What are shaft kilns for lime

manufacture?
A Combustion File downloaded from the IFRF Online Combustion Handbook
ISSN 1607-9116
Combustion File No:

248

Version No:

Date:

13-10-2003

Author(s):

Barrie Jenkins

Source(s):

Author

Sub-editor:

Barrie Jenkins

Referee(s):

Marc Vansnick

Status:

Published

Sponsor:

Barrie G Jenkins, Consulting Engineers

1. Background
In a shaft kiln there are three zones in which distinct operations involving heat transfer
take place. They are:

The preheating zone, in which the limestone is dried and heated to

calcination temperature.

The calcination zone, in which the stone dissociates.

The cooling zone, in which the quicklime is cooled.

The quality of the lime is most influenced by the conditions in the calcination zone.
Here, heat must be supplied at a temperature above the calcination temperature; which
consequently results in a sufficiency of heat in the combustion gases and dissociated
carbon dioxide to adequately heat the stone in the preheating zone. Unless the
required product is a hard burnt lime, or dead burnt lime, the rate of heating in the
calcination zone must be carefully controlled to ensure that there are no 'hot spots' or
cool channels. Most of the design variations of shaft kilns are attempts to address this
aspect of the kiln performance.

2. Types of shaft kilns

The available shaft kiln technologies fall into four types.
1.

Single shaft

2.

Double shaft (recuperative)

3.

Annular

4.

Inclined

The following pages give brief descriptions of typical kilns of each type, and a summary
table of their operating characteristics is given at the end of this file.

3. Single Shaft Kilns

These are the most common forms of kiln in use. The vintage and number of
manufacturers are large, but included in this list would be, in no particular order of
preference; -

Mixed feed kilns

The mixed feed kiln is the most basic and oldest shaft kiln design, in which alternate
layers of stone and fuel are laid on to the top of the preheating zone, and are then
drawn down through the kiln as material is discharged at the bottom. Mixed feed kilns
are still widely used in the ammonia soda process, and in regions of the world where the
infrastructure and technical support are limited. The designs range from very basic
small open top, hand loaded kilns relying on natural chimney draught to induce air
through the bed, to large automatic feed and discharge, forced draft units. The latter
are highly efficient, whereas the former are not.
A significant advantage of this type of kiln is that it can be operated to produce a
consistently low lime reactivity. Higher reactivity is usually only obtained at the
expense of a higher level of residual CaCO3, which is not the case with more modern kiln
designs. They are typically fired on a low volatile coal (anthracite) or metallurgical coke,
both of which have high ignition temperatures (~800oC). Higher volatile solid fuels, such
as wood, tend to release the volatile components of the fuel in the preheating zone,
which results in the excessive emission of smoke and a loss of some of the calorific
value of the fuel.

West kilns

Waste Gas
170C

8-9m

Submerged
Take-off 370C

20% of

Waste Gas

4-5m
1200-1300C
Oil Vapour
5 burners

5m

Primary Air
Secondary Air

Fi
2 1 S h of iWest
f WKiln Kil
Fig 1 Schematic

These kilns are designed for two basic outputs,

50 and 100 tons/day lime, although more recent
experience with these units has shown that they
are capable of considerably increased output
with suitable modification. They were originally
designed for oil firing, using four, five or six
'carburetors' equally spaced around the kiln at
the base of the calcining zone, the idea being to
flash vaporize the oil on the hot walls of the
carburetor chamber. This was achieved by
injecting a solid rotating jet of oil which
partially combusted with about 15%
stoichiometric air, before entering the burning

zone, where it meets the cooling zone air and some recycled flue gas. An original
schematic is shown in Fig 1. The original oil-firing concept was later abandoned for
simple rotating oil injection onto the stone bed, and they have also been successfully
operated using natural gas as the fuel.

Esjornsson
This kiln is of Swedish design in which the preheating zone is hexagonal, tapering into a
rectangular burning zone of approximately 3.0m by 1.2m, and then opening out into a
square cooling/discharge zone. A separate gasification unit is used to provide the heat
to the calcining zone. Water sprays cool the gasified fuel before being injected into the
calcining zone at two levels.

