply the RTO for a segment by a constant value for
each retransmission:
RTO=q X RTO
The above equation causes RTO to grow exponentially with each
retransmission. The most commonly used value of q is 2. With this value, the
technique is referred to as exponential back off.
4. What do you mean by window-limited mode?
In window-limited mode, a TCP source is governed by the TCP flow
and congestion control mechanism. When a TCP connection is set up and a
VC is assigned, ABR will typically allocate a relatively high rate to the source,
only reducing that rate when congestion occurs. Thus, for a time TCP can send
as much data as it can.
5. What do you mean by rate-limited mode?
In rate-limited mode TCP is prepared to send segments continuously,
and congestion may occur. The ABR mechanism exerts a back pressure on
TCP sources that can reduce the transmission of TCP segments.

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6. What is meant by source traffic descriptor?
The source characteristics of an ATM flow are captured in source
traffic descriptor, which includes the following:
i. Peak cell rate(PCR)
ii. Sustainable cell rate(SCR)
iii. Maximum burst size(MBS)
iv. Maximum frame size(MFS)
7. What are the characteristic captured by the ATM Traffic Descriptor?
The characteristics of an ATM flow over an ATM connection are
captured in a connection traffic descriptor, which includes the following:
i. Source traffic descriptor
ii. Cell delay variation tolerance(CVDT)
iii. Conformance definition

8. Define: peak cell rate

The peak cell rate defines an upper bound on the traffic that can be
submitted by a source on an ATM connection. The PCR is defined in terms of
the variable T, the minimum spacing between cells, so that the PCR=1/T.The
PCR descriptor is mandatory for CBR and VBR services.
9. Define: sustainable cell rate
The sustainable cell rate defines an upper bound on the average rate of
an ATM connection, calculated over a time scale that is large relative to T.
SCR is needed to specify a VBR source. It enables the network to allocate
resources efficiently among a number of VBR sources without dedicating the
resources required to support a constant PCR rate.
10. Define: Maximum burst size
The maximum burst size is the maximum number of cells that can be
sent continuously at the peak cell rate. If the cells are presented to the network
in clumps equal to the MBS, then the idle gap between clumps must be
sufficient so that the overall rate does not exceed the SCR.
11. Define: Minimum cell rate
The minimum cell rate, used with ABR and GFR, defines the
minimum commitment requested of the network; a value of zero can be used.
The goal of both ABR and GFR service is to provide rapid access to unused
network capacity at up to PCR, whenever the capacity is available.
12. Define: Maximum frame size.
The maximum frame size is the maximum size of a frame in cells that
can be carried over a GFR connection. This parameter is only relevant for that
GFR service.
13. Define: Cell delay variation tolerance
The cell delay variation tolerance is a measure of the amount of
variation in cell delay that is introduced by the network interface (e.g : SDH)
and at the UNI. CDVT represents a bound on the delay variability due to the
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slotted nature of ATM, the physical layer overhead, and ATM layer function
such as cell multiplexing.
14. Define: Cell loss ratio.
The cell loss ratio is simply the ratio of lost cells to total transmitted
cells on a connection.
15. Define: Traffic policing
The GCRA algorithm is referred to as a form of traffic policing.
Traffic policing occurs when a flow of data is regulated so that cells( or frames
or packets) that exceed a certain performance level are discarded or tagged.
16. Define: Traffic shaping
Traffic shaping is used to smooth out a traffic flow and reduce cell
clumping. This can result in a fairer allocation of resources and a reduced
average delay time.
17. What is meant by open loop control?
Open loop control is an approach where there is no feedback to the
source concerning to the congestion once the connection is established, UPC
may discard or tag as lower priority any cell that exceeds parameters of the
traffic contract.
18. What is meant by closed loop control?
The way that allow a number of sources to share the capacity not used
by CBR and VBR but to provide feedback to sources to adjust the load
dynamically and thus avoid cell loss and share the capacity fairly. This is
referred to as closed-loop control because of its use of feedback.
19. List the parameters for the rate of transmission of cells.
The rate of transmission of cells from a source on an ABR connection
is characterized by four parameters:
i. Allowed cell rate(ACR)
ii. Minimum cell rate(MCR)
iii. Peak cell rate(PCR)
iv. Initial cell rate(ICR)
20. Define: Fair share.
Fair share can be defined as follows:
Fair share = Target rate
Number of connection
21. State the conditions that must be met for a cell to conform. (AU: Nov/Dec
2007)
In case of ATM, the information flow on each logical connection is organized
into fixed size packets called cells.
22. What are the retransmit policies used in TCP traffic control? (AU: Nov/Dec
2007)
The retransmit policies used in TCP traffic control are:
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First only.
Batch
Individual.
23. Why congestion control is difficult to implement in TCP? (AU: April/may
2008)
The end system is expected to exercise flow control upon the source and
system at a higher layer. Thus it is difficult to implement in TCP.
24. Define sustainable cell rate. What is the use of SCR? (AU: April/may 2008)
The SCR is the average cell rate over a long time interval. the actual cell rate
may be lower or higher than this value, but the average should be equal to or less than
SCR.
25. What is protocol? Give two examples. (AU: May/June2009)
a set of rules used to govern the data transfer.
Example: UDP (User datagram protocol, TCP(Transmission control protocol).
26. Give the significance of timer management in networking. (AU:
May/June2009)
The value retransmission time out (RTO) have a initial effect on TCPs
reaction to congestion. Hence by calculating RTO effectively, congestion can be
avoided. to calculate RTO effectively, the timer management is essential.
27. What are the mechanisms used in ATM traffic control to avoid congestion
condition?
Resource management
Connection admission control
Usage parameter control
Traffic shaping.
28. How is RTO useful to control congestion in TCP?
The value of RTO (Retransmission time out) has a critical effect on TCPs
reaction to congestion. Hence by calculating RTO effectively, congestion can be
controlled.
29. Define Reactive Congestion control.
Whenever a packet discard occur due to severe condition, some control
mechanism is needed to recover from network collapse. this mechanism is known as
reactive congestion control.
30. What is the use of Preventive congestion control?
This preventive congestion control mechanism is used to avoid congestion
before it occurs.
31. What is the difference between flow control and congestion control?
Flow control: The transmitter should not overwhelm the receiver so flow
control is performed.
Congestion control: Its aim is to limit the total amount of data entering the
network; to amount of data that network can carry.
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32. What is meant by silly window syndrome?

