Composite materials (also called composition materials or shortened to composites) are materials made from two or more constituent

materials
with significantly different physical or chemical properties, that when combined, produce a material with characteristics different from the individual
components. The individual components remain separate and distinct within the finished structure. The new material may be preferred for many
reasons: common examples include materials which are stronger, lighter or less expensive when compared to traditional materials.
Typical engineered composite materials include:

Composite building materials such as cements, concrete

Reinforced plastics such as fiber-reinforced polymer

Metal Composites

Ceramic Composites (composite ceramic and metal matrices)

Composite materials are generally used for buildings, bridges and structures such as boat hulls, swimming pool panels, race car
bodies,shower stalls, bathtubs, storage tanks, imitation granite and cultured marble sinks and counter tops. The most advanced examples perform
routinely on spacecraft in demanding environments.

Classification of composites
Dr.

Dmitri

Kopeliovich

Composite material is a material composed of two or more distinct phases (matrix phase and dispersed phase) and having bulk properties
significantly different form those of any of the constituents.

Matrix phase

The primary phase, having a continuous character, is called matrix. Matrix is usually more ductile and less hard phase. It holds the dispersed
phase and shares a load with it.

Dispersed (reinforcing) phase

The second phase (or phases) is embedded in the matrix in a discontinuous form. This secondary phase is called dispersed phase. Dispersed
phase is usually stronger than the matrix, therefore it is sometimes called reinforcing phase.
Many of common materials (metal alloys, doped Ceramics and Polymers mixed with additives) also have a small amount of dispersed phases
in their structures, however they are not considered as composite materials since their properties are similar to those of their base
constituents (physical properties of steel are similar to those of pure iron).
There are two classification systems of composite materials. One of them is based on the matrix material (metal, ceramic, polymer) and the
second is based on the material structure:

Classification of composites I
(based on matrix material)

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)

Metal Matrix Composites are composed of a metallic matrix (aluminum, magnesium, iron, cobalt, copper) and a dispersed ceramic
(oxides,carbides) or metallic (lead, tungsten, molybdenum) phase.

Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC)

Ceramic Matrix Composites are composed of a ceramic matrix and embedded fibers of other ceramic material (dispersed phase).

Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

Polymer
Matrix
Composites are
composed
of
a
matrix
from thermoset (Unsaturated
Polyester
(UP), Epoxiy
(EP))
or thermoplastic(Polycarbonate (PC), Polyvinylchloride, Nylon, Polysterene) and embedded glass, carbon, steel or Kevlar fibers (dispersed
phase).

Classification of composite materials II

(based on reinforcing material structure)

Particulate Composites
Particulate Composites consist of a matrix reinforced by a dispersed phase in form of particles.

1.

Composites with random orientation of particles.

2.

Composites with preferred orientation of particles. Dispersed phase of these materials consists of two-dimensional flat
platelets (flakes), laid parallel to each other.

Fibrous Composites
1.

Short-fiber reinforced composites. Short-fiber reinforced composites consist of a matrix reinforced by a dispersed phase in
form of discontinuous fibers (length < 100*diameter).
I.

Composites with random orientation of fibers.

II.
2.

Composites with preferred orientation of fibers.

Long-fiber reinforced composites. Long-fiber reinforced composites consist of a matrix reinforced by a dispersed phase in form
of continuous fibers.

I.
II.

Unidirectional orientation of fibers.

Bidirectional orientation of fibers (woven).

Laminate Composites
When a fiber reinforced composite consists of several layers with different fiber orientations, it is called multilayer (angle-ply) composite.

PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITES
Composites are extremely versatile products - their benefits being:

High Strength to Weight Ratio

Fibre composites are extremely strong for their weight. By refining the laminate many characteristics can be enhanced. A common laminate of say 3
mm Chopped strand mat, is quite flexible compared to say a 3 mm ply. However it will bend a long way more than the ply before yeilding. Stiffness
should not be confused with Strength. A carbon fibre laminate on the other hand, will have a stiffness of many times that of mild steel of the same
thickness, increased ultimate strength, yet only be less than 1/4 of it's wgt.

Lightweight
A standard Fibreglass laminate has a specific gravity in the region of 1.5, compared to Alloy of 2.7 or steel of 7.8. When you then start looking at
Carbon laminates, strengths can be many times that of steel, but only a fraction of the wgt.
A DVD case lid was produced using carbon fibre to reduce the case's overall weight so that it could be carried as cabin baggage whilst travelling, and
for improved security. It was used by support crew for the All Blacks during their 1999 Rugby World Cup campaign.

Fire Resistance
The ability for composites to withstand fire has been steadily improving over the years. There is two types of systems to be considered:Fire Retardent - are self extinguishing laminates, usually made with chlorinated resins and additives such as Antimony trioxide. These release CO2
when burning so when the flame source is removed, the self extinguish.
Fire Resistant - More difficult and made with the likes of Phenolic Resins. These are difficult to use, are cured with formaldehyde, and require a hi
degree of post curing to achieve true fire resistance.
Other materials are also becoming more readily available to be used as intumescent layers, which expand and blanket the surface, preventing spread
of flame. There is a paint on coating usually applied to the back of the product laminate, plus a thin fibre film to go under the Gelcoat giving the outer
surface a blanketing coat as well.
Fibreglass Developments Ltd produces a Fire Door as part of our SteridorTM range. Use of special Phenolic resin has allowed us to create
the only fully tested Composite door in Australasia. Fire rated by BRANZ to 4 hours, this door is also approved by MAF as meeting all their Hygiene
requirements.

Electrical Properties
Fibreglass Developments Ltd produced the Insulator Support straps for the Tranz Rail main trunk electrification. The straps, although only 4mm thick,
meet the required loads of 22kN, as well as easily meeting insulation requirements.

Chemical & Weathering Resistance

Composite products have good weathering properties and resist the attack of a wide range of chemicals. This depends almost entirely on the resin
used in manufacture, but by careful selection resistance to all but the most extreme conditions can be achieved. Because of this, composites are used
in the manufacture of chemical storage tanks, pipes, chimneys and ducts, boat hulls and vehicle bodies.
FDL manufactured architectural panels for the construction of the Auckland Marine Rescue Centre. Composite panels were chosen because of their
ability to withstand salty sea side conditions without corrosion.

Colour
Almost any shade of any colour can be incorporated into the product during manufacture by pigmenting the gelcoat used. Costs are therefore reduced
by no further finishing or painting. Soluble dyes can be used if a translucent product is desired.
We do not however, recommend dark colours. These produce excessive heat on the surface which can lead to the surface deteriorating and showing
print through, where the Resn matrix cures more and shrinks, bringing the fibres to the surface. In extreme cases delamination can occur.

Translucency
Polyester resins are widely used to manufacture translucent mouldings and sheets. Light transmission of up to 85% can be achieved

Design Flexibility
Because of the versatility of composites, product design is only limited by your imagination.

Low Thermal Conductivity

Fibreglass Developments has been involved in the development and production of specialised meat containers which maintain prime cuts of chilled
meat at the correct temperature for Export markets. They are manufactured using the RTM process, with special reinforcing and foam inserts.

Manufacturing Economy
Fibreglass Developments produces several models of fuel pump covers for Fuelquip. Fibreglass is an ideal material for producing items of this type for
many reasons, including being very economical.
Because of its versatile properties, fibreglass can be used in many varied applications.
Isotropy is uniformity in all orientations; it is derived from the Greek isos (, equal) and tropos (, way). Precise definitions depend on the
subject area. Exceptions, or inequalities, are frequently indicated by the prefix an, hence anisotropy. Anisotropy is also used to describe situations
where properties vary systematically, dependent on direction. Isotropic radiation has the same intensity regardless of the direction of measurement,
and an isotropic field exerts the same action regardless of how the test particle is oriented.

Physics[edit]
Quantum mechanics or Particle physics
When a spinless particle (or even an unpolarized particle with spin) decays, the resulting decay distribution must be isotropic in the rest
frame of the decaying particle regardless of the detailed physics of the decay. This follows from rotational invariance of the Hamiltonian,
which in turn is guaranteed for a spherically symmetric potential.
Kinetic theory is also an example of isotropy. It is assumed that the molecules move in random directions and as a consequence, there is
an equal probability of a molecule moving in any direction. Thus when there are many molecules in the gas, with high probability there will
be very similar numbers moving in one direction as any other hence demonstrating approximate isotropy.
Fluid dynamics
Fluid flow is isotropic if there is no directional preference (e.g. in fully developed 3D turbulence). An example of anisotropy is in flows with a
background density as gravity works in only one direction. The apparent surface separating two differing isotropic fluids would be referred to
as an isotrope.
Thermal expansion
A solid is said to be isotropic if the expansion of solid is equal in all directions when thermal energy is provided to the solid.
Electromagnetics
An isotropic medium is one such that the permittivity, , and permeability, , of the medium are uniform in all directions of the medium, the
simplest instance being free space.
Optics
Optical isotropy means having the same optical properties in all directions. The individual reflectance or transmittance of the domains is
averaged if the macroscopic reflectance or transmittance is to be calculated. This can be verified simply by investigating, e.g.,
a polycrystalline material under a polarizing microscope having the polarizers crossed: If the crystallites are larger than the resolution limit,
they will be visible.
Cosmology

The Big Bang theory of the evolution of the observable universe assumes that space is isotropic. [2] It also assumes that space is
homogeneous.[2] These two assumptions together are known as the Cosmological Principle. As of 2006, the observations suggest that, on
distance scales much larger than galaxies, galaxy clusters are "Great"features, but small compared to so-called multi-verse scenarios.

Orthotropic material
An orthotropic material has three mutually orthogonal twofold axes of rotational symmetry so that its material properties are, in general, different
along each axis. An object can be both orthotropic and inhomogeneous; it may have orthotropic properties that vary from point to point inside the
volume of the object. This suggests that orthotropy is the property of a point within an object rather than for the object as a whole (unless the object is
homogeneous). The associated planes of symmetry are also defined for a small region around a point and do not necessarily have to be identical to
the planes of symmetry of the whole object.

Orthotropy in physics[edit]

Anisotropic material relations[edit]

Material behavior is represented in physical theories by constitutive relations. A large class of physical behaviors can be represented by linear material
models that take the form of a second-order tensor. The material tensor provides a relation between two vectors and can be written as

where

are two vectors representing physical quantities and

is the second-order material tensor. If we express the above equation in

terms of components with respect to an orthonormal coordinate system, we can write

Summation over repeated indices has been assumed in the above relation. In matrix form we have

Examples of physical problems that fit the above template are listed in the table below. [1]
Problem

Electrical conduction

Dielectrics

Magnetism

Thermal conduction

Diffusion

Flow in porous
media

Electrical current

Electric field

Electrical conductivity

Electrical displacement Electric field

Electric permittivity

Magnetic induction

Magnetic field

Magnetic permeability

Heat flux

Temperature gradient

Thermal conductivity

Particle flux

Concentration gradient Diffusivity

Weighted fluid velocity Pressure gradient

Fluid permeability

Condition for material symmetry[edit]

The material matrix

has a symmetry with respect to a given orthogonal transformation (

) if it does not change when

subjected to that transformation. For invariance of the material properties under such a transformation we require

Hence the condition for material symmetry is (using the definition of an orthogonal transformation)

Orthogonal transformations can be represented in Cartesian coordinates by a

matrix

given by

Therefore the symmetry condition can be written in matrix form as

Orthotropic material properties[edit]

An orthotropic material has three orthogonal symmetry planes. If we choose an orthonormal coordinate
system such that the axes coincide with the normals to the three symmetry planes, the transformation
matrices are

It can be shown that if the matrix

for a material is invariant under reflection about two orthogonal

planes then it is also invariant under reflection about the third orthogonal plane.

Consider the reflection

about the

plane. Then we have

The above relation implies that

Next consider a reflection

.
about the

That implies that

orthotropic material are described by the matrix

plane. We then have

. Therefore the material properties of an

Composite laminates
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A small sample of Aerospace grade Carbon-fibre/Epoxy laminate.