Fercalx (Union Carbide)

These kilns were originally designed by Union Carbide as mixed-feed, coke-fired units
They were first converted in 1952 to gas or oil fired using water cooled burner beams
at two levels and are now marketed by Fercalx. The ability to inject fuel at a large
number of discrete points within the bed in the calcining zone enables a more even heat
distribution to be achieved, although mechanical failure, distortion and the higher heat
usage due to the beam cooling tend to outweigh this potential advantage.

Azbe
There are a large number of Azbe kilns in the USA, and other parts of the world, and
there are a number of variations as the technology has developed. Typically, these kilns
are of curved rectangular cross section, with a multiple level refractory burner beam
for fuel, air and flue gases at the base of the burning zone on the longer kiln axis.

Westofen

Waste Gas

This kiln design is similar to the West

kiln using flue gas recycle and side firing
at the base of the burning zone. Figure
2 shows a schematic of the design.

waste Gas 270-300

13m

SIC (Societa Impiante Calce srl)

1300C

4m 80-100C

Throttle

6 burners

Oil

150C
2:1 air:waste
gas ratio

Throttle
Primary Air @3bar

Secondary Air

Fig 2 Schematic of Westofen Kiln

SIC have two single shaft kiln designs,

the CBK (central burner kiln) and the
HPK (high performance kiln), the latter
being designed for smaller stone.

Chisaki Koma
This kiln design of Japanese origin is
based on fixed bed preheater

technology as developed in the Davis preheater, or the Kraus-Maffai preheater.

4. Double Shaft Kilns

Double shaft kilns have been in use since the 1960's, and were developed to overcome
Waste gas 100C the problems of increased bed resistance to gas
Combustion air
flow with smaller sized stone. They employ the
technique of regenerative flow, whereby two, or
more, shafts are fired singly in a cyclic
sequence, the flue gases exhausting through the
non-fired shaft(s), thereby effecting heat
Fuel
recovery. They generally have very good
specific fuel consumption, but are more costly in
electrical requirements due to the need for air
blowers, rather than fans. There follows a
Connecting
air duct
resume of the currently available double shaft
kilns.
Cooling air

Maerz

The Maerz kiln design is probably accepted as

the most successful double shaft kiln. Fuel is
burnt in the upper end of the burning zone in
one cylindrical shaft, and the hot gases flow coFig 3 Schematic of Maerz Kiln
currently with the charge in that shaft, and
then via a connecting duct to the other shaft, where they flow counter-currently to the
charge. The second shaft thus acts as a recuperator. After a given time, the roles of
the shafts are reversed. It is claimed that since the flow of gases and stone are in the
same direction in the burning zone, the risk of overheating the lime is reduced, and a
softer burnt, more reactive lime results. The kiln designs come in two forms, a standard
and a finelime kiln. The finelime kiln, which is a later development of the standard
design, has a smaller rated capacity for any given geometric size relative to the
standard kiln, and contains more refractory. Fig 3 shows a schematic of the kiln system.
Lime 100C

Combustion
and cooling
air compressor

Cimprogetti
The Cim-Reversy kiln operates in a similar manner to the Maerz kiln, but is formed from
two D shaped chambers, flat sides adjacent, which gives a very short gas transfer duct,
thus reducing the propensity for dust settling and deposition. These kilns have also
been designed for small stone operation.

Voest-Alpine
The Valec kiln is a double shaft design using cylindrical shafts in the same manner as the
Maerz design.

5. Annular Kilns
Primary air
Hot air

waste
gas

Heat
Exchanger

Recycled
Waste Gas
Upper
burners (5)
Fuel
Lower
Burners (5)

Annular kilns have been developed in

Germany as an alternative method of
ensuring even heat distribution. The
calcining and burning zones have an
annular cross-section, and the
preheating zone is circular. Figure 4
shows a schematic of this type of kiln
system. Rheinische Kalksteinwerke
(RKW) developed the original design,
but they are generally available from
Beckenbach and FLS.

