Equilibrium Acid Fracturing: A New

Fracture Acidizing Technique for

Carbonate Formations
S.J. Tinker, SPE, Shell Western E&P Inc.
Summary. The equilibrium-acid-fracturing technique was developed to stimulate wells in the Wasson San Andres Denver Production
Unit. This new treatment technique maximizes acid contact time with the fracture faces while allowing control of the created fracture
dimensions. Maximum acid contact time is essential to create highly conductive etched pathways on the fracture faces of cool dolomite
formations that react slowly with acid. Control of fracture dimensions is important in the San Andres Denver Unit because fractures
tend to grow uncontained in at least one vertical direction and the oil column is bounded by permeable gas-bearing intervals above
and permeable water-bearing intervals below.
With this technique, a fracture of desired dimensions is created by injection of acid at fracturing rates. The volume of acid required
to create the desired fracture dimensions is determined by a 2D fracture-geometry program with design parameters determined from
fracture field testing and laboratory testing. Injection is then continued at reduced rates that maintain equilibrium with the fluid leakoff
rate from the created fracture faces. Maintaining equilibrium between injection and leakoff allows the created fracture to be held open
without significant further fracture extension. Equilibrium is achieved in the field by maintaining the injection pressure below the fracture extension pressure but above the fracture closure pressure determined by fracture field testing.
This paper presents the background and theory of this technique along with design procedures, field examples, results, and conclusions. Results of the equilibrium-acid-fracture treatments and other acid stimulations performed in the Denver Unit are also compared.

Introduction
The Denver Unit is one of several production units in the Wasson
San Andres field in the west Texas counties of Gaines and Yoakum (Fig. 1). The target interval of the San Andres formation, a
Permian dolomite, is at about 5,000 ft. The Wasson San Andres
field was discovered in 1936. Waterflooding in the Denver Unit
began in 1964, when the unit was formed; CO 2 flooding began in
1984, and expansion is ongoing today.
The average permeability in the Denver Unit is about 5 md. 1,2
The pay-quality rock is split up into two major divisions. The firstporosity zones, in the upper part of the reservoir, are underlain
by the main pay zones (see Fig. 2 for a type log). The reservoir
temperature is about 105F. An original gas cap and an inactive
aquifer exist. The oil column is bounded below by pay-quality waterbearing rock in all parts of the unit and bounded above by payquality gas-bearing rock in most of the unit. 1,2
An aggressive workover program made it possible to continue
efforts to improve the effectiveness of well stimulations. The
equilibrium-acid-fracturing technique was developed to improve the
stimulation results achieved with other techniques. The typical acid
formulation used for most acid stimulations in the Denver Unit,
including equilibrium acid fractures, is 28 % HCI. Many acid fracturing and acidizing techniques, ranging from matrix acid treatments
to viscous fingering of acid through a gelled fluid, have been used
throughout the industry. The equilibrium-acid-fracturing technique
is significantly different from the other fracture acidizing techniques
because it maximizes acid contact time with the fracture faces while
allowing for control of the created fracture dimensions. A fracture
of desired dimensions is created by injection of acid at fracturing
rates. The volume of acid required to create the desired fracture
dimensions is determined by the fracture-geometry program
ENERFRAC3 with design parameters obtained from fracture field
testing. After the fracture is created, the acid injection rate is reduced until it matches the fluid leakoff rate from the fracture. When
these rates match, an equilibrium is established and the created fracture can be held open without significant further extension. In practice, equilibrium is obtained by adjusting the injection rate to
maintain the injection pressure below the fracture extension pressure but above the fracture closure pressure (minimum in-situ stress)
determined from fracture field testing. Equilibrium acid fracturing
is used to obtain maximum oil stimulation without stimulating the
adjacent water or gas zones outside the oil column. This is particularly important in carbonate formations where such properties as
Copyright 1991 Society of Petroleum Engineers

SPE Production Engineering, February 1991

Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio, minimum in-situ stress, and propagation pressure are fairly uniform and few barriers to vertical fracture extension exist. The extended acid contact time is desirable
in the relatively cool [105F bottomhole temperature (BHT)] Wasson San Andres dolomite. The equilibrium-acid-fracturing technique
was used successfully to stimulate wells in the Wasson San Andres
Denver Production Unit.
The significant aspect of this technique is the continued etching
of the fracture faces for extended periods of time while the fracture is open without further fracture growth after the initial fracture dimensions are created. Other fracture acidizing techniques
usually consist of high-rate continuous injection of either acid alone
or alternating stages of acid and various gelled fluids. Often the
total fluid volumes for these other methods are quite high and the
stimulations mayor may not be designed with regard to the ultimate created fracture dimensions. When fracture growth is uncontained in at least one vertical direction, as in the Wasson San Andres
field, the ultimate created fracture dimensions become important.
The created fracture dimensions become extremely critical to the
overall success of the stimulation when the oil column is bounded
by productive gas zones above and water zones below. Stimulation of pay-quality zones outside the oil column usually result in
excessive water and/or gas production, both of which negatively
affect stimulation. Out-of-zone stimulation can also have detrimental
effects if the field has secondary or tertiary recovery potential.
Another fracture acidizing technique consists of creating a fracture with acid and/or other fluids, etching the fracture with acid,
allowing the fracture to close, and finally injecting acid into the
closed fracture at pressures below the closure pressure. 4 The concept of injecting acid into a closed fracture is almost opposite that
of equilibrium acid fracturing. The equilibrium technique holds the
fracture open while acid continues to etch its faces without significant further fracture extension and allows live acid to reach the fracture tip in cool dolomite formations. Injection into a closed fracture
tends to concentrate the stimulation effects very near the wellbore
because of the slow rates required to maintain a closed fracture.
This paper does not present detailed data and discussion on the
reactivity of the San Andres dolomite formation with acid because
that topic is thoroughly covered elsewhere. 5
The effectiveness of the equilibrium-acid-fracturing technique was
proved by field application in a heterogeneous, layered carbonate
formation. Larger production increases at lower costs were obtained
with the new technique than with the other stimulations in the same
field.