In materials science, Composite laminates are assemblies of layers of fibrous composite

materials which can be joined to provide required engineering properties, including in-plane
stiffness, bending stiffness, strength, and coefficient of thermal expansion.
The individual layers consist of high-modulus, high-strength fibers in a polymeric, metallic,
or ceramic matrix material. Typical fibers used include graphite, glass, boron, and silicon carbide,
and some matrix materials are epoxies, polyimides, aluminium, titanium, and alumina.
Layers of different materials may be used, resulting in a hybrid laminate. The individual layers
generally are orthotropic (that is, with principal properties in orthogonal directions) or
transversely isotropic (with isotropic properties in the transverse plane) with the laminate then
exhibiting anisotropic (with variable direction of principal properties), orthotropic, or quasi-isotropic
properties. Quasi-isotropic laminates exhibit isotropic (that is, independent of direction) inplane
response but are not restricted to isotropic out-of-plane (bending) response. Depending upon the
stacking sequence of the individual layers, the laminate may exhibit coupling between inplane and
out-of-plane response. An example of bending-stretching coupling is the presence of curvature
developing as a result of in-plane loading.
Advantages of Composites

Light Weight - Composites are light in weight, compared to most woods and metals. Their lightness is important in automobiles and aircraft, for example, where less weight
means better fuel efficiency (more miles to the gallon). People who design airplanes are greatly concerned with weight, since reducing a crafts weight reduces the amount of
fuel it needs and increases the speeds it can reach. Some modern airplanes are built with more composites than metal including the new Boeing 787, Dreamliner.

High Strength - Composites can be designed to be far stronger than aluminum or steel. Metals are equally strong in all directions. But composites can be engineered and
designed to be strong in a specific direction.

Strength Related to Weight - Strength-to-weight ratio is a materials strength in relation to how much it weighs. Some materials are very strong and heavy, such as steel. Other
materials can be strong and light, such as bamboo poles. Composite materials can be designed to be both strong and light. This property is why composites are used to build
airplaneswhich need a very high strength material at the lowest possible weight. A composite can be made to resist bending in one direction, for example. When something is

built with metal, and greater strength is needed in one direction, the material usually must be made thicker, which adds weight. Composites can be strong without being heavy.
Composites have the highest strength-to-weight ratios in structures today.

Corrosion Resistance - Composites resist damage from the weather and from harsh chemicals that can eat away at other materials. Composites are good choices where
chemicals are handled or stored. Outdoors, they stand up to severe weather and wide changes in temperature.

High-Impact Strength - Composites can be made to absorb impactsthe sudden force of a bullet, for instance, or the blast from an explosion. Because of this property,
composites are used in bulletproof vests and panels, and to shield airplanes, buildings, and military vehicles from explosions.

Design Flexibility - Composites can be molded into complicated shapes more easily than most other materials. This gives designers the freedom to create almost any shape or
form. Most recreational boats today, for example, are built from fiberglass composites because these materials can easily be molded into complex shapes, which improve boat
design while lowering costs. The surface of composites can also be molded to mimic any surface finish or texture, from smooth to pebbly.

Part Consolidation - A single piece made of composite materials can replace an entire assembly of metal parts. Reducing the number of parts in a machine or a structure saves
time and cuts down on the maintenance needed over the life of the item.

Dimensional Stability - Composites retain their shape and size when they are hot or cool, wet or dry. Wood, on the other hand, swells and shrinks as the humidity changes.
Composites can be a better choice in situations demanding tight fits that do not vary. They are used in aircraft wings, for example, so that the wing shape and size do not
change as the plane gains or loses altitude.

Nonconductive - Composites are nonconductive, meaning they do not conduct electricity. This property makes them suitable for such items as electrical utility poles and the
circuit boards in electronics. If electrical conductivity is needed, it is possible to make some composites conductive.

Nonmagnetic - Composites contain no metals; therefore, they are not magnetic. They can be used around sensitive electronic equipment. The lack of magnetic interference
allows large magnets used in MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) equipment to perform better. Composites are used in both the equipment housing and table. In addition, the
construction of the room uses composites rebar to reinforced the concrete walls and floors in the hospital.

Radar Transparent - Radar signals pass right through composites, a property that makes composites ideal materials for use anywhere radar equipment is operating, whether on
the ground or in the air. Composites play a key role in stealth aircraft, such as the U.S. Air Forces B-2 stealth bomber, which is nearly invisible to radar.

Low Thermal Conductivity - Composites are good insulatorsthey do not easily conduct heat or cold. They are used in buildings for doors, panels, and windows where extra
protection is needed from severe weather.

Durable - Structures made of composites have a long life and need little maintenance. We do not know how long composites last, because we have not come to the end of the
life of many original composites. Many composites have been in service for half a century.

Stress-strain relationships
Material reactions under stresses can be described by a set of constitutive equations. For isotropic material, this is known as Hooke's law or
sometimes, in an inverse form, Lam [la-may] equations. The 3-D Hooke's law in matrix form is:

This Hooke's law is in the compliance form where the strains are expressed in term of stresses and a compliance matrix. The inverse of this
expresses the stresses in term of strain and the stiffness matrix.
Compliance form
Stiffness form
The convention is that the symbol S is used for compliance and the C is used for the stiffness.
In the most general case, the stress or strain with subscript ij is not the same as the one with supscript ji. The [C] and [S] matrices would each be a
[9x9] matrix. This reduces to [6x6] matrices because of the definition of the shear stresses and strains. For the general [6x6] matrices, it will be
totally populated with non equal terms inside. This would imply that there is a need of 36 constants to describe the stress-strain behavior of any
generic material. Invoking compatibility condition where no two materials may occupy the same space, the [C] and the [S] must be symmetric.
This leads to the first useful set of constitutive equations describing material behavior.
Anisotropic or triclinic material has no plane of symmetry. A total of 21 material constants is needed to describe the stress-strain behavior. In
generic form:

If the material has one plane of symmetry, monoclinic, some constants are zero and the stress-strain behavior can be described with 13 constants.

Next simplification is when the material has 2 (3) planes of symmetry. This is called orthotropic material. The number of constants reduces to
nine.

Next simplification can be made when the material has one plane of isotropy. That is the material has one plane of symmetry or the transverse.
This transverse plane has infinite plane of symmetry. Another word, the material behaves in isotropic manner within that plane. This is called
transversely isotropic material. The number of independent constants reduces to five.

The last simplification will give the inverse of the Hooke's law. That is the material is isotropic and has infinite planes of symmetry. The number
of constants reduces down to two. They are normally express in term of three interdependent constants E, , and G.

or using more familiar constants:

The isotropic case of course can be reduced even further using plane stress or plane strain assumption where the Z direction is ignored. Similar
plane strain and plane stress assumption can also be made for the orthotropic and transversely isotropic materials. In this case they would reduce
to exactly the same 2-D form.
It should be note that the coordinate system in isotropic material is defined by the loading situation, that is not the case for other materials. In all
other cases, the coordinate system is defined by the directionality of the material.

Examples of Strength-based Statements

The following examples were developed collaboratively by early childhood and
school professionals
and have been designed to include some of the learning and development
messages that educators
may need to convey to parents and prep teachers.
The examples show how to write using a strength-based approach and
provide comments from school professionals explaining why the examples are
helpful.
Examples11 have been grouped against the five learning and development
outcomes as reflected in
the Victorian Early Years Learning and Development Framework and the Transition
Learning and

Development Statement, which are:

1. Children have a strong sense of identity (Identity)
2. Children are connected with and contribute to their world (Community)
3. Children have a strong sense of wellbeing (Wellbeing)
4. Children are confident and involved learners (Learning)
5. Children are effective communicators (Communication)
The Victorian Framework recognises that every child:
will take a unique path to the five outcomes
has the ability to learn and develop and that having high expectations is
especially important
in achieving better outcomes for the most vulnerable children
has personal, family and cultural histories that shape their learning and
development.
but some children:
require additional supports and different learning experiences and opportunities to
help
them to learn and develop.

11 Note: Examples can be placed against more than one outcome area. Page 13 of
19
Outcome 1: Children have a strong sense of identity
Strength-based examples This is hel
Basic principle of the CLT

Set up the layer stiffness matrices for all layers (in XY CS).

Set up the global laminate stiffness matrix (Hookes law of the laminate) using condition of the stress and moment equilibrium over the
laminate height -Eqs. (1) and (2).

Solve the global laminate behaviour under given boundary conditions (apparent behaviour of the laminate middle plane) Eqs. (3)-(8)

Calculation of the arbitrary quantities in individual layers from the global laminate behaviour substitution of results from Eq.(3) to (1).

Figure 1. Coordinate systems considered within laminate

Hookes law of the single layer:

where Sij prime are components of the material stiffness matrix (transformated from LT coordinate system to XY coordinate system see Fig. 1.), - strain
vector, curvature vector, vector of the CTEs.

Stress and moment equilibrium over the laminate height:

By substitution of the Eqs.(1) for all layers to Eq. (2), the global laminate stiffness matrix K is obtained (the so-called A-B-D matrix see Eq. (3)).

Where N, M are vectors of the boundary conditions - forces and moments. By solving Eq. (3) elongations and curvatures vectors 0and 0 are obtained. By
substitution of these results into the Hookes law of the particular layer (2), stresses at arbitrary point over the laminate height can be computed.

Figure 2. Scheme of the laminate uses notation

From curvatures , the total deformation of the laminate (middle plane) can be obtained:

To substitute all layers of the laminate by only one (orthotropic) material, the apparent material properties of the whole laminate can be calculated as
follows:

Macromechanics of Lamina

From control surfaces of modern aircrafts, to hulls and keels of yachts, to racing car bodies, to tennis rackets, fishing rods, golf shafts and
heads, laminated fiber reinforced composite is one of the the most widely used composites in industry.

Unless otherwise noted, the following assumptions are made in our discussion of the macro-mechanics of laminated composites.

1.

The matrix is homogeneous, isotropic, and linear elastic.

2.

The fiber is homogeneous, isotropic, linear elastic, continuous, regularly spaced, and perfectly aligned.

3.

The lamina (single layer) is macroscopically homogeneous, macroscopically orthotropic, linear elastic, initially stress-free, voidfree, and perfectly bonded.

4.

The laminate is composed of two or more perfectly bonded laminae to act as an integrated structural element.

Stress-Strain Relations for Principal Directions

Before discussing the mechanics of laminated composites, we need to understand the mechanical behavior of a single layer -- lamina. Since
each lamina is a thin layer, one can treat a lamina as a plane stressproblem. This simplification immediately reduces the 66 stiffness matrix
to a 33 one.

Since each lamina is constructed by unidirectional fibers bonded by a metal or polymer matrix, it can be considered as an orthotropic
material. Thus, the stress-strain relations on the principal axes can be expressed by the compliance matrix [S] such that

] = [S][

] = [C][

or by the stiffness matrix [C] such that

Please note that the engineering shear strain

is used in the stress-strain relations, and, the notation S for the compliance matrix and C for

the stiffness matrix are not misprints. Please consult this page for more information.

For both stiffness and compliant matrices are symmetric, i.e.,

only four of

the engineering shear strain

, and

are independent material properties. Again, the shear modulus G12corresponds to

which is twice the tensor shear strain

Please note that there can be many fibers across the thickness of a lamina and these fibers may not be arranged uniformly in most industrial
practice. However, the combination of the matrix and the fibers forms an orthotropic and homogeneous material from a marcomechanics
standpoint. Some literature therefore schematically illustrates a lamina with only one layer of uniformly distributed fibers as shown below.

Types of Laminated Beams

Glue-Laminated Beams

These beams are also known as "glulam" beams. They are created by gluing together several layers of
different kinds of lumber. The end product is a single strong beam that was created with less energy than steel or
concrete. More energy is required to create a glue-laminated beam than a solid timber one, but glue-laminated
beams do not require clear-cutting forests and therefore are more environmentally friendly.