if frequently datas are sent as small segment, the response will be speed in
sender side but it cause degradation in performance. This degradation is called silly
window syndrome.

33. What are the mechanisms used in TCP to control congestion?

The mechanisms used in TCP to control congestion are:
RTO timer management
Window management.
34. Define Behavior class selector (BCS).
Behavior class selector (BCS) enables an ATM network to provide different
service levels among UBR connections by associating each connection with one of a
set of behavior class.

35. What is meant by allowed cell rate (ACR)?

The current rate at which source is permitted to send or transmit cell in ABR
mechanism is called allowed cell rate.
36. List the three fields in the TCP header.
The three fields in the TCP header are as follows:
Sequence number (SN)
Acknowledgement number (AN)
Window (W)
37. What is meant by closed loop control in ABR mechanism?
Closed loop control: ABR has feedback to the source concerning congestion.
This approach is called closed loop control.
38. What is meant by open loop control in ABR mechanism?
Open loop control: If there is no feedback to the source concerning
congestion, then this type of approach is called as open loop control.
39. Define cell insertion time.
It is the time taken to insert a single cell on to the network.
40. List the ATM traffic attributes.
ATM traffic related attributes falls into four categories. They are
Traffic descriptor.
QoS parameters
Congestion control parameters
Other attributes. It includes behavior class selector and minimum
desired cell rate.

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UNIT IV
INTEGRATED AND DIFFERENTIATED SERVICES
1. What are the requirements for inelastic traffic?
The requirements for inelastic traffic may include the following and they are
i. Throughput.
ii. Delay.
iii. Jitter.
iv. Packet loss.
2. What are the functions that are provided by ISA to manage congestion and
QoS transport?
The functions that are provided by ISA to manage congestion and QoS
transport are
i. Admission control.
ii. Routing algorithm.
iii. Queuing discipline.
iv. Discard policy.
3. What are the principal background functions of ISA?
The principal background functions of ISA are
i. Reservation protocol.
ii. Admission control.
iii. Management agent.
iv. Routing protocol.
4. What are the services provided by ISA?
Three categories of services are provided by ISA and they are
i. Guaranteed.
ii. Controlled load.
iii. Best effort.
5. What are the different queuing techniques?
The different queuing techniques are:
Fair Queuing (FQ).
Processor Sharing (PS).
Bit-Round Fair Queuing (BRFQ).
Generalized Processor Sharing (GPS).
Weighted Fair Queuing (WFQ).
6. Define: RED
RED is an approach to congestion management in internets is proactive packet
discard. In this technique , a router discards one or more incoming packets before the
output buffer is completely full, in order to improve the performance of the network.