25

GAMMA RAY

SONIC LOG

I--t-----Ir-::::B""'; 4 700

I--+-r---H......-j 4800

"FIRST POROSITY' MARKER

---4~;.-----IH-+~--:;!iF---1

I-+---"f.iit--+--l 4900
::~ .
'

Fig. 1-Locatlon of Denver Unit within the Wasson San Andres

field.

"MAIN PAY MARKER ---4f--':;,:'-++~-~~--i

.~~

;~
1,

Theory
The equilibrium-fracture-acidizing technique maximizes acid contact time with slow-reacting hydrocarbon-bearing carbonate formations without fracturing into adjacent water- or gas-bearing zones.
Because ofthe uncontained fracture growth and stiff rock (Young's
modulus of 6,000,000 psi), very small volumes of fluid can create
large fractures. 6 These properties render impractical the use of
large-volume, continuous, high-injection-rate acid fracture treatments. The alternative of a short, small-volume acid treatment is
also unsatisfactory because of the San Andres dolomite's slow reaction rate. In the Denver unit, the acid "flow-by" or contact time
is an important factor that affects stimulation response. The Wasson San Andres' low BHT causes the dolomite to react very slowly, even with 28 % HCI. The heterogeneous nature of the rock causes
the differential etching required to create a conductive flow pathway, but the slow reaction rate requires extended acid contact time
to create an effective fracture. If the fracture is not held open for
extended contact time with live acid, the acid leaks off into the
matrix, where its reaction has much less effect on the stimulation
than it would if it spent on the fracture faces. The equilibrium technique provides a way to extend the acid contact time with the fracture faces without extending the fracture dimensions.
The equilibrium technique takes advantage of the difference between the fracture propagation pressure (the pressure at which a
fracture extends) and the minimum in-situ stress (the pressure at
which a fracture opens or closes). To extend the acid contact time
after the desired fracture dimensions are created by high-rate injection (at or above fracture propagation pressure), the injection
rate is reduced to match the leakoff rate from the fracture faces.
As the injection and leakoff rates come into equilibrium, the pressure drops below propagation pressure. If the pressure in a fracture is maintained above the minimum in-situ stress (or closure
pressure) but below the fracture propagation pressure, the fracture
will be held open without significant further extension. The pressure difference between fracture propagation and closure is called
net fracture pressure. The fracture overpressure is the difference
between the corrected instantaneous shut-in pressure (ISIP) and the
minimum in-situ stress. The corrected ISIP is measured shortly after shut-in when the fracture remains open and nearly ceases to propagate. 3,6,7 A typical overpressure in the Denver Unit is "" 500 psi.
Keeping the fracture open throughout the low-rate injection portion of the equilibrium treatment allows the fracture faces to be
stimulated vigorously. In cool dolomite formations, live acid
pumped into the open fracture under equilibrium conditions reaches
the fracture tip. Because the stimulation is kept in zone and live
acid is allowed to reach the entire fracture area, the equilibrium
technique optimizes acid use in both vertical and lateral placement.

26

1--+------1""",,:::+--1 5000

I-+---+~+--l

SCALE
IN
FEET [

5100

1--+-1-"':,.-+--15200

50

:~

.{

Fig. 2-Denver Unit San Andres type log.

Estimation of Leakoff Rate. After the fracture of the desired dimensions is created, the injection rate must be reduced to match
the leakoff rate from the fracture, which can be estimated with a
well-known equation. 3.8 Eq. 1 can be used to estimate the total
leakoff rate at any time t after the fracture has been created:
qt(t) =

r
o

2C

da .................. ........ (1)

.Jt-TD(a)

where A = fracture area (ft2), Ao =A(to), c t = total in-situ leakoff

coefficient (ft/minl/z), qt(t)=leakoff rate at time t (ft3 Imin),
t=time (minutes), to = time to create the fracture (minutes), and
TD(a)=dimensionless time function.
By knowing the leak-off rate at any time after the fracture has
been created, one can calculate the volume of fluid that leaks off.
This calculation enables the treatment designer to determine the equilibrium pump-rate schedule and the total acid volume required for
the desired total acid contact time.
Fracture Field Testing. Fracture field (minifracture) testing plays
an important role in the design and execution of fracture treatments.3.68 Minifracture testing determines the in-situ fracturing
parameters, such as the minimum in-situ stress, fracture propagation pressure, overpressure, and in-situ total leakoff coefficient. 3,6,7 Fig. 3 is an example of a fracture field test for a Denver
Unit well. A predetermined volume of brine was pumped into the
SPE Production Engineering, February 1991

25.-------------------------------~~

5000

40

-i
-i

35
c

0
!:

PUMP RATE
. BOTTOMHOLE PRES.

e 30
.....