Laminated Veneer Beams

These boards are also known as "microlam" beams. They can hold a large amount of weight like their solid
beam counterparts but are lighter. Laminated veneer lumber is made from thin sheets of wood that are glued
together, much like glue-laminated beams. You will use laminated veneer beams most often for home joists.

Laminated Strand Beams

These beams are created by putting together a number of wood strands with a waterproof adhesive to
make a single beam. Laminated strand beams are best for doors and windows because they resist warping and
shrinking.

Sponsored Links

Read more : http://www.ehow.com/list_7462592_types-laminated-beams.html

Classification

of

Laminates:

In this section we are going to classify the laminates depending upon the stacking sequence nature. This classification is very helpful in the laminate analysis as
some of the coupling terms become zero under specific laminate sequence and their arrangement with respect to the midplane.

Symmetric

Laminates:

A laminate is called symmetric when the material, angle and thickness of the layers are the same above and below the mid-plane. For
example laminate
For

symmetric

is
laminates

shown
the

matrix B is

in
zero.

This

Figure
can

be

proved

5.6(a).
as

follows:

Consider two layers r and s which have the same material, angle and thickness and are located symmetrically with respect to the mid-plane as shown in Figure
5.7. For these layers we can write the relation about the reduced stiffness matrix entries as

(5.28)

Cross-Ply

Laminates:

laminate

For

is

called

cross-ply

example

laminate

if

is

all

the

plies

shown

used

to

fabricate

in

For a cross ply laminate the terms

and

which have the products of mn terms. This product is zero for any cross-ply. Thus, the terms

the

laminate

Figure

are

only

and

5.6

(b).

. This is because these terms involve the terms

and

are identically zero for each ply.

Note: For a cross-ply following relations hold true. The readers should verify these relations from earlier lectures on planar constitutive relations.

(5.51)

Angle-Ply

Laminates:

laminate

is

called

angle-ply

laminate

example

if

it

has

plies

is

of

the

same

thickness

shown

and
in

For angle-ply laminates the terms

are zero. This can be justified by that fact that

and

and

have opposite signs for layers with

terms

material

and

are

oriented

at

and

Figure
and

. For
5.6(c).

have the term mn. Due to this term

fibre orientation. Since the thicknesses and materials of these layers are same, by the definition the

are zero for the laminate.

Note: For angle-ply laminates the following relations are very useful in computing

and

(5.52)

Anti-symmetric

Laminates:

A laminate is called anti-symmetric when the material and thickness of the plies are same above and below the mid-plane but the orientation of the plies at same
distance

above

and

below

the

mid-plane

have

opposite

For anti-symmetric laminates the terms

signs. For

example,

is

shown

in

Figure

5.6(d).

. The proof is left to the readers as an exercise.

Balanced

Laminates:

A laminate is called balanced laminate when it has pairs of plies with same thickness and material and the angles of plies are
balanced laminate can also have layers oriented at
are balanced laminates. For example,

and

. For this laminate also

and

. However, the

are zero. It should be noted that angle-ply laminates

is shown in Figure 5.6(e).

Specially Orthotropic Laminates:

The laminates for which the terms

are zero are called specially orthotropic laminates. It is clear that such laminates do not show coupling
between in-plane extensional and shear responses.
Note that the cross-ply, angle-ply and anti-symmetric laminates are specially orthotropic laminates. These laminates by their design
have
. For cross-ply laminates, the terms
and
are identically zero. Hence, there is no restriction on the lamina
thickness for cross-ply laminate to be a specially orthotropic laminate. However, for an angle ply and anti-symmetric laminates the thicknesses of a pair
of

and

laminate should be same.

Other specially orthotropic laminates includes the combination of cross-ply and angle ply laminates .
For example,

Quasi-Isotropic

A laminate is called quasi-isotropic when its extensional stiffness matrix behaves like an isotropic material. This requires that

Laminates:

and

laminate. This requires a laminate with

. Further, this extensional stiffness matrix is independent of orientation of layers in

equal thickness layers and N equal angles between adjacent fibre orientations. The N equal angles,

between the fibre orientations in this case can be given as

(5.53)

The quasi-isotropic laminate with this construction for N=3, 4 and 6 will have fibre orientations as shown in Figure 5.8.

Responsibility assignment matrix

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A responsibility assignment matrix (RAM), also known as RACI matrix /resi/ or ARCI
matrix or linear responsibility chart (LRC), describes the participation by various roles in
completing tasks or deliverables for a project or business process. It is especially useful in clarifying
roles and responsibilities in cross-functional/departmental projects and processes.
[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

RACI and ARCI are acronyms derived from the four key responsibilities most typically
used: Responsible, Accountable, Consulted, and Informed.
[6]

Key responsibility roles[edit]

Responsible
Those who do the work to achieve the task.[7] There is at least one role with a participation type of responsible, although others can be
delegated to assist in the work required (see also RASCI below for separately identifying those who participate in a supporting role).
Accountable (also approver or final approving authority)
The one ultimately answerable for the correct and thorough completion of the deliverable or task, and the one who delegates the work to
those responsible.[7] In other words, an accountable must sign off (approve) work that responsible provides. There must be only
one accountable specified for each task or deliverable.[4]
Consulted (sometimes counsel)
Those whose opinions are sought, typically subject matter experts; and with whom there is two-way communication. [7]
Informed
Those who are kept up-to-date on progress, often only on completion of the task or deliverable; and with whom there is just one-way
communication.[7]
Very often the role that is accountable for a task or deliverable may also be responsible for completing it (indicated on the
matrix by the task or deliverable having a roleaccountable for it, but no role responsible for its completion, i.e. it is implied).
Outside of this exception, it is generally recommended that each role in the project or process for each task receive, at most,
just one of the participation types. Where more than one participation type is shown, this generally implies that participation

has not yet been fully resolved, which can impede the value of this technique in clarifying the participation of each role on
each task.

Role distinction[edit]
There is a distinction between a role and individually identified people: a role is a descriptor of an associated set of tasks; may
be performed by many people; and one person can perform many roles. For example, an organisation may have ten people
who can perform the role of project manager, although traditionally each project only has one project manager at any one
time; and a person who is able to perform the role of project manager may also be able to perform the role of business
analyst and tester.

Composite Matrix Materials

By AZoM.com Staff Writers

Topics Covered
Introduction
Types
Composite Matrix Material Applications
References

Introduction
A fiber-reinforced composite (FRC) is a high-performance composite material made up of three components - the fibers as the discontinuous
or dispersed phase, the matrix acts as the continuous phase, and the fine interphase region or the interface.
The matrix is basically a homogeneous and monolithic material in which a fiber system of a composite is embedded. It is completely
continuous. The matrix provides a medium for binding and holding reinforcements together into a solid. It offers protection to the
reinforcements from environmental damage, serves to transfer load, and provides finish, texture, color, durability and functionality.

Types of Composite Matrix Materials

There are three main types of composite matrix materials:

Ceramic matrix - Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) are a subgroup of composite materials. They consist of ceramic fibers
embedded in a ceramic matrix, thus forming a ceramic fiber reinforced ceramic (CFRC) material. The matrix and fibers can consist of any
ceramic material. CMC materials were designed to overcome the major disadvantages such as low fracture toughness, brittleness, and
limited thermal shock resistance, faced by the traditional technical ceramics.

Metal matrix - Metal matrix composites (MMCs) are composite materials that contain at least two constituent parts a metal and
another material or a different metal. The metal matrix is reinforced with the other material to improve strength and wear. Where three
or more constituent parts are present, it is called a hybrid composite. In structural applications, the matrix is usually composed of a
lighter metal such as magnesium, titanium, or aluminum. In high temperature applications, cobalt and cobalt-nickel alloy matrices are
common. Typical MMC's manufacturing is basically divided into three types: solid, liquid, and vapor. Continuous carbon, silicon carbide, or
ceramic fibers are some of the materials that can be embedded in a metallic matrix material. MMCs are fire resistant, operate in a wide
range of temperatures, do not absorb moisture, and possess better electrical and thermal conductivity. They have also found applications
to be resistant to radiation damage, and to not suffer from outgassing. Most metals and alloys make good matrices for composite
applications.

Polymer matrix - Polymer matrix composites (PMCs) can be divided into three sub-types, namely, thermoset, thermoplastic, and
rubber. Polymer is a large molecule composed of repeating structural units connected by covalent chemical bonds. PMC's consist of a
polymer matrix combined with a fibrous reinforcing dispersed phase. They are cheaper with easier fabrication methods. PMC's are less
dense than metals or ceramics, can resist atmospheric and other forms of corrosion, and exhibit superior resistance to the conduction of
electrical current.

Composite Matrix Material Applications

The following are common application areas of composite matrix materials:

Electrical moldings
Decorative laminates

High performance Cookware

Sealants and gaskets

Heat shield systems (capable of handling high temperatures, thermal shock conditions and heavy vibration)

Components for high-temperature gas turbines such as combustion chambers, stator vanes and turbine blades

Brake disks and brake system components used in extreme thermal shock environments

Components for slide bearings under heavy loads requiring high corrosion and wear resistance

Carbide drills are made from a tough cobalt matrix with hard tungsten carbide particles inside

Components for burners, flame holders, and hot gas ducts

Composite Materials and Manufacturing Processes

Composite Materials

Composite materials are composed of a mixture of two or more constituents, giving them mechanical and
thermal properties which can be significantly better than those of homogeneous metals, polymers and
ceramics. An important class of composite materials are filamentary composites which consist of long
fibres embedded in a tough matrix. Materials of this type include graphite fibre/epoxy resin composites
widely used in the aerospace industry, and glass fibre/polyester mixtures which have wide applicability in
the marine and automotive markets. Because of their predominance in high-quality structures which need to
be analyzed before manufacture, the term composite material will refer to a filamentary composite having a
resin matrix in this document. Furthermore, it will be assumed that the composite is manufactured in
distinct layers, which is appropriate for almost all filamentary composite materials.

By decreasing the characteristic size of the microstructure and providing large interface areas, the
toughness of the composite material is improved significantly compared with that of a homogeneous solid
made of the same material as the fibres. In addition, the manufacturing processes of many components can
be simplified by applying the fibres to the component in a manner which is compatible with its geometry.
These and other considerations mean that composite materials are an effective engineering material for
many types of structure.

However, filamentary composite materials are often characterized by strongly anisotropic behavior and
wide variations in mechanical properties which are a direct result of the manufacturing route for a
component. In addition, the cost of a composite component is highly dependent on the way the fibres are
applied to a surface. This means that designers must be aware of the consequences of manufacturing
considerations from the beginning of the development phase.

Common Material Forms

Filamentary composite materials are usually placed in components as tows (bundles of individual fibres) or
as fabrics which have been processed in a separate operation.

Tows

A large proportion of commercially-produced components are built up from layers of fibre tows laid
parallel to each other. Each tow consists of a large number of individual fibres as each fiber is usually too
thin to process effectively. For example, graphite tows typically contain between 1000 to 10000 fibres.
Tows containing many fibres result in cheaper components at some expense of mechanical properties.

Composite structures built up from tows have the greatest volume fraction of fibres which usually lead to
the most favorable theoretical mechanical properties. They are also characterized by extreme anisotropy.
For example, the strength and stiffness of a resulting layer may be ten times greater in the direction of the
fibres compared with an orthogonal direction.

Fabrics
Individual tows may also be woven or stitched into fabrics which are used to form the component. This
method effectively allows much of the fibre preparation to be completed under controlled conditions, while
components can be rapidly built up from fabric during the final stage of manufacture.

Composite structures built up from fabrics are generally easier to manufacture and exhibit superior
toughness compared with those built up from tows, with some loss in ultimate mechanical properties.

Mixed

Some processing methods allow the user to mix tows and fabrics to achieve optimum performance. An
example of this is a composite I-beam, where the shear-loaded web consists of a fabric, while the axiallyloaded flanges have a high proportion of fibres oriented along the beam.