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7. State the design goals of Random Early Detection

The design goals of Random Early Detection (RED) are
i.
Congestion avoidance.
ii.
Global Synchronization avoidance.
iii.
Avoidance of bias against bursty traffic.
iv.
Bound on average queue length.
8. What are the different types of Traffic?
The traffic on network or internet can be classified into two broad categories
i.
Elastic Traffic
ii.
Inelastic Traffic
9. List out the advantages of ISA.
The advantage of ISA is:
i. .Many traffic sources can easily and accurately be defined by a token bucket
scheme.
ii.The token bucket scheme provides a concise description of the load to be
imposed by a flow, enabling the service to determine easily the resource
requirement.
iii.The token bucket scheme provides the input parameters to a policing
function.
10. Define: Behavior Aggregate
Behavior Aggregate is a set of packets with the same DS code point crossing a
link in a particular direction.
11. Define Classifier
Classifier selects packets based on the DS field
(BA classifier) or on multiple fields within the packet header
(MF classifier).
12. Define: Marking
Marking is the process of setting the DS codepoint in a packet. Packets may be
marked on initiation and may be re-marked by an en route DS node.
13. Define Dropping
Dropping is the process of discarding packets based on specified rules; also
called policing.
14. Define: Metering
Metering is the process of measuring the temporal properties of a packet
stream selected by a classifier. The instantaneous state of that process may affect
marking, shaping and dropping functions.

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15. Define: Shaping
Shaping is the process of delaying packets within a packet stream to cause it to
conform to some defined traffic profile.
16. What is traffic conditioning?
Traffic Conditioning is the control functions performed to enforce rules
specified in a TCA, including metering, marking, shaping and dropping.
17. What is Traffic conditioning Agreement?
Traffic Conditioning Agreement is a specifying, classifying rules and traffic
conditioning rules that are to apply to packets selected by the classifier.
18. Draw the format of DS field.
1

DSCP

7
unused

19. Draw the format of IPV4.

1
Precedence

4
TOS

7
0

20. What are the elements of Traffic Conditioning function?

The elements of Traffic Conditioning function are
i. Classifier
ii. Meter
iii. Marker
iv. Shaper
v. Dropper
21. What is elastic traffic? (AU: Nov/Dec2007)
Elastic traffic is that which can adjust, over wide changer to changer in delay
and throughput across an internet and still meet the needs of its applications. This is
the traditional type of traffic supported on IP-based internets and is type of traffic for
which internets were designed.
22. What are the key elements of controlled load service? (AU: Nov/Dec2007)
The key elements of the controlled load services are:
The service approximates tightly the behavior visible to applications receiving
best-effort service under unloaded conditions.
A very high percentage of transmitted packets will be successfully delivered.
23. What are the drawbacks of FIFO queuing discipline? (AU:April/May2008)
No special treatment for packets with higher priority is provided.

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If small packet is queued behind long packet, then small packet experience
long delay.
24. What is an inelastic traffic? What are the requirements for inelastic traffic?
(AU:April/May2008)
It does not easily adapt, if at all, to changes in delay and throughput across the
internet. Example: Real time traffic, its requirements are, throughput, delay, jitter and
packet loss.
25 What is meant by rate control? Give examples. (AU:May/June2009)
The rate of transmission of cells from a source to a network connection can be
controlled by a feedback mechanism is known as rate control.
Example: Available bit rate(ABR)
26. What is label stacking? (AU:May/June2009)
Label stacking allows aggregation of more number of label switching paths
into single label switching path.
27. Define delay jitter.
The delay jitter is the maximum variation in delay experienced by packets in a
single session.
28. What is meant by best effort service?
Flows that are not reserving resources are provided with best effort service.
The network will put best effort to deliver the packet, but if congestion occurs
severely it will discard the packet.
29. What is meant by guaranteed service?
Flows that are reserving resources are provided with guaranteed service. The
service provides assured capacity levels.
30. Define global synchronization.
Due to packet discard during congestion, many TCP connections entered slow
start at the same time. As a result,the network is unnecessarily under utilized for some
time. The TCP connections which entered into slow start will come out of slow start
at about same time causing congestion again. This phenomenon is called global
synchronization.

31. What are the design goals of RED algorithm?

The design goals of RED algorithm are:
Congestion avoidance.
Global synchronization avoidance.
Round on average queue length.
32. Define: Behavior aggregate in per hop behavior
A set of packets with the same DS code point crossing a link in a particular
direction behavior aggregate.