J:

- 4500

IT1

-0

QI

........

3800

.n
2

o
3:

:r

r-

.....

3600

15

"

::0
.....

v>
v>

::0
.....

(fI
(fI

20

- 4000

~"'."''''''''':, :.

....

ISIP = 3910 PSI

,
,

a::
a.

20

"'6
co

IT1

If)

::n

25
::>

OJ
0

'
"~,\

-.

15

::>
a. 10

::n
3200

.....

""""
'

.. ............

3500

20

30

3000

TIME (min)

...............

'0

............. ,....

Fig. 4-Fracture reopening test on Denver Unit Well 4130.

'"
3000

10

::l

0
0

CT

,
".

::Ii

IT1

40

50

.0r------------------.------~~----__,

60

TIME (min)

80

et ~

TOTAL ACID CONTACT HUE

60

The general procedure for designing an equilibrium treatment should

be adequate for most cases, but some minor modifications may be
required in special situations.
1. Estimate the minimum injection rate required to create a fracture to ensure that a fracture is actually created.
2. Obtain fracture field test data and laboratory data to define
the in-situ fracture design parameters and rock deformation properties,
3. Run an overpressure-calibrated fracture-geometry program to
determine the volume required to create a fracture of the desired
dimensions.
4. Establish treatment-pressure guidelines to prevent further extension of the fracture during equilibrium etching and to ensure that
the fracture is open.
5. Using the leakoff equation, determine the expected pumping
schedule, total treatment volume, and required pumping equipment.
Fracture field test data should be obtained, preferably from a test
on the subject well. If a fracture field test is not practical for that
SPE Production Engineering, February 1991

2000

240 Min.

FRAC EXTENSION PRES. - -

Design Process

ft,

70

Fig. 3-Fracture field test on Denver Unit Well 4130.

well at a rate sufficient to create a fracture. At shut-in, an ISIP of

3,910 psi (bottomhole) was observed. For a stationary fracture, the
ISIP approximates the fracture propagation pressure. The well pressure was monitored until enough data were collected for an evaluation of the total in-situ leakoff coefficient. A fracture-reopening
test at a low constant rate was also performed 6 ,7 to determine the
upper-bound estimate ofthe minimum in-situ stress. Fig. 4 shows
the results of the fracture-reopening test. The upper bound of the
minimum in-situ stress, the point at which the pre~sure-vs.-time
plot deviates from the compressibility-controlled straight line, was
found to be 3,540 psi (bottomhole). A lower bound was estimated
to be 3,400 psi from the flowback shown in Fig. 4. After the fracture was reopened, the well was flowed back at a relatively constant rate. The rate, however, was not recorded. A lower inflection
in the pressure-vs.-time plot was identified at about 3,400 psi (bottomhole).7 The lower-bound estimate of the minimum in-situ stress
was only slightly below the upper-bound estimate identified by the
reopening test. This is consistent with the indication of closure seen
from the extended pressure falloff in Fig. 3. The overpressure for
this well was thus estimated to be 370 psi (3,910-3,540 psi). The
total in-situ leakoff coefficient was then calculated to be 0.0005
ft/(min) 'h with the local-pressure-match technique described in
Ref. 7. The in-situ measured fracture parameters are then used to
design the fracture stimulation treatment for the well.

.0005 (lt/.r.iln I. R : 80

TOTAL ACID VOL. : 6170 901

50

'"::>

1500

<

'----------------------------

.-'" .0

<>

1000

.0

'"

30

"-

20

,."-::>

10

- _. TeG.PRES.

-PUMP RATE

TIME

(min.)

Fig. 5-Typical equlllbrium-acid-fracture design.

well, data may be applied from a test on a nearby well with the
same rock and reservoir properties. The minimum in-situ stress,
fracture propagation-pressure and overpressure, and in-situ leakoff
coefficient are all required. Poisson's ratio and Young's modulus
from laboratory tests on core material are also needed. The fracture field test and laboratory data are then used in ENERFRAC
to determine the time and volume required (for a given injection
rate) to create a fracture of the desired dimensions.
Establishing the treatment-pressure guidelines is one of the most
important steps in the treatment design. Once the fracture with the
desired dimensions is created, the pressure must be controlled to
prevent further fracture extension. Pressure is controlled by keeping the pressure below the fracture extension pressure. For continued fracture etching, however, the pressure should be kept above
the fracture closure pressure (minimum in-situ stress). It is common to set the treatment pressure about halfway between the propagation and closure pressures. The pressure guidelines must be
strictly followed once the fracture is created.
The pumping schedule for the low-rate, equilibrium portion of
the treatment is only a guide to help the pumper maintain the treatment pressure between the fracture extension and closure pressures.
The pump-rate schedule, however, can be quite accurate if the fracturing parameters are accurately determined from the minifracture
test. A program that uses the equation that describes the leakoff
rate from a fracture can be used to generate a pumping schedule
for the low-rate or equilibrium portion of the treatment. Intended
fracture dimensions and a leak-off coefficient derived from a fracture field test are used to predict the leakoff rate as a function of
time. The leakoff rate from a fracture of given dimensions may
be estimated with Eq. 1, where the leakoff rate at a given time is
equal to twice the fracture area multiplied by the fluid leakoff coeffi-