Common Manufacturing Forms

Composite structures are manufactured using a wide variety of manufacturing routes. The ideal processing
route for a particular structure will depend on the chosen fiber and matrix type, processing volume, quality
required, and the form of the component. All these issues should be addressed right from the beginning of
the development cycle for a component or structure.

A feature of almost all the manufacturing processes is that the fibres are formed into the final structure in
layers. The thickness of each layer typically ranges between 0.125 mm (0.005) for aerospace-grade prepregs up to several millimeters for woven rovings (say, 0.25). This means that a component is usually built
up of a large number of layers which may be oriented in different directions to achieve the desired
structural response.

Another consequence of layer-based manufacturing is that a laminated area is usually thin compared with
its area. This means that the dominant loads are in the plane of the fibres, and that classical lamination
theory (which assumes that through-thickness stresses are negligible) and shell finite elements can be used
to conduct representative analyses. In contrast, in particularly thick or curved skins, inter-laminar tensile
and shear stresses can be significant. This can seriously compromise static and fatigue strength and may
require the use of through-thickness reinforcement. Another consequence of thick laminates is that the
analyst must use special thick shell or solid elements to model the stress fields correctly.

Wet Layup
In the wet layup process, fibres are placed on a mould surface in fabric form and manually wetted-out with
resin. Wet layup is widely used to make large structures, like the hulls of small ships.

This process is amenable to high production rates but results in wide variations in quality. In particular, the
inability to control the ratio of fibres to resin means that the mechanical properties of the laminate will vary
from point-to-point and structure-to-structure.

Pre-Preg Layup

In this process, tows or fabrics are impregnated with controlled quantities of resin before being placed on a
mould. Pre-preg layup is typically used to make high-quality components for the aerospace industry.

This process results in particularly consistent components and structures. Because of this, pre-preg
techniques are often associated with sophisticated resin systems which require curing in autoclaves under
conditions of high temperature and pressure. However, the application of pre-preg layers to a surface is
highly labor-intensive, and can only be automated for a small class of simple structures.

Compression Moulding

Compression moulding describes the process whereby a stack of pre-impregnated layers are compressed
between a set matched dies using a powerful press, and then cured while under compression. This method
is often used to manufacture small quantities of high-quality components such as crash helmets and bicycle
frames.

Due to the use of matched dies, the dimensional tolerances and mechanical properties of the finished
component are extremely consistent. However, the requirement to trim the component after curing and the
need for a large press means that this method is extremely expensive. Also, it is very difficult to make
components where the plies drop off consistently within the component.

Resin Transfer Moulding (RTM) / Structural Reaction Injection Moulding (SRIM)

Here, dry fibres are built up into intermediate preforms using tows and fabric held together by a
thermoplastic binder. One or more preforms are then placed into a closed mould, after which resin is
injected and cured to form a fully-shaped component of high quality and consistency. The in-mould cycle
time for RTM is of the order of several minutes, while that for SRIM is measured in seconds.

As fibres are manipulated in a dry state, these processes provide unmatched design flexibility. RTM
produces good-quality components efficiently but incurs high initial costs for tooling and development. As
a result, there is often a cross-over point between pre-preg layup and RTM for the manufacture of
high-quality components like spinners for aero engines. At a lower level, SRIM is used for the manufacture
of automotive parts which have a lower volume fraction of fibres.

Filament Winding
In this method, tows are wet-out with resin before being wound onto a mandrel which is rotated in space.
This process is used for cylindrical and spherical components such as pipes and pressure vessels.

Winding is inherently automated, so it allows consistent components to be manufactured cheaply. However,

the range of component geometries amenable to this method is somewhat limited.

Automated Tow Placement

This development of filament winding utilizes a computer-controlled 5-axis head to apply individual tows
to a mandrel rotating in space. This allows the manufacture of complex surfaces, such as entire helicopter
body shells with speed and precision.

Of course, the equipment required for manufacture is extremely expensive, being of the order of $1 million.
In addition, the possibilities for fibre placement are so controllable that no component can possibly make
use of the capabilities of the process at present. However, the development of CAE tools for optimized
design of composite structures will increase its usefulness in the future.

Fabric Types

In polymeric composite terms, a fabric is defined as a manufactured assembly of long fibres of carbon, aramid or glass, or a combination of these, to
produce a flat sheet of one or more layers of fibres. These layers are held together either by mechanical interlocking of the fibres themselves or with a
secondary material to bind these fibres together and hold them in place, giving the assembly sufficient integrity to be handled.

Fabric types are categorised by the orientation of the fibres used, and by the various construction methods used to hold the fibres together.

The four main fibre orientation categories are: Unidirectional, Woven, Multiaxial, and Other/random. These are described in the following pages.

Published courtesy of

Disadvantages and Limitations

of Composite Materials
Properties of many important composites are anisotropic

 Many of the polymer-based composites are subject to

attack by chemicals or solvents
Composite materials are generally expensive
Manufacturing methods for shaping composite materials
28
ME 338: Manufacturing Processes II
Instructor: Ramesh Singh; Notes: Prof. Singh/ Ganesh Soni
Manufacturing methods for shaping composite materials
are often slow and costly

Open Mold Processes- some of the original FRP

manual procedures for laying resins and fibers onto
forms
2. Closed Mold Processes- much the same as those used
in plastic molding
3. Filament Winding
- continuous filaments are dipped in
Manufacturing of composites

3. Filament Winding
- continuous filaments are dipped in
liquid resin and wrapped around a rotating mandrel,
producing a rigid, hollow, cylindrical shape
4. Pultrusion Processes- similar to extrusion only adapted

to include continuous fiber reinforcement

5. Other PMC Shaping Processes

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Manufacturing is a very broad discipline and encompasses several processes
such as fabrication, machining and joining. The fabrication methodology of a
composite part depends mainly on three factors: (i) the characteristics of constituent
matrices and reinforcements, (ii) the shapes, sizes and engineering details of products
and (iii) end uses. The composite products are too many and cover a very wide
domain of applications ranging from an engine valve, or a printed circuit board
laminate, or a large-size boat hull or to an aircraft wing. The fabrication technique
varies from one product to the other. The matrix types (i.e., whether they are plastics,
metals or ceramics) play a dominant role in the selection of a fabrication process.
Similar process cannot be adapted to fabricate an engine blade made with fibre
reinforced plastics and metal matrix composites. The process parameters may also
have to be modified, even when one uses the same matrix type, but two different
matrices. For example, the processing with phenolics requires additional heating,
whereas epoxies can be processed under ambient conditions. Particulate
reinforcements and short fibres are mixed with resin to produce either bulk moulding
composite compounds (BMCs) or sheet moulding composite compounds (SMCs)
which are then used as base materials to fabricate composite parts. One method
commonly used with BMCs is the injection moulding in which the BMC is heated and
then injected into the mould cavity. On the other hand, the comparable moulding
method used for woven fibre fabrics is the resin injection moulding. The process
parameters like temperature, injcection pressure and curing time vary from one
method to the other. Moreover, a composite car body panel, though highly curved and
complex in shape may be compression moulded, while a spar stiffened helicopter
rotor blade may have to be fabricated using filament winding and other moulding
methods. Further, the accuracy and sophistication required to fabricate an aircraft
composite wing section may not be necessary while fabricating a composite bridge
deck or a silo. The main purpose of this chapter is to outline briefly the basic features
of common composite fabrication methods. No attempt is made to elaborate the actual
fabrication procedure of a particular composite component, as this is beyond the scope
of the present book.
3.2 MOULDING PROCESS FOR POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES
Important moulding methods for fabrication of polymer matrix composite
structural parts may be classified under matched die mould, contact mould (also called
open mould), filament winding and pultrusion. There are two important stages in all
moulding processes: laying and curing. The laying is the process in which moulding

materials are laid on a mould in the mould cavity or on the mould surface that
conforms to the shape of the part to be fabricated. The process of curing helps the
resin to set, thereby providing the fabricated part a stable structural form.
The moulding materials are obviously reinforced plastics, either in the form of
separate resin and reinforcements, or in the form of composites like bulk moulding
compound (BMC), sheet moulding compound (SMC) or prepregs. These composite
forms of moulding materials eliminate the mess of using wet resins during the lay-up
process. A bulk moulding composite compound is prepared by mixing chopped
strands or particulate reinforcements with a pre-mixed resin (normally polyester resin)
paste. Fillers, thickeners, catalysts and other additives are also blended. The final mix
is, either in the bulk form or extruded in the form of a rope and then stored for future
use in the matched-die compression moulding process. A sheet moulding compound
is, on the other hand, fabricated in the form of a sheet. Chopped strands or other
particulate reinforcements are sandwiched between two layers of polyester resin
pastes coated on two polyethylene carrier films. This resin-reinforcement-resin
sandwich covered on two sides by the carrier films is thoroughly compacted by
forcing it through a series of rollers and stored as rolls. Sometimes, continuous
rovings are also added in between two resin layers to improve directional properties.
Carrier films are removed prior to using them in moulds. BMCs and SMCs can be
used in several moulding processes. The temperature, pressure and curing time of
BMCs and SMCs are dependent on the type of the compound and the shape of the
finished part. Prepregs are prepared by pre-impregnating fibre fabrics with resin. The
system is only partially cured. The final cure takes place during the moulding process.
Prepegs can be used in all important moulding processes. However, high quality
products are realized, when curing is done in an autoclave. Prepegs yield superior
products having all kinds of shapes with uniform resin content and consistent quality.
Matched-die Mould Methods
Several moulding techniques fall under the matched-die moulding method.
The common feature in all these techniques is that the mould consists of two parts that
form a cavity in between them. The shape of the cavity corresponds to that of the part
to be moulded. The moulds are usually fabricated with cast iron, steel and aluminium
alloy. Fibre reinforced plastics or wooden moulds are also used in some cold
moulding processes. The mating surfaces of the moulds are first polished, cleaned and
coated with a release agent. Next a gel coat is applied. The gel coat is a special resin
that sticks to the surface of the moulded part during curing and provides it with an
excellent surface finish. Pigments and other additives are also added to the gel coat
resin for colouring as well as improving its resistance to wear, corrosion, heat, flame,
weathering, etc. The gel coat is not provided, when the moulded part is to be
adhesively bonded to another part, as the coat may not allow proper bonding. Both

thermosetting and thermoplastic resins are used in the moulding materials.