There are two common versions of this

type of kiln, in which the upper heat
exchanger is optional. In the case
where the kiln is equipped with two
Combustion
inner cylinders, see figure 5, the upper
and
primary
Lime
air
cylinder extracts ~30% of the flue
gases to a recuperator place in a
vitiated air environment. The
compressed air used for cooling in the
Fig 4 Schematic of Annular Kiln
annular sections of the cylinders is
subsequently used as primary air to the
burners (lower cylinder) or for other purposes
(upper cylinder). The upper cylinder is
normally omitted from the design if the stone
is wet as all the flue gases are then used for
drying.to preheat the air for the lower level
burners. The lower cylinder extracts gases at
the bottom of the calcining zone for
recirculation to the lower burners where
combustion takes
Compressed cooling
air to annulus

Beckenbach
Most of the kiln shaft has an annular crosssection with five gasified fuel entry ports at
each of two levels in the kiln, and staggered so
as to deflect the charge as it falls in the
outer annular space. Some of the waste gases
go up the central cylinder space together with
air from the cooling zone, and this can be
deflected back to the lower burners and thus
regulate the temperature.
Fig 5 Double cylinder annular kiln

6. Inclined Kilns
There are two types of inclined kilns, which have been developed to cater for small
stone.

Double Incline
3m

Stone and
Coke
Oil or Gas
2 or more burners
1200 - 1300C

9m
Oil or Gas

7m

Combustion air

Fig 6 Schematic of Double Incline Kiln

The double incline kiln was developed by

Warmestelle, Steine und Erde Gmbh, and is
now made by Beckenbach. The principal is
to lengthen the burning zone, producing a
milder flame, with more even heat
distribution and transfer without the need
for flue gas recycle. The kiln cross-section
is rectangular, widening for two firing
chambers. Considerable care is needed in
selection of the refractory lining, due to
the complex geometry. Waste gas and dust
losses tend to be high, but the material
residence time is typically about half of a
conventional shaft kiln. Fig 6 shows a
schematic of the kiln system.

IAF Multi-Chamber
The IAF multi-chamber kiln was first built in 1972, and an improved design was
introduced in 1987. The kiln is basically rectangular in cross-section, but is stepped into
a number (4 to 6) of combustion chambers through the burning zone, which allows a
degree of control of combustion conditions to suit the burning requirements of the
stone.

7. Summary of typical shaft kiln characteristics

Kiln Type Maker /Design

Rate of
Output

Feed
Size

Fuels

Mixed feed
West
Esjornsson
Fercalx (UC)
Azbe
Westofen
SIC CBK
SIC HPK
Chisaki

10 - 300
30-170
50-100
40-800
50-150
100
40-80
15-125
30-100

30 - 150
60-130
100-150
80-350
60-200
30-120
40-150
25-120
5-40

C.W
G.O.C
G.GF
G.O.C
G.GF
O
G
G.O.C
G.O.C

1-5
0.5 - 3
1.35
2
1-3
n/d
n/d
1-2
1-3

Maerz
Standard
Maerz Finelime

100-800

25-200

G.O.C

100-300

10-30

Cimprogetti

100-400

Voest Alpine

TPD

Shaft
Shaft
Shaft
Shaft
Shaft
Shaft
Shaft
Shaft
Top
Shaped
Shaft
Double
Shaft
Double
Shaft
Double
Shaft
Double
Shaft
Double
Shaft
Annular
Double
Incline
Multichamber