27

1000~----,----,,----r----~

TEMPERATURE SCALE ('F)

qq

103

107

III

....

.':.

14---1---++""","--1--1:~T~~~~~
-;;"
TEM"ERATURE

....

o
....

e--I-""c.:.:Jj----!----14750'
.::~-:~-

'~~:..

~-+--+-

TEMPERATURE

f>--h"",,:::~----!----1 4600'
..... ,:.:..

:;~~~~~

.a
.a

SE

;;~~ _

NEUTRON LIXi

:::"'"

(POOOSITY)
4650'

////////
GIIS On..
-COHTflC.T

10~----+----4+----4~----~

..
..
u

C
IL

- - Oil

WATER

TOTAL FLUID

1~------~------~--------~------~
1989
1983
1985
1987
1981

YEAR
Fig. 7-Productlon curve for Denver Unit Well 6716.

Fig. 6-Postfracture gamma ray/temperature log for Denver

Unit Well 6716.

cient and a dimensionless time function divided by the square root

of time since the start of injection. 8
The estimated leakoff-rate information is used three ways. The
first use is for estimating the acid volume to be injected at low rates
after the desired fracture dimensions are created. This volume is
determined by integrating the rate-vs.-time curve for a specified
total acid contact time. Second, the expected pumping schedule is
determined from the required acid volume and the leakoff rate as
a function of time. Finally, the leakoff-rate information is used to
determine the type of pumping equipment required to perform the
job. Because the leakoff rate declines with time, the pump rates
at the end of the treatment can, for some wells, be as low as 5
gal/min at the end of the job. The equipment must be capable of
pumping at the rates needed to match the leakoff rates throughout
the entire equilibrium portion of the treatment.
Example Design. Fig. 5 shows a typical example of an equilibriumacid-fracture treatment for the Denver Unit. A Young's modulus
of 6,000,000 psi and a Poisson's ratio of 0.3 were determined from
static-loading laboratory core tests. A totalleakoff coefficient (e,)
of 0.0005 ft/(min) 'h, an overpressure of 500 psi, an n' of 1, and
a viscosity of 1 cp were also used as input data. The constant n'
is the flow-behavior index.
The desired pump rate of 2 bbl/min was used to create an uncontained radial fracture with an 80-ft radius (l60-ft total wellbore
height) by injection of 2,940 gal of acid. This amounted to 35
minutes of acid contact time. The rate was then reduced so that
the pressure dropped below the fracture extension pressure but
stayed above the closure pressure. After the fracture was created,
an additional 3,230 gal of acid was pumped into the open fracture
at rates that matched the leakoff rate of the fracture. The pump rates
for this portion of the treatment ranged from 40 to 10 gal/min (Fig.
5). Acid was pumped for an additional 205 minutes after the fracture was created for a total acid contact time of 240 minutes.
28

Field-Application Considerations. Several items should be considered during the planning stages to ensure that the job is a technical and operational success. In cold dolomites like the Wasson
San Andres, it is desirable to maximize the acid contact time. Total pumping times for typical jobs in the Denver Unit range from
two to four hours. A maximum time of about 4 hours has been used
for several reasons. First, it is operationally favorable if the total
treatment time, including setup, production logging (if desired),
the actual treatment, and any posttreatment logging, can be completed in daylight. Second, with the extended pump times, the required pump rates can be very low. Rates on the order of 4 to 5
gal/min have been experienced. Many service company pump trucks
cannot pump at these rates. One way to solve this problem is to
hook up a split-stream manifold, which allows part of the pump's
output to be injected into the well while the remainder of the fluid
is returned to the tank or transport. When a split-stream setup is
used, all the monitoring equipment should be installed between the
manifold and the wellhead so that accurate treatment pressure and
rate information can be modified.
Pressure guidelines play an important role in an equilibrium-acidfracture treatment. The treater and/or foreman supervising the job
must know that the treatment pressure is actually within the
prescribed guidelines. The treatment-pressure guidelines for the lowrate or equilibrium portion do not include the tubing friction or any
other source of friction in the system. Although the friction is low
or negligible for many jobs, in some situations the equilibrium rates
are above 1 bbl/min and friction pressures can significantly affect
the surface tubing pressure. The surface or tubing pressure usually
is the only pressure that is monitored. One method of dealing with
the frictional effects is to use friction charts for the tubing size used.
Another method that was used successfully in the field (which also
removes all the friction in the system) is to shut down periodically
for 1 or 2 minutes. A brief shutdown to observe the real treatment
pressure should not adversely affect the treatment because, in most
cases, the fracture will not close in that short a time. In some situations, it is not practical to shut down the pumps, so friction charts
must be used.