Thermoplastics in general and some thermosets in particular need process temperature
higher than the ambient temperature. This is met by heating either the mould or the
moulding. Venting ports are provided in the moulds for escape of excess resin and
volatile matters.
Compression moulding is the most commonly used matched-die moulding
method. It is employed in fabrication of automobile body panels, housings for
electrical appliances and machines, covers, sinks and several other parts. Typical
moulds are shown in Fig. 3.1. The moulds can have a single cavity or multiple cavities
with complex curved shapes. Provision may exist to heat either or both the moulds.
The pressure is applied by mounting the moulds in a mechanical or hydraulic press or
by some external means. The precise application of pressure and temperature and their
duration and cycles can be controlled. The process can also be easily automated. On
application of pressure and temperature, the mould material softens and then flows
and fills the mould cavity. Further, continuation of heat and pressure accelerates
curing. The dimensions close to those of the desired finished part can be obtained in
compression moulding. This reduces, to a great extent, subsequent trimming and
machining. The moulding material may be a
predetermined quantity of BMC, SMC, resin coated preforms/fabrics or prepregs. It is
laid on the mould and then the moulds are closed. A barrier along the edge prevents
the resin to flow out. The depth of the barrier also controls the thickness of the part.
Heat and pressure are applied during curing. Once the curing is complete, the mould is
opened and the part is removed.
Some resins like polyesters and epoxies are highly exothermic and may not
require external input of heat during curing. The moulding material with these resins
can be cold pressed. Cold press moulding is relatively less expensive and is suitable,
when a part is smaller in size and simpler in shape (flat or slightly curved panels).
Cold stamping is also similar to compression moulding, but is normally used
with thermoplastic sheets. The thermoplastic sheets are preheated, laid on the mould
along with reinforcements and then cold pressed. An extension of this method to
continuous production of fibre reinforced thermoplastic laminates is illustrated in Fig.
3.2. Alternate layers of fibre fabrics and thermoplastic films are fed through hot rollers
that melt the resin and force it to penetrate and coat the individual fibres. The
consolidated laminate is then passed through cold rollers which cure and harden the
laminate.
Conforming is also a matched-die moulding process specially developed to
provide superior surface finish and durability to a composite part. A thermoformed
thin thermoplastic layer is first placed on the mould (Fig. 3.3). The moulding
composite material (BMC, SMC or resin-coated fabric) is then laid on the top of the

thermoformed thermoplastic layer and hot pressed. The thermoplastic layer then sticks
to the moulded part thereby providing it with a smooth surface having excellent
properties. Various additives can be premixed in the thermoplastic layer to obtain
desirable surface properties.
Press moulding is again similar to the compression moulding process, but it is
used to make flat, slightly curved and corrugated laminates. For production of good
quality laminates with uniform resin content, a perforated release film (e.g., Teflon
film with perforations every 50 mm) and a bleeder (e.g., glass cloth, jute cloth or
absorbent paper) are placed on both sides of the composite part (Fig. 3.4). In some
applications, a peel ply (e.g., nylon cloth) is also used to achieve the required surface
finish. On the application of pressure the excess resin is squeezed out and passes
through the pores of nylon cloth and perforations of Teflon film and gets absorbed by
the bleeder. The pressure is applied normally at the time of gelation to avoid excess
loss of resin and to allow uniform resin distribution. The uniform flow of excess resin
out of the moulding can be achieved by applying vacuum to one of the surfaces (here
in Fig. 3.4 either the top or the bottom surface) of the mould cavity.
Injection moulding is a matched-die moulding process especially suitable for
thermoplastic resin systems. Some thermosets can also be injection moulded. If the
reinforcements are in the form of particles or very short fibres, they along with other
additives, if any, can be premixed with resin. The mix is first heated in an injection
chamber. The hot fluid mix is then forced into the closed mould cavity under high
pressure and is allowed to cure. The cure part is removed after opening the mould.
The method is suitable for fabrication of small to medium size parts such as valves,
gears, instrument panels, etc.
If the reinforcements are in the form of preforms or fibre fabrics, they are laid
in the mould cavity and the fluid resin is then injected into the mould cavity. The
process is known as resin injection moulding. The injection pressure helps the resin to
infiltrate through the fibre lay-up. A vacuum is also applied to the mould cavity to
facilitate the penetration and even distribution of resin. For larger mouldings such as
boat hulls, resin is injected at several locations. Also, cold cure resins of low viscosity
and long gel time are preferred, as the injection time is longer in such applications.
In the reaction injection moulding, measured quantities of two liquid
precursors such as a polyol and an isocyanate are mixed in a chamber and then
injected into the hot mould cavity containing pre-laid reinforcements. Chopped
strands and particulate reinforcements can also be blended with precursors prior to
injection. The process is normally used for polymethane based systems and requires a
relatively low injection pressure. It is highly suitable for mass production of
composite parts.

3.2.2 Contact Mould Methods

Contact mould methods are also known as open mould processes. In the open
mould, there is only one mould (male or female) and as the name suggests the mould
surface is open. A composite part is fabricated in contact with the open surface, and
the shape of the open surface conforms to that of the moulded part (Fig. 3.5). The
moulds are normally fabricated from cast iron, steel and aluminium alloy for
application in hot processes, and fibre reinforced plastics and wood for cold processes.
The mould surface is cleaned and polished prior to moulding and is filled up with
coating of a release agent and a gel. The moulding materials are normally resin-coated
woven rovings and fabrics, chopped strand mats and prepregs. These are laid on the
mould by either the hand lay-up process or the spray-up process. In the hand lay-up
process woven rovings, fabrics and/or chopped strand mats are placed layerwise on
the release agent and gel coated mould surface. After laying of each layer, it is coated
with resin using a brush or a spray gun. Some time gap is allowed for the applied resin
coat to gel, before laying the next layer and applying resin to it. Squeegees or rollers
are used for uniform distribution of resin and consolidation for the laminate. In the
spray-up process, chopped strands or particulate reinforcements and the resin are
sprayed separately to the mould surface. In some applications, continuous fibre
strands are fed to a combined chopper and spray gun system by which chopped fibres
and resin are sprayed simultaneously to the mould. After completion of the laying up
process, the moulding is allowed to cure. Curing is done either at room temperature
conditions or by heating the mould assembly in an oven. In the case of prepregs the
hand lay-up process is employed. However prepregs do not require additional resin
coating.
For compact and voidless finished products of higher mechanical properties,
other improved moulding processes such as vacuum bag moulding, pressure bag
moulding processes such as vacuum bag moulding, pressure bag moulding and
autoclave moulding are preferred. An improved open mould set-up with pre-curing
lay-up details that are generally employed in a vacuum bag moulding, is shown in Fig.
3.6. The whole moulding system is covered with a flexible vacuum bagging film made
of nylon or neoprene rubber. The edge of the bag is sealed using vacuum sealing
compounds. Layers
of vent cloth, perforated Teflon film, fiberglass bleeders, Teflon coated fiberglass
fabrics and nylon peel ply, in that order, are kept between the vacuum bag and the
composite lay-up. When vacuum is applied, these materials allow attainment of
uniform vacuum throughout and provides path for escape of volatiles, trapped air and
excess resin from the composite lay-up. The vacuum also induces uniform
atmospheric pressure on the top surface of the mould assembly and thereby helps in
uniform distribution of resin and futher consolidation of the laminate. It also provides

better finished surfaces. The whole assembly can be put in an oven or an external
heating arrangement can be made, if a high temperature curing is needed.
In the case of pressure moulding, the vacuum bag is replaced by a pressure bag
and the whole system is covered by a pressure plate (Fig. 3.7). The required pressure
is then applied through an inlet pipe located at the cover plate. In this method, it is
possible to apply pressure higher than one atmosphere. The higher pressure ensures
proper consolidation and densification of the composite lay-up. However, the method
cannot be applied to a male mould.
Autoclave moulding is a highly sophisticated process in which controlled
temperature and pressure can be applied. In addition, vacuum is also applied to suck
volatile matters and entrapped air or gases. The whole assembly as shown in Fig. 3.6
is put inside an autoclave (Fig. 3.8) which is a pressurized cylindrical hot chamber.
Curing takes place in presence of simultaneous pressure and temperature. After
curing, the mould is taken out of the autoclave and the cured composite is laid with
prepregs, as it permits controlled variation of prescribed temperature and pressure
with respect to time. It yields highly densified and voidless quality products and is
therefore greatly favoured in fabrication of all major aerospace components like
aircraft wing parts, control surfaces, helicopter blades, filament wound rocket cases,
pressure bottles, etc.
3.2.3 Filament Winding
The filament winding process is employed for fabrication of a continuous fibre
reinforced composite structure having an axis of revolution. Common examples of
such structures are tubes, pipes, cylindrical tanks, pressure vessels, rocket motor
cases, etc. Continuous fibre strands or rovings are first coated with resin in a resin
bath and then fed through rollers to squeeze out excess resin and finally wound, under
constant tension, around a collapsible mandrel. The outer diameter of the mandrel
corresponds to the inner diameter of the part to be fabricated. The mandrel is usually
made of steel. However, other materials like plastic foam and rubber are also used in
fabrication of some mandrels. A steel mandrel can be so designed that it can be
dismantled mechanically and removed part by part without damaging the filament
wound composite part. Some foam mandrels can be chemically dissolved. An inflated
rubber mandrel can be collapsed by deflating it. The mandrel is positioned, either
horizontally (for helical winding) or vertically (for polar winding), on a carriage that
moved back and forth along the direction parallel to the rotational axis. In addition to
the translational (axial) motion induced by the carriage, the mandrel can also rotate
about its own axis. Both rotational and axial motions of the mandrel can be properly
controlled either manually or using an automatic system. The rotation of the mandrel

about its axis of revolution facilitates winding of filaments on the outer surface of the
mandrel.
There are basically two types of filament winding patterns: helical winding
and biaxial winding. In the helical winding (Fig. 3.9) a constant angle (known as
helical angle) is maintained by controlling the rotational and axial motions of the
mandrel. By reversing both axial and rotational motions, the filaments are wound with
a minus helical angle, -. Structural components having circular cylindrical shapes
like tubes, pipes and
cylinders are normally fabricated with alternating helical angle + and . When
the filaments are wound at an angle = 900, the winding is called hoop winding.
Similarly, when =0, it is termed as axial winding. In the biaxial winding pattern,
there may exist a combination of either hoop winding and axial winding pattern
commonly employed for filament winding of circular cylindrical closed end vessels
(with or without small end openings), such as motor cases and pressure tanks, is
known as polar winding or polar wrap (Fig.3.10). A combination of both polar and
hoop winding is normally provided for proper strengthening in the circumferential
direction. After winding is complete, the mandrel is removed from the carriage and
placed in an oven, if required, for curing. Filament wound products for aerospace
applications are normally cured in an autoclave. For such curing, vacuum bagging as
described earlier, of the mandrel assembly has to be carried out before placing it in an
autoclave. After curing, the mandrel is dismantled and the finished part is removed.
Filament winding yields a component with a high degree of fibre volume fraction.
Prepreg tapes can also be wound in similar ways.
Filament winding can also be used, when the shape of the part is not a shell of
revolution. The winding is first carried out on an inflated mandrel made of rubber. The
mandrel is deflated, once winding is complete. The deflated filament wound
component is placed in a closed match-die mould and the mandrel is inflated again to
apply pressure from inside. The mould is simultaneously heated to facilitate curing.
The cured finished part has the outer shape same as the inner shape of the mould.
Several non-circular sections (e.g., box section and airfoil sections) can be fabricated
using this technique.
Braiding is another form of filament winding process and is employed in
fabrication of bars, tubes, bends, etc. with both circular and non-circular hollow
sections. It is carried out on an axially moving mandrel which is positioned through
the central hole of a rotating ring. A number of spools containing continuous rovings
are mounted on the ring. The fibres are pulled out from these spools and wound
around the moving mandrel creating an inter-woven winding pattern which provides
high interlaminar properties.