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33. Define: DS code point.
A specified value of 6 bit DS code point portion of the 8 bit DS field in the IP
header which indicate to which class packets belongs and its drop procedure.
34. What is meant by traffic conditioning agreement?
An agreement that specify rules that are to apply for packets selected by the
classifier is called traffic conditioning agreement.. Control functions performed in
TCA are metering, marking, shaping and dropping.
35. Define: DS boundary node.
DS boundary node is defined as , DS node that connects one DS domain to
the node in another domain.
36. Define DS interior node.
A node in DS domain, which is not the boundary node is called DS interior
node.
37. Define: DS node.
A router that supports DS policies is called as DS node. A host system that use
DS for application is also called as DS node.
38. What is meant by differentiated service?
It does not attempt to view the total traffic demand in integrated service.
It does not reserve network capacity in advance.
It provides different level of QoS to different traffic flows.
39. What is meant by integrated services?
The integrated service providerViews the totally of current traffic demand.
Limits the demand with respect to the current capacity handled by the
network.
Reserve resources with in the domain to provide a particular QoS guaranteed.

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UNIT-V
PROTOCOLS FOR QoS SUPPORT
1. What is soft state?
A soft state is simply a set of state information at a router that expires
unless regularly refreshed from the entity that requested the state.
2. Define: Channel-changing capability.
Enabling the receiver to select one source from among multiple
sources transmitting to a multicast group is known as channel-changing
capability.
3. What are the characteristics of RSVP?
The various characteristics of RSVP are
Unicast and multicast
Simplex
Receiver-initiated reservation
Maintaining soft state in the internet
Providing different reservation styles
Transparent operation through non-RSVP routers
Support for IPv4 and IPv6.
4. Define: A session.
A session is a data flow identified by its destination; it reflects the soft
state nature of RSVP operation. A session is defined by destination IP address,
IP protocol identifier, destination port.
5. Define: Flow descriptor.
A reservation request issued by a destination end system is called a
flow descriptor and consists of a flowspec and a filter spec.
6. What is reservation attribute?
A receiver may specify a resource reservation that is to be shared
among a number of senders (shared) or may specify a resource reservation that
is to be allocated to each sender (distinct).
7. What is sender selection?
A receiver may either provide a list of source (explicit) or implicitly
select all sources by providing no filter spec (wild card).
8. Define: Wild-card-filter style
The wild-card-filter (WF) style specifies a single resource reservation
to be shared by all senders to this address. Symbolically, this style is
represented in the form WF(*{Q}), where the asterisk represents wild-card
sender selection and Q is the flowspec.

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9. Define: Fixed-filter style

The fixed-filter (FF) style specifies a distinct reservation for each
sender and provides an explicit list of senders. Symbolically, this style is
represented in the form FF(S1{Q1},S2{Q2}, . . .), where Si is a requested
sender and Qi is the resource request for that sender.
10. Define: Shared-explicit style
The shared-explicit (SE) style specifies a single resource reservation to
be shared among an explicit list of senders. Symbolically, this style is
represented in the form SE(S1,S2, . . .{Q}).
11. List the requirements for connection-oriented QoS support.
The requirements for connection-oriented QoS support are:
Guarantee affixed amount of capacity for specific
applications, such as audio/video conference.
Control latency and jitter and ensure capacity for voice.
Provide very specific, guaranted, and quantifiable service
level agreements, or traffic contracts.
Configure varying degrees of QoS for multiple network
customers.
12. What is traffic engineering?
The ability to define routes dynamically, plan resource commitments
on the basis of known demand, and optimize network utilization is referred
to as traffic engineering.
13. Define: Label switched routers.
An MPLS network or internet consisting of a set of nodes, called label
switched router (LSRs), capable of switching and routing packets on the basis
of which a label has been appended to each packet.
14. Draw the MPLS label format.
Bits:

20
Label Value

Exp

Time to live

Exp = experimental
S = bottom of stack bit

15. What is hop-by-hop routing?

In hop-by-hop routing, each LSR independently chooses the next hop
for each FEC. RFC implies that this option makes use of an ordinary routing
protocol, such as OSPF.

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16. What is explicit routing?

In explicit routing, a single LSR, usually the ingress or egress LSR,
specifies some or all of the LSRs in the LSP for a given FEC. There are two
types of explicit routing namely strict explicit routing and loose explicit
routing.
17. Define: Constraint-based routing algorithm.
A routing algorithm that takes into account the traffic requirements of
various flows and that takes into account the resources available along various
hops and through various nodes is referred to as a constraint-based routing
algorithm.
18. What is a translator?
The translator is a simpler device that produces one or more outgoing
RTP packets for each incoming RTP packet. The translator may change the
format of the data in the packet or use a different lower-level protocol suite to
transfer from one domain to another.
19. What are the fields in RTP fixed header?
The fields in RTP header are :
Version (2 bits)
Padding (1 bit)
Extension (1bit)
CSRC Count (1 bit)
Marker (1 bit)
Payload Type (7 bits)
Sequence Number (16 bits)
Timestamp (32 bits)
Synchronization Source Identifier
Contributing Source Identifier.
20. What are the functions performed by RTCP?