Field Examples
The first example discussed in this section shows what can occur
when uncontained fracture growth exists and is not taken into account in the treatment design. The remaining three examples pertain to the equilibrium technique: equilibrium rates and pressures
during pumping into a stationary open fracture, posttreatment temperature logs for a producer completed with an equilibrium acid
fracture, and the injection-profile performance of a CO 2 injector
completed with the equilibrium technique. The field examples are
SPE Production Engineering, February 1991

TRAVEL TIME {HICRO-SEC/Fn

l.5r-.,------------------,

80

70

60

'50

1400

H"..-~ PCROSITY CUTOFF

ACTUAL PUMP RATE

DESIGN PIJYP RATE
- . - ACTUAL TUBING

PRE5~

1200

.:'

1000
FRActURE EXTENSION

ACOUSTIC
f"'-~ TRAVEL

PRESSURE (800 PSI)

..... _._._._._._._._._._._._.-._.

800

"'

600

PERFS

-j::=:::j::=~

0.5
400

TEM'ERA~
/ 0~

__
20

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _- - 4 0
60

80

tOO

120

140

160

-1---+---+--+--+---<

TIME

.....

<'D
......... :

5000'

__ ~;:;

POST FRA(

T~RATLRE

........

200

FRACTURE CLOStSfE
PRESSLRE (JOO PSI)

040

:~::.

f--_+\+-_+--",
.:;.,t:,+j.._-+~"""''- g~T~bLT

f---f--~~~~--45~

;r~!.

180

~OIL'WATER

"""""

Fig. 8-Equlllbrlum rates and pressures for Denver Unit Wen

6431.

consistent with and representative of the overall results obtained

from the many treatments performed in the Denver Unit.
Evidence of Uncontained Fracture Growth. Denver Unit Well
6716 was treated with an acid fracture in 1985. A large volume
of fluid was pumped at high rates, resulting in a fracture that grew
uncontained in the downward direction. Production results indicate
that the fracture extended well below the oil/water contact (OWC).
The treatment consisted of 8,500 gal of crosslinked gel followed
by three alternating stages of gelled HCl (3,400 gallstage) and two
stages of a 40-lbm linear hydroxypropyl guar gel (2,000 gal/stage).
The final acid stage was flushed with 2,000 gal of brine. The total
treatment volume was 24,700 gal pumped at 5.5 bbl/min.
The treatment was tagged with radioactive material. A postfracture gamma ray and temperature log (Fig. 6) was run to determine
the interval that was treated. This log showed that the treatment
went below the total depth (TD) of the well. The top of the treated
interval appears to be at the top of the perforated interval, which
is also the top of the first-porosity zones. Above these zones, the
dolomite is very dense and has quite low porosity. The tight, dense
rock above the first-porosity zones appeared to contain the fracture at the top, but no lower containment of the fracture was observed.
Fig. 7 shows the production response to this stimulation. The
well was producing 50 BOPD plus 50 BWPD before the treatment.
The water production increased to a sustained rate between 500
and 600 BID; oil production increased by only about 10 BID. The
lO-fold increase in water production is clear evidence that the fracture extended below the OWC, which was 45 ft below the TD. We
can conclude from the production results that the major stimulation effect was in the water-bearing intervals below the OWC. From
fracturing-parameter data from the area, a conservative estimate
of the downward fracture growth indicates that the fracture extended
at least 100 ft below the OWC. The production-performance data,
posttreatment log, and estimate of ultimate fracture dimensions based
on actual fracturing data in the area are evidence that fractures grow
uncontained in at least one vertical direction in this formation. Uncontained fracture growth was also observed in the Bennett Ranch
Unit of the Wasson San Andres field. 6
Equilibrium Rate and Pressure Data. Denver Unit Well 6431
was stimulated with the equilibrium technique. A prestimulation
fracture field test determined the minimum in-situ stress, total insitu leakoff coefficient, overpressure, and fracture propagation pressure. The minimum in-situ stress was found to be 2,770 psi (bottomhole), fracture propagation pressure was 3,270 psi (bottomhole),
and overpressure was 500 psi. The calculated total in-situ leakoff
coefficient was 0.00125 ft/(min) 'h. The treatment was designed to
create a radial fracture with a 50-ft radius using 1,050 gal of 28 %
HCI at 2 bbIlmin followed by 2,460 gal of28% HCl at equilibrium pump rates and pressures. The treatment was performed as it
SPE Production Engineering, February 1991

CONTACT

i--i--++--f.lc-----l5100'

f---I----l~~~~:~--4 5150'
~

..',.
I

106

108

110

112

TEMPERATURE SCALE

114

116

(*F)

Fig. 9-Postfracture temperature log for Denver Unit Wen

4130.