3.2.4 Pultrusion
Pultusion, to some extent, is analogous to the metal extrusion process. In the
pultrusion process continuous fibre reinforced structural sections can be produced by
pulling the resin-coated filaments through a die unlike in the metal extrusion process,
where hot metallic rods, bars and flats are pushed through a die to produce extruded
parts. The pultrusion process is schematically shown in Fig. 3.11. Continuous fibre
strands taken from a number of spools are sequentially pulled through a resin bath, a
shaping guide and a hot die (or a cold die and an oven). The fibres are coated in the
resin bath and the excess resin is squeezed out. The shaping guide provides a gradual
change
from a simpler to a more complex pre-formed shape close to that of the pultruded part.
For example, to obtain a pultruded channel section, a flat form with no flanges is
gradually changed to a channel section of desired dimensions. The final shape is
realized when the preformed shape is pulled through a hot die and gets cured.
Continuous strand mats and woven fabrics can also be pulled along with filament
strands to provide better transverse properties to the pultruded sections. The die is a
very critical component in the fabrication process. It is usually made of chromium
plated steel and should have a highly smooth surface. A smooth surface inhibits
sticking of the resin at the entry segment, where only the gelation of resin, but not
curing has been initiated. Thermosets like epoxies and polyesters are normally used in
the pultrusion process. Phenolics can also be used, but have to be preheated.
Experimentation with thermoplastics has also been carried out. Pultrusion is a
continuous process and therefore provides scope for automation. A pultursion machine
SPACETRUDER, designed and developed at Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre,
Trivandrum, India is shown in Fig. 3.12. It can produce continuous lengths of FRP
sections such as rounds, square bars, channels, angles, etc. using glass, carbon or
aramid fibres and epoxy or polyester resins.
3.3 FABRICATION PROCESSES FOR METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES
Aluminium, magnesium, titanium and nickel alloys are commonly used as
metal matrices, although several other matrix materials including super alloys have
also been used. Both metal and ceramic reinforcements are employed. The choice of a
particular matrix-reinforcement system is mainly controlled by the end use of the
fabricated composite part. Several parameters influence the selection of a particular
fabrication process. These are (i) types of matrices and reinforcements, (ii) the shape,
size, orientation and distribution of reinforcements, (iii) the chemical, thermal and
mechanical properties of reinforcements and matrices, (iv) shape, size and
dimensional tolerances of the part and (v) finally the end use and cost-effectiveness.
Compared to standard metallurgical processes, fabrication methods for metal matrix

composites are much more complex and diverse. Some problems that are of major
concern are the densification of the matrix while maintaining its purity, the control of
reinforcement spacing and proper chemical bonding between the matrix and
reinforcements. Based on the physical state of the matrix i.e., solid phase and liquid
phase, fabrication processes can be grouped under solid phase processing and liquid
phase processing. In the solid phase processing, the matrix is in the form of sheet, foil
or powder. The diffusion bonding and power metallurgy processes are the two major
solid phase processing techniques, while casting (also known as liquid metal
infiltration) processes are related to liquid phase processing. Solid phase processing
has certain advantages over liquid phase processing. The processing temperatures are
lower, diffusion rates are slower and the reaction between reinforcements and the
matrix is less severe. Secondary processes like forging, rolling, extrusion and
superplastic forming are also important, as much care is needed to reduce damage to
reinforcements.
3.3.1 Diffusion Bonding
The diffusion bonding employs the matrix in the solid phase, in the form of
sheet or foil. Composite laminates are produced by consolidating alternate layers of
precursor wires or fibre mats and metal matrix sheets or foils under temperature and
pressure (Fig.3.13). The precursor wires are collimated filaments held together with a
fugitive organic binder. This is achieved either by winding binder-coated filaments
onto a circular cylindrical mandrel or by spraying the binder on the filaments that are
already wound on a mandrel. When the solvent is evaporated, the fibre-resin
combination forms a rolled fibre mat on the mandrel surface. The binder resin in
precursor wires and fibre mats decomposes at a high temperature without leaving any
residue. Under temperature and pressure metal sheets or foils melt and diffuse through
fibre layers to form a laminate. A multilayered laminate may have any desired
stacking sequence. A monotape (i.e., a unidirectional lamina) in which a precursor
layer or a fibre mat is sandwiched between two metal sheets or foils, forms the basic
building block. Several complex composite components can be fabricated by stacking
monotapes as per design requirements. The temperature, pressure and their duration
are very critical for making good quality composites. Carbon fibres have been
successfully combined with matrices like aluminium, magnesium, copper, tin, lead
and silver to make a wide range of carbon fibre reinforced metal composites. A
number of products ranging from flat plates to curved engine blades have been
fabricated using the diffusion bonding technique. One interesting example is the 3.6m
long high gain antenna boom that acted as a wave guide for the Hubble space
telescope. The boom is made with diffusion bonded carbon fibre reinforced
aluminium (AA 6061) composite and is of tubular cross-section with internal
dimensional tolerances of 0.15 mm. Several other composites, for example, boron,

beryllium and steel fibres in aluminium alloy matrix have been manufactured using
the diffusion bonding process. Large composite sheets can be produced by employing
the vacuum hot rolling technique.
3.3.2 Powder Metallurgy Process
Almost all metals and their alloys can be converted into powder form. Metal
powders are commonly produced by atomization techniques. A stream of molten
metal is disrupted either by impacting another fluid (gas or water) jet under high
pressure or by applying mechanical forces and electrical fields leading to formation of
fine liquid metal droplets which then solidify resulting in fine powder particles. The
inert gases, argon and nitrogen, are used in the gas atomization, and the resulting
powder particles are smooth and spherical with 50-100m diameter. The impact of
very high intensity gas pulse waves in supersonic and ultrasonic gas atomization can
lower particle sizes to 10m. The water jet impact produces irregular particles (75200 m diameter). Both gas and water contaminate particles with oxygen. In another
method, known as vacuum atomization, the liquid metal supersaturated with gas under
pressure is suddenly allowed to expand in vacuum causing the liquid to atomise and
produce spherical powders with diameters ranging between 40-150m. In the
rotating electrode technique, a prealloyed electrode is rotated at a high speed (about
250 rps) while it is melted by an arc or plasma beam. Spherical droplets of the molten
material are ejected centrifugally and, on being cooled in an inert environment,
produce high quality, spherical powders with 150-200m diameter. The centrifugal
atomization process combined with rapid solidification yields spherical powders less
than 100m diameter. Both the electrohydrodynamic atomization in which an
electrical field is applied on the surface of a liquid metal to emit droplets and the spark
erosion technique, where repetitive spark discharge between two electrodes immersed
in a dielectric fluid produces metal vapour, thereby yielding very fine powders with
diameter as low as 0.5 m or less.
Powder metallurgy is a versatile process but its application to fabrication of
metal matrix composites may not be straight-forward, especially because of the
presence of reinforcement phase.
There are quite a few composite fabrication techniques using continuous fibres
of which two processes that use hot pressure bonding need special mention. In one
process (known as powder cloth process), metal powder filled clothes are first
produced by mixing metal matrix powders with an organic binder and then blending
with a high purity Stoddard solution. On application of low heat, the Stoddard
solution evaporates leaving behind a dough-like mixture which, on rolling, yields a
metal powder cloth. Alternate layers of powder clothes and fibre mats, when hot press
bonded, form a composite laminate (Fig.3.14). The binders usually burn out without

leaving any residue. When the reinforcements are in the form of short fibres and
particulates, metal matrix powder and reinforcements are thoroughly blended, and the
blend is degassed to remove volatiles and then a composite ingot is formed by either
hot pressing in vacuum or hot isostatic pressing. The composite ingot is subsequently
used to fabricate structural components using secondary fabrication processes. Major
problems are encountered in controlling the shape, size and distribution of
reinforcements in the matrix. The alignment of short fibres, elongation of particulates
i.e., a sphere changing to an oblate or nonspherical shape, and uniform dispersion or
clustering are the common occurrences that influence the microstructure of the
composite. Figure 3.15 shows an optical micrograph of SiC particulate (30% by
volume)/AA2124 composite a) in the vacuum hot pressed condition showing the
necklace structure of particulate reinforcement around the matrix particles and b) in
the as extruded condition showing the elimination of necklace structure and improved
distribution.
In the thermal spray processes, metal powders, are deposited on the fibre
substrates using either plasma spray or arc spray techniques and composites are
subsequently produced by consolidating these metal matrix coated fibres under heat
and pressure. The plasma spray technique is employed to deposit spherical metal
powders that are injected in the plasma stream (the temperature is about 10,000K and
the traveling speed is around Mach 3) within the throat of the gun. The powder
particle size is very critical, because the powder should melt, but not vapourise before
it reaches the substrate. The arc spray technique uses continuous metal matrix wires of
0.16-0.32 cm diameter instead of metal powders. Two wires of opposite charge are fed
through an arc spray gun. The electric arc produced between the wire tips causes the
tips to melt. An argon gas stream that passes through the gun and between the wires,
carries with it droplets of molten metal and deposit them on the fibre substrates. Both
plasma spray and arc spray techniques have been used to produce composite
monotapes by winding continuous fibres on a mandrel and then spraying metal matrix
powders on them. These monotapes are subsequently used to fabricate structural
components using the diffusion bonding process.
The powder metallurgy process has been used to produce composites such as
boron, carbon and borsic fibres with aluminium alloy, SiC fibres with cromium alloys,
boron and Al2O3 fibres with titanium alloy, tungsten and molybdenum fibres with
nickel alloy and several other composite systems.
3.3.3 Casting
Casting or liquid infiltration is the process in which molten matrix is
infilatrated into a stack of continuous fibre reinforcements or discontinuous
reinforcements (short fibres and particulates) and is then allowed to solidify between

the inter-reinforcement spaces. In the case of discontinuous reinforcements, they can

also be pre-mixed with molten matrices prior to casting, using techniques such as
mechanical agitation, mixing by injection with an injection gun, centrifugal dispersion
and dispersion of pellets (formed by compressing the metal matrix and
reinforcements) in a mildly agitated melt. This pre-mix or the composite slurry is used
for subsequent casting. There are several casting methods that can be used to produce
metal matrix composite components. Some important casting methods are sand and
die castings, pressure die castings, centrifugal casting, squeeze casting and investment
casting.
In the sand and die casting process, the preferential concentration of
discontinuous reinforcements, either at the top or at the bottom depending on their
densities lower or higher than the metal matrices, takes place in view of the slow
cooling rate of sand moulds. A more uniform dispersion or dispersoids can be
achieved by agitating the mix, cooling the mould or employing a metal mould. The
pressure die casting produces relatively void free composites and permits fabrication
of large-size parts with intricate shapes. In the centrifugal casting, solidification takes
place in a rotating mould. In this process, the centrifugal acceleration forces the
heavier discontinuous reinforcements to concentrate near the outer periphery and the
lighter ones lie closer to the axis of rotation. Squeeze casting (also known as liquid
forging) is the process in which the molten matrix is infiltrated, under high pressure,
onto a preheated stack of discontinuous reinforcements or fibre performs laid on a
metal die. Solidification takes place also under pressure. Several critical components
have been developed using squeeze casting. The Toyota piston, made of ceramic fibre
and aluminium matrix, is one such example. In the investment casting, continuous
fibre reinforcements are laid using usual filament winding or prepreg laying
procedures. Composites are then produced by infiltrating the lay-up with a molten
matrix under pressure or vacuum.
Casting is the most commonly used process for manufacture of metal matrix
composites. Figure 3.16 exhibits a graphite/aluminium composite ingot and its
composite products.
3.4 FABRICATION PROCESS FOR CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITES
Ceramic such as glass, glass-ceramics, borides, carbides, graphite, nitrides and
silicates reinforced with both metallic and ceramic particles, whiskers and fibres
provide enhanced strength and toughness even at high temperatures. Some ceramic
composites, especially, carbon-carbon composites exhibit remarkable strength
properties at a temperature as high as 2000 0C or more. The fabrication processes for
ceramic matrix composites are, in many ways, similar to those for metal matrix
composites. As in the powder metallurgy processes for MMCs, short fibres and

particulate reinforcements are mixed with ceramic powders and then hot pressed to
produce CMC products. Common dispersion particles are SiC, TiC, BN and ZrO 2. SiC
whiskers are very commonly used to reinforce matrices such as glass, ZrO 2, B4C,
Al2O3, cordierite, Si3N4 and several other ceramics. They are rod or needle shaped
single crystal short fibres with diameter ranging from 0.1-5.0 m and length 5-200
m. SiC whiskers which apparently look like powders and ceramic powders are
thoroughly mixed and then hot pressed to make composite. The proper mixing of SiC
whiskers and ceramic powders is critical to produce composites with desirable
properties. This is usually carried out using high shear mixing, ultrasonic dispersion,
milling and several other mixing methods. The cutting tools for high nickel alloys
employ SiC whisker reinforced alumina. They provide cutting rates up to ten times
higher than conventional tools. Due to excellent wear resistance of SiC whisker
reinforced composites at high temperatures, these materials find wide uses in dies for
metal extrusion, heat engine valves, grit blast nozzles and other high temperature
applications. The plasma spray techniques, as employed in metal matrix composites,
has also been used in ceramic composites.
Hot pressing and sintering of ceramic materials normally require high
temperature and pressure at which reinforcements degrade due to chemical reactions
on the reinforcement-matrix interface. A number of glass systems such as lithium
aluminosilicate (LAS), magnesium aluminosilicate (MAS), barium magnesium
aluminosilicate (BMAS), etc. have been hot pressed at relatively lower temperature
without causing any damage to the reinforcement. Transfer moulding and injection
moulding techniques have also been successfully carried out using glass systems.
Infiltration of molten ceramics is also a common fabrication process for
ceramic matrix composites. The high melting points of ceramics, however, may
degrade the reinforcements. One way to circumvent this problem is to use polymer
precursors that bring down the process temperature. However, during the conversion
of a polymer precursor to the ceramic matrix, a lot of volatile matters escape causing
shrinkage of the matrix. The matrix also becomes porous. The porosity can be reduced
to a large extent by reimpregnation. Several precursor polymers have been studied to
produce SiC and Si3N4matrices. In the sol-gel technique, gels are used to aid uniform
infiltration of matrices. For example, tetrafunctional alkoxides are employed to
infiltrate oxide matrices. This reduces the fibre damage to some extent due to lower
viscosity of the gel-mixed slurry, but the shrinkage problem remains.
Reaction sintering (also known as reaction bonding or reaction forming)
eliminates some of the problems associated with hot press sintering and liquid
infiltration, such as fibre damage, matrix shrinkage, porosity, etc. In this process,
ceramic matrices are reaction formed. A typical example is the Si 3N4 matrix, which is
reaction formed by nitriding Si powder. The SiC matrix has also been successfully
reaction bonded. The reaction sintering process seems to have great potential,