mm

Lime
Reactivity
Quality

CaCO3%

Capital
Cost

Running
Cost

Product
Control

Energy
Usage

Energy
Usage

Low
Variable
n/d
High
High
n/d
n/d
High
Variable

Relative
Basis
Low
Low
Low
Medium
Low
n/d
Low
Medium
Medium

Relative
Basis
Low
High
High
Medium
High
n/d
High
High
Medium

Relative
basis
Medium
Medium
n/d
n/d
Poor
n/d
Medium
Medium
n/d

MJ/kg
lime (fuel)
4.0 6.0
4.2 5.0
5.4
5.5
4.2 5.0
4.2 5.0
4.4
4.4
4.6 5.2

kWh/t
(power)
5-15
25
30
30
10 - 15
25
20
20
40

1-2

High

High

Low

Good

3.6 4.2

25 - 40

1-2

High

High

Low

Medium

3.6 4.2

35 - 45

25-125

G.O.C

1.8

High

High

Low

Good

3.8 4.2

22

up to 300

10-150

n/d

1-2

High

High

Low

Good

3.8 4.2

25 - 35

SIC

150-400

20-120

G.O.C

n/d

n/d

High

Low

Good

3.6 4.2

25 - 35

Beckenbach
Beckenbach

80-850
120

10-250
10-60

G.O.GF
G.O

0.5 - 2
0.6

High
n/d

High
Medium

Low
Medium

Good
n/d

4.0 4.6
4,000

18 - 35
20 - 30

IAF

40-225

20-150

G.O.C

0.3 - 1

Medium

Medium

High

n/d

4,200

20 - 45

G gas; O oil; C - coal/coke; W, - wood; GF - gasified fuel

Glossary terms
Anthracite - The highest rank coal characterised by low volatile matter - always less
than 10% - and high carbon content it has a semi-metallic lustre and is capable of
burning, relatively easily, without smoke see also Semi-anthracite.
Burner beam A water cooled or refractory conduit passing horizontally across a shaft
kiln through which air and/or fuel is injected into the bed of material. There are usually
multiple injection ports in each beam
Calcination -The heating of a substance so that a physical, or chemical change occurs. In
the case of limestone this refers to the dissociation of calcium and magnesium
carbonates
Calorific value - The quantity of energy released as heat when a unit of fuel is
completely combusted
Carburetor A chamber in which liquid fuel and air are premixed prior to ignition

Dead burnt lime Sintered quicklime, which does not slake readily under normal
conditions
Finelime Manufactures trade name for shaft kiln designed to process small (10-30mm)
limestone lumps
Flash vaporize To evaporate fuel oil by spraying on to a hot surface
Hard burnt lime Lime that has been sintered as a result of over-burning at a high
temperature
Lime A general term for the various forms of calcium oxide and/or hydroxide with
lesser amount of magnesium oxide and/or hydroxide
Lime Reactivity A measure of the rate at which quicklime reacts with water. The
terms very high, high, moderate, medium and low are used as broad classifications.
These can be related to a variety of standard tests
Limestone - Sedimentary rock composed mainly of calcium carbonate derived from the
shells and skeletons of marine micro-organisms.
Metallurgical coke - A dark porous solid fuel, mainly carbon, formed as a pyrolysis or
carbonisation product of coal, produced either as by-product of Town Gas production or
as the main product of Coke Ovens metallurgical or hard coke. Optimum Coke
properties depend upon the end-use which include presently, the main energy supply and
ore reducing agent in blast furnaces, and in former times a domestic and industrial
smokeless fuel and a basic fuel for gas producers
Quicklime Consists mainly of calcium oxide and magnesium oxide, which, when
incorporated into a mortar mix slowly hardens in air by reaction with atmospheric carbon
dioxide
Shaft kiln Generic name for a vertical, refractory lined furnace in which a gravity
driven packed bed of material is processed
Stoichiometric - In a combustion system, the fuel and comburent supply ratio necessary
to burn completely, all the hydrocarbons and other combustible species present in a fuel

Keywords
Minerals; processing; lime; shaft; kiln; calcination; limestone;

Related Combustion Files

CF255 What are the minerals processing industries

Sources
[1] Oates J A H, Lime and Limestone, Chemistry and Technology, Production and Uses,
Wiley-VCH, 1998, ISNB 3-527-29527-5
[2] Boynton R S, Chemistry and Technology of Lime and Limestone, John Wiley & Sons,
1980, ISBN 0-471-02771-5
[3] Wingate M, Small Scale Lime Burning, Intermediate Technology Publications, 1985,
ISBN 0-946688-01-X

Acknowledgements
None

File Placing
[Minerals processing]; [Lime]; [Processes and equipment]

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