was designed. Fig. 8 gives the actual treatment rate and pressure
for the equilibrium portion of the treatment. The design rate, closure
pressure, and fracture extension pressure are presented. The actual equilibrium pump rate started slightly below the design rate and
then followed it closely for the remainder of the treatment. The
well was shut in briefly to obtain an ISIP. The pressure declined
as the treatment proceeded and leveled off at a pressure about 110
psi below the fracture extension pressure and about 390 psi above
the closure pressure (minimum in-situ stress). Acid was pumped
into the open fracture at pressures below the fracture extension pressure and above the fracture closure pressure for an extended period. The total acid contact time for this well was about 140 minutes.
Fracture Height Estimate From Temperature Log. Denver Unit
Well 4130 was drilled and completed in 1987. An equilibrium treatment was used as the stimulation technique at completion. The perforations were placed about halfway between the gas/oil contact
and the OWC to control where the fracture initiated. A fracture
field test was performed with brine used as the test fluid. The results from this fracture field test (shown in Figs. 3 and 4) were
discussed in the Theory section. A fracture extension pressure (lSIP)
of 3,910 psi (bottomhole), a closure pressure of 3,540 psi (bottomhole), a total leakoff coefficient of 0.0005 ftI(min) 'h, and an overpressure of 370 psi were used in ENERFRAC.3 The model
incorporates the effect of field-calibrated fracture extension overpressure. The model determined that 849 gal of acid was required
to create a radial fracture with a 45-ft radius (90-ft height) at a pump
rate of 0.25 bbIlmin. A spreadsheet was then used to estimate the
pump rates that would match the leakoff rates of the fracture once
it was created.
In summary, a total of 849 gal of 28 % HCl was pumped at 0.25
bbl/min to create the fracture of the desired dimensions. Once the
fracture was created, an additional 1,150 gal of 28% HCl was
pumped into the existing fracture at rates ranging from 8 to 3.5
gal/min and at pressures between the ISIP (3,910 psi) and the closure
pressure (3,540 psi). A temperature log was run following the treatment (Fig. 9). The treated interval is indicated by the increase in
temperature compared with the base temperature run. The temperature increase is caused by the heat of reaction between the HCl
and the dolomite. The temperature log indicates that the total created
29

100
TEMPERATURE SCALE I'~
101

102

10'3

10"

1f-'

;7

'"

tl~~

<_

""O'

-r . j

-If---+-+-+-i--+-01

!'-.

'.

50

;:

50

.;,'

70

.~

~/~

04800'

}'

i
i

:e

:;;

.J

~--+-+----1F.:;,'\--.--I

PERfORATIONS

80
.coosTIC

. :;.-- I-- ~YU

"""". -t--+---+>:--+--I18I8I

90

DEPTH 1FT>
~

::~.

:::l

GIiISOIL
CONT#lCT

......
II:

40

------------

30
20
10

--.

OIL ACTUAL

PRIOR DECLINE

0
-10

-5

-2

10

14

MONTHS BEFORE AND AFTER STIMULATION

" ,1--+-+-4---15000'
'.

~\~:

' - - On.. W"T[R

I-C~TIIICT

\ ..:.-c.::~.~~~'t<-.c--It--l 50'50'
I-+---+i
\

Fig. 11-Average 011 production response for equlllbrium-acldfracture treatments.

~.

!'::.

500r-----------------------------------,
450

15

CUMULA TIVE PERCENT

OF INJECTION

~5

400

INJECTION Y.
PER FOOT

:;;

350

.D

Fig. 10-Shut-ln temperature survey and CO 2 Injection profile for Denver Unit Well 6740WC.

o
;:
~

250

::

TABLE 1-COST COMPARISON AND PRODUCTIONINCREASE DATA (1987 DATA)

Equilibrium
Acid Fracturing
Number of jobs
Average oil increase
per job, BID
Average job cost, * dollars
Average cost per
BID oil increase, * dollars

30
29
21,170

730

All Other Acid

Stimulations

205
15
14,260
950

------------

200

II:
W

150

--

100
50

WATER ACTUAL

PRIOR DECLINE

~~10~~-_~6--L--_~2--~0--~2--~~5~-L~ILO--~-IL4~
MONTHS BEFORE AND AFTER STIMULATION

Fig. 12-Average water production response for equilibriumacid-fracture treatments.

'Costs reflect the total job cost. not just the stimulation.

fracture height is 94 ft, which is extremely close to the design height

of 90 ft. This is clear evidence that, by pumping at rates in equilibrium with the leakoff rate of the created fracture and maintaining
a treatment pressure above the closure pressure and below the fracture extension pressure, additional fracture growth does not occur.
The stimulation was controlled within the oil column. A total acid
contact time of about 4 hours was achieved with this treatment.
Equilibrium-Acid-Fracture Experience With an Injection Well.
Denver Unit Well 6740WC was drilled and completed as a CO 2
injection well in 1987. This well is only two well locations away
from Well 6716. The well was stimulated with an equilibrium-acidfracture treatment because it was important to control fracture dimensions and to maximize stimulation. The treated interval was
successfully kept within the oil column. The fracture was designed
for a total vertical height of 145 ft. Fracturing parameters from
a similar well were used. A total leakoff coefficient of 0.0005
ft/(min) ~ and an overpressure of 300 psi were used in ENERFRAC. The volume of HCI needed to create the 145-ft fracture
was 1,500 gal at 2 bbl/min. The 28 % HCI was spotted to the treating packer. The 1,500 gal was then pumped at 2 bbllmin and the
pump shut down for 1 minute to obtain an ISIP. The observed ISIP
30