although the process is not yet fully developed. The main drawback is that the
resulting composite may have excessive porosity.
In the chemical vapour deposition process (more often called as chemical
vapour infiltration), a ceramic matrix is chemically vapour deposited on the surfaces
within a fibre preform. The preform is kept in a high temperature furnace (reactor). A
carrier gas (H2, Ar, He, etc.) stream passes through a vessel containing gaseous
reagents and carries their vapour into the reactor. In the reactor, the chemical reaction
of gaseous reagents leads to the formation and deposition of ceramic matrix vapour on
the heated surface of the preform. Other reaction powders diffuse out of the preform
and are carried by the flowing gas stream out of the furnace. The deposition process
continues, until all the inter fibre spaces are filled up resulting in a homogeneous and
more or less void free composite. The main advantage of this process is that it causes
minimum damage to the fibres, as the process temperatures and pressures are
relatively lower compared to those in hot press sintering and liquid infiltration. Also
this process permits fabrication of composite parts with irregular shapes. The
deposition reaction may be of reduction, thermal decomposition or displacement type.
A typical reaction such as
CH3 Si Cl3 SiC + 3 HCL
is responsible for deposition of SiC vapour. The reagents and vapour deposition
temperatures for a few ceramic matrices are listed in Table 3.1. Plasma has also been
used to assist chemical vapour deposition, for example, as in the case of SiO 2 matrix.
The deposition process is carried out under any of these conditions: (i)
maintaining a uniform temperature through out the preform i.e., isothermal condition,
(ii) providing a thermal gradient through the thickness of the preform, (iii) isothermal,
but forcing the flow of reactant gases into the preform, (iv) both with thermal gradient
and forced flow and (v) with pulsed flow, i.e., cyclic evacuation and filling of the
reactor chamber with reactants.
Carbon-carbon composites are fabricated by either resin impregnation and
subsequent carbonization or chemical deposition of carbon vapour. The latter process
has
Table 3.1: Typical ceramic matrices, reagents and vapour deposition temperatures
Ceramic Matrix
ZrB2
HfB2
TiC
SiC
B4C
Si3N4

Reagents
ZrCl4, BCl3, H2
HfCl4, BCl3, H2
TiCl4, CH4, H2
CH3 SiCl3, H2
BCl3, CH4, H2
SiCl4, NH3, H2

Deposition temperature, oC
1000-1500
1000-1600
900-1600
1000-1600
1200-1400
1000-1550

BN
Al2O3
Cr2O3
SiO2
Y2O3
ZrO2
TiSi2
C

BCl3, NH3, H2
AlCl3, CO2, H2
Cr (CO)6, O2
SiH4, CO2, H2
YCl3, CO2, H2
ZrCl4, CO2, H2
TiCl4, SiCl4, H2
CH4

1000-1300
500-1100
400-600
200-600 *
1200
800-1200
1400
900-2250

* plasma assisted
been found to yield superior carbon-carbon composites and has been used to produce
aerospace components such as aircraft brake discs and engine exit nozzles, nose
cones, rotors, combusters, etc. A hydrocarbon reagent, e.g., CH 4 may be used along
with hydrogen, nitrogen or any inert gas for chemical deposition of carbon vapour on
a carbon fibre substrate (perform).
3.5 MACHINING
Machining is an important stage of the overall manufacturing process. It helps
to realize finished products with specified dimensions, surface finish and tolerances.
Conventional machining processes require direct contact between the cutting tool and
the part to be machined. The quality of the machined part and the tool wear are two
major concerns in these machining processes. The performance and integrity of the
machined part depend primarily on the quality of machining. The removal of material
in a metallic alloy is based on a shear process. The material removal in a composite
may be totally different from that in metals and their alloys. The application of
conventional metal cutting tools in composites leads to flaws such as fibre damage,
delamination and cracking which are not encountered in metal cutting. The presence
of these defects and tool wear has been observed while applying the machining
processes such as shearing, abrasive cutting, grinding, profiling, punching and drilling
on fibre reinforced composites. Even the use of high speed drilling has not been found
to be very much effective in reducing the fibre damage or tool wear. Tool wear has
always been a major problem in machining composite parts. It depends on the feed
rate, cutting speed, cutting direction, temperature, and relative hardness properties of
the tool material and the composite part to be machined as well as several other
parameters. The highest tool wear is observed for a particular combination of feed rate
and cutting speed. The tool wear rate is found to be inversely proportional to the
hardness of the tool, when the tool is harder than the composite to be machined.
Diamond tools normally exhibit a longer tool life. Tungsten-carbide tools and siliconcarbide grinding wheels are also useful. It is difficult to machine boron fibre
composites because of extreme hardness of boron fibres. Some special problems arise

during machining of aramid fibres. These can be tackled using specially designed
tools which are commercially available.
There are several non-conventional machining methods which avoid direct
contact between the machine and the work piece, thereby eliminating the problem of
tool wear and improving the quality of the machined component. A narrow laser beam
of 0.1 mm diameter or less with a power in excess of 10 8 W/cm2 can be directed to cut
various composite materials. The CO 2 laser system with 10.6 m wavelength has
been successfully used to machine fibre reinforced polymer composites. A ND:YAG
(neodymium/yttriumaluminium-garnet) laser system with wavelength of 1.06m and
200 pulses per second, can be used to cut metal composites. The water jet cutting
process employs a jet cutting nozzle of 0.13 mm diameter and water pressure in
excess of 350 MPa. In the abrasive water jet process, abrasive particles are added to
the jet stream to facilitate the cutting process. Both these water jet methods are used in
cutting both metallic and non-metallic composites. The electrical discharge machining
process is based on erosion caused by an electrical spark developed between an
electrode and the part to be machined in the presence of a dielectric fluid and has been
effectively used to machine composite parts which are electrically conductive. Other
non-conventional machining processes such as electrochemical machining, electron
beam machining and ultrasonic machining also have good potential in composite
applications. One of the primary disadvantage with all these non-conventional
machining processes is that it may not be possible to induce shape changes, as is done
by conventional processes. However, these unconventional processes, in most cases,
lead to high quality cuts with minimum fibre damage, delamination and cracking as
well as excellent surface finish.
3.6 JOINING
A joint is an essential element in a structural system. However, it is the
weakest link, and therefore the selection of a particular type of joint, its fabrication
and/or assembly need careful consideration. There are two basic types of joints,
bonded and mechanically fastened, which are also applicable to all composite
systems. Bonded joints are preferred, because of their efficient load transfer which is
primarily through shear in the bond layer. The bond shear stress as well as direct or
induced peel stresses can be controlled by configuring and designing the joint
properly. Some of the common bonded joint configurations are illustrated in Fig. 3.17.
The mechanically fastened joints (bolted, riveted, etc.), on the other hand, are
relatively inefficient because of high stress concentrations around bolt holes. The
process of load transfer in a mechanically fastened joint, especially involving
deformable bolts or pins and composites, is very complex. The modes of failure in a
typical single-pin bolt joint are shown in Fig.3.18. The residual strength of such a
joint is quite low and is usually less than a half of the composite laminate strength.

However, mechanical fastening is a practical necessity in view of ease of repeated

dismantling and assembly as well as repairability.
Bonded joints are again of two types adhesive bonded and fusion bonded or
welded. An adhesive bonded joint normally involves application of an adhesive layer
on the overlapping surfaces of the adherends. The adhesive layer is usually a
thermosetting resin. The bonded joints are, therefore, highly effective for composites
with thermosetting resins. They are also good for metal and even ceramic joints,
provided they are not exposed to temperatures higher than the tolerable limit of the
adhesive. The surface treatment of adherends, prior to the application of the adhesice
layer, is necessary to achieve better adhesion properties. But the thermosetting
adhesive layer is not compatible with thermoplastic composites. Thermoplastic
composite adherends need to be fusion bonded. In fusion bonding no new material is
added. The process involves surface preparation, heating and melting of the bond
surfaces, pressing for intermolecular diffusion and entanglement of the polymer
chains and cooling for solidification. The bond surfaces are treated mechanically
and/or chemically to remove all contaminations including loose particles, dirt, release
agent, oil, etc. The heating and melting are carried out using any of the welding
techniques employed in plastics. In the hot-plate welding process, the surfaces to be
bonded are heated by making contact with a hot plate. The hot gas welding normally
employs a hot gas. In the case of a butt joint, similar to that of a metal joint, a
thermoplastic welding rod is also used to fill the joining gaps. The resistance implant
welding rod is also used to fill the joining gaps. The resistance implant welding is an
internal heating method and requires an electrical resistive element to be embedded on
the bond surface. Heating is done by passing an electric current through the resistive
element. There are several other ways of external and internal heating, namely
induction welding, laser and infrared heating, dielectric and microwave heating,
friction heating, vibration welding and ultrasonic welding.
For joining metal matrix composite parts, in addition to adhesively bonded and
mechanically fastened joints, several other joining methods that are used in joining
metals and their alloys can be employed. These are brazing, soldering, diffusion
welding, fusion welding, resistance welding, ultrasonic welding, laser welding and
electronic beam welding. These techniques have been employed in several metal
matrix composite systems, e.g., B/Al, C/Al, Borsic/Al, B/Ti, SiC/Ti, W/Ti, C/Mg,
Al2O3/Mg and several others. The joint efficiencies are found to vary between 2560%. However, higher efficiencies have also been noted in some cases, and a joint
efficiency as high as 98% has been realized in the fusion welding of Al 2O3 fibres. The
fusion bonding or welding of ceramic matrix composite parts with ceramic marix and
metal matrix composite parts, has not yet been properly investigated.

3.7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. G. Lubin (Ed.), Handbook of Composites, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., NY, 1982.
2. Mel M. Schwrtz (Ed.), Fabrications of Composite Materials, American Society for
Metals, Metals park, Ohio, 1985.
3. Mel M. Schwarts (Ed.), Composite Materials Handbook, McGraw Hill Book Co., NY,
1984.
4. S.M. Lee (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of Composites, Vols. 1-6, VCH Publications,
New York, 1990-1991.
5. J.W. Weeton, D.M. Fosters and K.L. Thomas (Eds.), Engineers Guide to Composite
Materialals, American Society of Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1987.
6. N.P. Cheremisinof (Ed.), Handbook of ceramics and Composites, Vol. 1, Marcel Dekker,
Inc., NY, 1990.

3.8 EXERCISES
1. Describe briefly various moulding processes of composites.
2. Describe an appropriate method of fabrication of an open-ended rectangular
thin-walled
box
section
with
the
wall
consisting
of
0
0
0
0 0
0 /90 /45 /90 /0 laminations.
3. Write notes on (i) filament winding and (ii) pultrusion.
4. Describe the fabrication processes for metal matrix composites.
5. Describe the fabrication processes for ceramic matrix composites.
6. Discuss the joining techniques for MMCs and CMCs.