Quality of Service (QoS) and congestion control

Identification
Session size estimation and scaling
Session control

21. What is meant by soft state in RSVP?

RSVP use connectionless approach, each intermediate router maintain state
information about nature of flow, that will be refreshed by end system at
predetermined amount of time. This is called soft state.
22. Why receiver is responsible to initiate reservation in RSVP?
Each member (destination) in multicast may require different resources to be
reserved depending on QOS it needs. So it is therefore better for receiver to make
resource reservation.

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23. Define: Session in RSVP
Once a reservation is made at a router by a particular destination, the router
considers this as a session and allocates resources for the life of that session. Session
is defined by
Session: Destination IP addresses.
IP protocol identifier.
Destination port.
24. Define: Flow specification in RSVP
The flow specification of RSVP specifies a desired QOS and is used to set
parameters in a nodes packet scheduler. Flow space is defined by
Flow space: Service class
Reserve specification
Traffic specification.
25. Define: Filter specification in RSVP
Filter specification in RSVP defines the set of packets or flow, for which a
reservation is requested. Filter space is define by
Filter specification: Source address
UDP / TCP source port.
26. What are the types of reservation style used in RSVP?
Wild card filter reservation style.
Fixed filter reservation style.
Shared explicit reservation style.
27. What do you mean by label merging and frame merging?
Label merging: The replacement of multiple incoming labels for a particular
forward equivalent class with a single outgoing label is called label merging.
Frame merging: Label merging, when it is applied to operation over frame
based media, then it is called as frame merging

28. Define label swapping in MPLS.

The basic operation of looking up an incoming label to determine the outgoing
label and forwarding is called label swapping.
29. Define Label switched hop in MPLS.
The hop between two MPLS nodes on which forwarding is done using label is
called label switched hop.
30. What is meant by ingress edge and egress edge in MPLS domain?
Ingress edge: Label switched router through which packets from internet
router enters into MPLS domain is called ingress edge.
Egress edge LSR: LSR through which packets leaves the MPLS domain is
called egress edge.
31. List the characteristics of MPLS.
MPLS characteristic that ensure its popularity are
Connection oriented QOS support.
Traffic Engineering.
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Virtual private network (VPN) support.
Multi protocol support.
32. Define: MPLS
MPLS (multi protocol label switching) is a mechanism used to speed up IP
packet forwarding process and therefore reduce delay and improve overall throughput
of internet.
33. Define: Label switched router in MPLS
An MPLS network consists of a set of nodes called label switched router(LSR)
capable of switching and routing packets on the basis of which a label has been added
to each packets.
34. What is the purpose if time to live field in label format?
The value of this field is decremented at each router and the packet is dropped
if the count falls to zero.
35. What is meant by integrated layer processing in RTP?
In TCP/IP each layer processed sequentially, whereas in integrated layer
processing, adjacent layers are tightly coupled and they function parallel.
36. What is the function of RTP relays and give its types?
A relay operating at a given protocol layer is an intermediate system that acts
as both a destination and a source in a data transfer.

37. What is the function of mixer in RTP? (AU: Nov/Dec 2007)

Mixer: It is a source of synchronization. It receives stream of RTP packets
from one or more sources. Combines these streams and forwards a new RTP
packet stream to one or more destinations.
38. What is wild card filter style? (AU: Nov/Dec 2007)
The wild card-filter style specifies a single resource reservation to be shared
by all senders to this address. This style is represented in form WF(*{Q}) where
asterisk represent wild-card sender selection and Qis the flows pet.
39. What is the use of translator in RTP? (AU: April/may 2008)
Translator produces one or more outgoing RTP packets for each incoming
packets. It changes the format of the data that suite to transfer from one domain
to another.
40. Mention the protocol used for congestion control. (AU: May/June 2009)
RSVP (Resource reservation protocol.
TCP (transfer control protocol.
41. What is RTP? Discuss with examples. (AU: May/June 2009)
RTP is the acronym for Real time protocol. It is a transport level protocol used
for real time distributed application.
Example: Audio and video conferencing.
Interactive simulation.
Remote medical diagnosis.
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