was 1,200 psi. An additional 1,355 gal of 28% HCI was then
pumped into the open fracture at rates from 37 to 21 gal/min while
the pressures ranged from 1,000 to 1,100 psi. The actual rates during
the equilibrium portion of the treatment were as expected. Again,
the treatment pressure was maintained below the fracture extension pressure but above the fracture closure pressure for the equilibrium portion of the treatment. The created fracture height was
estimated from a shut-in temperature survey run in conjunction with
a CO 2 -injection-profile survey. Fig. 10 shows the injection-profile
and shut-in temperature surveys and the sonic porosity log. The
shut-in temperature survey, run a short time after the well was placed
on injection, indicated that the total interval that was taking injection was about l35 ft. This is just a few feet short of the design
height of 145 ft for the fracture. The profile is close to the ideal
profile for this well on the basis of the q,h values in the oil column.
The performance of this well indicates that the treatment was kept
within the oil column as desired and that the technique can be successfully applied to injection wells.

Results
The effectiveness of the equilibrium technique was proved by field
application. Table 1 summarizes the results of the 235-well stimulation program at the Denver Unit during 1987. On the average,
SPE Production Engineering, February 1991

100

500~------------------------------------'

90
80
co
,
:;;
~

400
co
,

......

70

SO

--- --- ---

::J

::J

co

co
0

a::

...

40

::!

30

300

;::

;::

o
::

-- ---

a::
w

20
10
0
-10

200

100
OIL ACTUAL

WATER ACTUAL

PRIOR DECLINE

PRIOR DECLINE
OL-~~

-6

-2

10

14

-10

MONTHS BEFORE AND AFTER STIMULATION

Fig. 13-Average 011 production response for all other acid

stimulations.

larger oil production increases were obtained at a lower cost for

the 30 equilibrium treatments compared with 205 other acid stimulations done in the production unit during the same time. The better oil production increases, 29 vs. 15 BID per job, were achieved
without a disproportionate increase in water production. The average total job cost for the equilibrium acid fracture treatments was
$21,170; the average total job cost of the other acid stimulations
was $14,260. The slightly higher total job cost for the equilibrium
jobs was a result of fracture field testing costs, posttreatment logging, and other associated costs. Reducing the cost ofthe equilibrium treatments is possible by eliminating the fracture field testing
when good-quality data exist for similar offset wells that show that
the fracturing parameters do not change significantly from well to
well. Some of the other acid stimulations were simple matrix treatments, which helped to keep the nonequilibrium job average at
$14,260. The cost for each barrel of stabilized oil increase for the
equilibrium treatments was $730; for all the other acid stimulations,
it was $950.
The average stabilized oil production increase from the 30 jobs
was 29 BID per job. Fig. 11 shows the production curve for the
average equilibrium acid fracture. The production curve was constructed by summing the actual production for the 30 treatments
normalized on the month that the job was performed. The total production was then divided by 30 to obtain the average response on
a per-well basis. The curve shows that a sustained production increase was maintained for the 9 months of available data. Fig. 12
shows the average water production curve normalized on the month
of the treatment.
The average stabilized oil production increase for all acid stimulations other than the equilibrium acid fracture was 15 BID per job.
Fig. 13 gives the average oil production curve for this group of
wells normalized on the month ofthe treatment, and Fig. 14 shows
the average water production curve. The average production curves
for the jobs other than equilibrium acid fractures show the performance of the 205 total jobs. A 50 % sample was used because of the
extensive analysis time involved in normalizing the production
curves of each well. The average production increases are consistent with the known results from the entire group. All types oftreatments were included, ranging from geometry-controlled acid
fracture to matrix acid treatments. Also, the treatments were located in all portions of the production unit and are believed to represent the performance of all 205 jobs.
Fig. 15 shows the productivity increases in both oil and water
production. The productivity increase or change is the stabilized
production rate after the treatment divided by the production rate
before the treatment. The equilibrium-acid-fracture-production increases were 1.74 for the oil and 1.94 for the water; for all the
other acid stimulations, they were 1.31 and 1.38, respectively. In
SPE Produclion Engineering, February 1991

__

-6

~~

__

-2

~-L~

__

~~

__

~-L

10

__

14

MONTHS BEFORE AND AFTER STIMULATION

Fig. 14-Average water production response for all other acid

stimulations.

2.5r-------------------------------------,
Ll
OIL

[21

.TO

1.8.

":z:~

1.31

1.5

1.31

...
:>
...u
~

::J

co

...a::

.5

oL-------~~~----------~~~------~

EQUILIBRIUM
ACID FRACS

ALL OTHER
STIMULATIONS

Fig. 15-Comparlson of stimulation techniques.

both cases, oil production was stimulated without a disproportionate increase in water production. The relatively equal stimulation
of oil and water for both groups is a result of efforts to confine
all stimulation treatments to the oil column. Most significant is the
higher overall stimulation effect of the equilibrium technique compared with the other acid treatment techniques. In both groups, the
average prestimulation production rate was about the same. The
prestimulation oil production for the wells treated with the equilibrium treatments was 38 BID, compared with 44 BID for the average well stimulated with other techniques. The average water
production for the wells stimulated with the equilibrium treatments
was 225 BID, compared with 240 BID from the other wells
stimulated .

Conclusions
The equilibrium-acid-fracturing technique was proved to be effective in stimulating the relatively cool San Andres dolomite. The
extended acid contact time provided by this technique yielded significantly better stimulation response than other acid stimulation
techniques in the Denver Unit.
After a fracture is created, significant further fracture extension
can be prevented by establishing an equilibrium between the fluid
injection rate into the fracture and the fluid leakoff rate from the
fracture, thus controlling the fracture dimensions. When an equi31

Author
Steven J. Tinker Is a senior production
engineer with Shell Western E&P Inc. In
Houston. His current assignment Involves well completions, workovers, and
stimulations In south Louisiana unconsolidated sandstone wells. Previous assignments Involved production
engineering and stimulation design In
south Texas gas wells and west Texas
carbonates. He holds a BS degree from
Texas A&M U. and an MS degree from
the U. of Houston, both In petroleum engineering.

librium is established, the fracture will remain open and stationary

with essentially constant dimensions while pumping into it. Pressure constraints are established to ensure an open fracture and to
prevent fracture extension.
The results and field examples are consistent with and representative of the many equilibrium treatments performed in the Denver
Unit since 1987. The consistency of the results suggests that the
equilibrium acid fracturing technique provides controlled fracture
dimensions, maximum acid contact time for enhanced fracture-face
etching, and better oil increases at lower cost without excessive
water stimulation.

Acknowledgments
I acknowledge the people who made contributions to this paper.
Thanks go to Jacob Shlyapobersky of Shell Development Co. for
his concepts of fracture mechanics and advice throughout the project. Thanks also are due Paul Huckabee of Shell Western E&P Inc.
(SWEPI) for his work in fracture-geometry control that inspired
additional development in acid fracturing. Thanks also go to Bob
Sheffield of SWEPI for his expertise in fracturing and his continuous encouragement in developing the new technique. Thanks are
due Jerry Richardson of SWEPI for his contribution of data included
in the paper. Finally, thanks go to SWEPI for allowing publication
of this paper.

2. Ghauri, W.K.: "Production Technology Experience in a Large Carbonate

Waterflood, Denver Unit, Wasson San Andres Field," JPT (Sept. 1980)
1493-1502.
3. Shlyapobersky, J., Wong, G.K., and Walhaug, W.W.: "Overpressure
Calibrated Design of Hydraulic Fracture Stimulations," paper SPE 18194
presented at the 1988 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston, Oct. 2-5.
4. Fredrickson, S.E.: "Stimulating Carbonate Formations With a ClosedFracture Acidizing Technique, " paper SPE 14654 presented at the 1986
SPE East Texas Regional Meeting, Tyler, April 21-22.
5. Anderson, M.S.: "Reactivity of San Andres Dolomite," paper SPE 20115
presented at the 1990 SPE Permian Basin Oil and Gas Recovery Conference, Midland, March 8-9.
6. Huckabee, P.T.: "Carbonate Stimulation Optimization Using Hydraulic Fracturing Field Testing," paper SPE 18224 presented at the 1988
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston, Oct. 2-5.
7. Walhaug, W.W. et ai.: "Field Determination of Fracturing Parameters
for Overpressure Calibrated Design of Hydraulic Fracturing," paper SPE
18195 presented at the 1988 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston, Oct. 2-5.
8. Nolte, K.G.: "Determination of Fracture Parameters From Fracturing
Pressure Decline," paper SPE 8341 presented at the 1979 SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, Las Vegas, Sept. 23-26.

51 Metric Conversion Factors

bbl x 1.589873
cp x 1.0*
ft x 3.048*
ft2 x 9.290 304*
ft3 x 2.831 685
OF (OF-32)/1.8
gal x 3.785412
in. x 2.54*
Ibm x 4.535924
md x 9.869233
miles x 1.609 344*
psi X 6.894757

Conversion factor is exact.

E-Ol
E+OO
E-Ol
E-02
E-02
E-03
E+OO
E-Ol
E-04
E+OO
E+OO

m3
mPa's
m
m2
m3
C
m3
cm
kg
p.m 2

km
kPa

SPEPE

References
I. Ghauri, W.K., Magnuson, W.L., and Osborne, A.F.: "Changing Concepts in Carbonate Waterflooding-West Texas Denver Unit ProjectAn Illustrative Example," JPT(June 1974) 595-606.

32

Original SPE manuscript received for review March 13, 1989. Paper accepted for publica
tion Oct. 31, 1990. Revised manuscript received June 14, 1990. Paper (SPE 18883) first
presented at the 1989 SPE Production Operations Symposium held in Oklahoma City. March
13-14.

SPE Production Engineering, February 1991