Composite Cutting with KMT Waterjet

1.

Because composites are not homogenous materials and are reinforced for greater strength, cutting composites requires a different approach thanceramic cutting
or metal cutting, for example. Using conventional cutters and machining techniques will quickly cause parts to wear out and require replacement. Employing the
techniques often used for cutting granite or titanium may also compromise the strength of the composite and/or cause delamination, making the material less
suitable for use in applications such as aircrafts and medical devices.
As an alternative, cutting with a water jet offers a number of benefits for composite machining. KMT water jet intensifier pumps do not produce heat-affected zones
(HAZ) or leave rough edges/burrs that require the material to undergo secondary finishing with other composite machines.. Additionally, very little waste is created
with water jet technology to protect the material investment, and the speed of the technology makes it well suited to high production requirements.

ADVANTAGES OF CUTTING COMPOSITES WITH WATERJET

Create complex shapes using composites with precision water jet cutting.
NO Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) which is ideal for composites and more.
Ideal for cutting up to 8 (20 cm) of composites materials depending on density of product.
Eliminates most secondary finishing no burrs or rough edges.
Safe for the Environment; no toxic fumes or dust and garnet is disposable.
Omni-directional cutting. Minimal tolerances. No wasteful raw materials.
Cutting heads do not have to be changed out during manufacturing avoiding aggravating delays.
Thick or thin, waterjet cutting is the most flexible cutting process for granite to foam.
Minimal set up for automated cutting process and minimal downtime for quick seal change.
Cuts without melting.
Can pierce material directly without the need for a pre-drilled starter hole.
No tool sharpening.

 One head for all applications, no guessing, no need to change bits.

High or low surface pressure flexibility for sensitive or thick materials.
Tolerances at 0.003"/.076 mm.

ISCAR Tools for Machining Composite Materials

ISCAR, the largest metalworking company in the IMC group (owned by Berkshire Hathaway), produces unique, innovative cutting tools for most machining applications. ISCAR
is recognized as a world leader in the field of indexable and solid carbide cutting tools for the major metalworking industries, such as automotive and aerospace. In machining
composite materials, intensive abrasion of a cutting tool is a major challenge because abrasive wear can lead to dramatic deterioration of cutting tool geometry and, as a result,
to performance problems.
As a consequence of this wear issue, delamination can also occur during drilling and milling operations. In order to significantly improve the cutting tools performance during
machining of composite materials, ISCAR R&D department developed a new range of tools, both indexable and solid carbide, totally dedicated to this class of materials.

DRILLING APPLICATIONS
ISCAR has developed a drilling solution based on interchangeable heads, based on its famous SUMOCHAM product line. The new ICF drilling heads geometry has been
especially designed for drilling composite materials (fig. A).
It provides low axial forces for smooth penetration during the cutting process without splintering phenomenon. The new heads are based on a new carbide submicron substrate
and diamond coating for prolonged and predictable tool life. SUMOCHAM for composites is suitable for use on any type of machine-tools such as CNC machines, robots and
even powered feed machines (ADU) for which special thread connectors are available.
The fast head replacement and high positioning repeatability provide minimum machine downtime. Relatively small indexable drilling heads with diamond coating provide a real
price advantage, compared to long full solid carbide drills, as well as easy stock management. The SUMOCHAM range for composite materials covers today a diameter range
from 6.35 to 12.7 mm.
ISCAR also offers a range of solid carbide drills, starting from 3.0 mm.
The tool geometry of the CFD family has been designed with a stepped point and with two working sections (fig. B). This considerably improves surface finish and allows a
smooth cut on very difficult-to-machine composites, like RTM or thermoplastic materials.

MILLING APPLICATIONS
The design shown in fig. C relates to ISCARs versatile MULTI-MASTER tool systems with interchangeable heads, featuring a carbide head with brazed PCD tips.
Due to this innovative design, a machined composite workpiece experiences less loading and swarf evacuation is improved as well as the surface finish.
The main applications for this range of tools are: orbital milling, edging and ramping down.
Another milling family, EPX, is intended mostly for machining carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP).
This family of compression endmills (fig. D) feature opposite cutting edge directions a combination of right and left helix along one flute. Such progressive cutting edge
geometry reduces delamination and improves tool performance when milling CFRP. This technology is especially recommended for fast feed machining.
ISCAR also developed the EPN-F a family of solid carbide endmills (fig. E).
Its key feature is that the mill teeth are divided into sections. This design results in better distribution of load on the endmill and machined workpiece, and thus provides
increased tool life and improved surface finish.
The EPN-F tool shows impressive results in machining carbon fiber and honeycomb composites.

How To Machine Composites, Part 4 -- Drilling Composites

Achieving acceptable tool life and hole quality in a material such as CFRP demands a drill designed with composites in mind.

Article From: 8/12/2008 Modern Machine Shop, Peter Zelinski , Senior Editor

Click Image to Enlarge

Here is an example of a drill designed specifically for composites. The patented point design shown here reduces delamination, splintering and fraying by reducing pressure on the material
and reducing thrust and torque to improve cutting efficiency. The reduction in forces has the additional benefit of reducing the heat generated in the cutting area. Photos courtesy of
Precision Dormer.

General Tool uses a drill such as this one to machine holes in composites undersize, then completes the hole through circular milling to ensure that exit quality meets the customers
requirements.

The splintering visible on these drilled holes illustrates the kind of defect that effective drills for machining composites are designed to minimize or avoid.

Drilling tends to be the real challenge of machining composite parts. A drill cutting through a metal part simply has to remove the material and clear the hole.
By contrast, a drill cutting through a layered composite structure is likely to push the layers ahead of it, producing unacceptable delamination on the exit side.

Earl Wilkerson is CNC programming and tooling supervisor for General Tool, a 240-employee contract manufacturer with considerable composites machining
expertise. He equates a standard drill in composites to drilling an unsupported piece of plywood. A standard metalworking drill would just blow out the back
of the hole, he says. Drilling composites generally requires a tool that is tailored to this work.

One example of a cutting tool company that has developed some tools for composites machining is Onsrud Cutter. For drilling, the range of tool offerings is
varied because the range of hole requirements and potential holemaking challenges in composites is so varied. Designs for CFRP drills include:

Brad-and-spur point designs in which a point centers the tool to let peripheral cutting edges machine like a fly cutter.

Drill-reamer tools with separate cutting edges for drilling and reaming in one tool.

An eight-facet point grind that lets the tips secondary angles perform a self-seating function. The same design extends life by spreading wear across a larger
number of discrete edges.

 Double-margin piloted step drills for close-tolerance holes in composite stacks

Cutting tool supplier Kennametal has also developed tools for composites. Karthik Sampath is a Kennametal research engineer who has studied CFRP drilling.
He offers these general points on what makes a tool more effective tool for machining holes in this material:

Positive geometry is vital to reduce the cutting forces that lead to delamination, he says.

Helix angle, clearance angle and gash rake angle are all similar in the following respect: As the angle gets larger, hole quality tends to improve.

A smaller point angle tends to produce better exit quality. However, too small of a point angle can give the tool poor edge strength. For CFRP, the optimal
compromise seems to be a point angle of 90 degrees. By comparison, a more typical point angle for drilling metal is 135 degrees (meaning the composites drill
is pointier).

Mr. Sampath says diamond coating generally delivers 10 times more tool life in CFRP than an uncoated tool. In his experiments, evaluations of various
thicknesses of diamond coating, ranging from 5 to 16 microns, suggest that a 12-micron coating delivers the best value in terms of cost vs. tool life.

Hole quality concerns tend to focus on the exit side when drilling composites, but Mr. Sampath notes that problematic hole entry defects are sometimes a
concern as well. As the drill enters, it can wind up the top layer of the composite material. He says this problem is typically an indication of too light a feed
rate. Entry defects can often be reduced by increasing the feed ratethough this poses the danger of exacerbating exit defects. The optimum feed rate
balances quality on both the entry and exit sides.

Mr. Wilkerson of General Tool says that the drill he tends to specify most frequently for his shops particular composite parts is the WonderDrill from
International Carbide Corporation. This tool uses a positive hook to draw fibers into the cutting tip for a smooth and clean hole. This simple-looking tool
eliminates any excessive fluting to improve strength and rigidity. However, even with this tool, General Tool typically does not rely on drilling to achieve a
holes final size because the risk of break-out defects is so great. Instead, holes are generally drilled 0.020- to 0.030-inch undersize. Then, a plated diamond
finishing tool mills the hole to final size through circular interpolation.

Mechanical Fastening
Mechanical fastening is a widely used, cost-effective means of joining, which is particularly suitable for thin sheet sections. Fastening encompasses a
range of processes that utilise a variety of fasteners including nuts & bolts, screws & rivets, or mechanical interlocks to assemble materials without
heating. The high production rate techniques that have been studied at TWI include:

Clinching - which uses a special punch and die to form a mechanical interlock between the sheet metals being joined
Self-piercing riveting - in which a semi-tubular rivet is set using a punch and die to flare the rivet within the lower sheet so that no preexisting hole is required.

Expertise

TWI's expertise in mechanical fastening spans sheet joining, plastics and composites and structural engineering. Industry benefits from a range of
specialised support services, consultancy and project work have included:

advice on process selection

research into effects of process parameters in clinching and riveting of sheet metals

hybrid joints - fasteners plus adhesives

mechanical properties of fastened joints

Resource

commercial clinching & riveting equipment

static, fatigue & impact testing equipment
advice on best practice
engineering design advice on machine-threaded fasteners
materials science support

Joining Processes
Joining technology is fundamental to engineering and manufacturing. Without the ability to make strong and durable connections between materials it
would not be possible to produce the many different items upon which we all rely in our everyday lives, from the very large (buildings, aircraft, trains and
bridges) to the very small (medical implants and electronic devices).
With its extensive knowledge of both welding and joining processes, TWI is ideally positioned to offer support and advice on the joining of metals,
ceramics and polymers.

TWI has equipment and expertise covering:

Adhesive Bonding
Diffusion Bonding
Soldering
Mechanical Fastening

4 Methods of Joining Composites:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Adhesives
Mechanical
Welding
Friction-fit integral joints

As can be seen in the attached chart, adhesive bonding is the least expensive. It is very strong, but
creating joints that are both adhesive-bonded and mechanically bonded results in the strongest joint.
1.

Adhesive Bonding

A. Surface treatment: The surface of any composite must be treated before an adhesive can be
applied. The treatment process creates a rough surface on the composite that is stronger for holding the
adhesive. Surface treatment types include:
i. Plasma treatment: Ionized gases are pumped over the surface of the composite. This pulls
electrons away from the surface of the composite, and renders the surface very clean and free of
any debris, allowing the adhesive to make a very strong bond at the molecular level.
ii. Mechanical roughing: Sanding techniques can be applied, with advanced fiber-based sanding
materials. This is not as effective as plasma treatment, since the surface must be thoroughly
cleaned afterwards.
B. Types of adhesive joints: Adhesives require surface area to work, and must be used with some type of
lap joint. The attached figure shows examples of the different types.
i.
Single and double lappd joints: fairly common, easy to manufacture
ii.
Scarf joints: provide greater surface area, more labor intensive
iii.
Strap joints: very easy to apply. Recessed strap joints leave a flush surface and are very
easy to assemble, and are thus desirable if the material thickness permits.
C. Adhesives: Several types of adhesives are available.
i.
Epoxy resins: Essentially the same material some composites are set in, this is a very
common adhesive. Strong, but limited in its range of temperatures (175 C).
ii.
Epoxy-phenolic resins: Similar to epoxy resins, but able to withstand high temperatures
for short durations.
iii.
Condensation-reaction PI adhesives: Can withstand high temperatures, but require high
curing temperatures, and are thus not suitable for all applications.
iv.
Addition-reaction PI adhesives: Like condensation-reaction, but much lower in final
volume. Can create much thinner joints as a consequence. Very expensive.
v.
BMI adhesives: falls between high-temp epoxy and PI adhesives. Medium temperature
range, wide range of applications.

vi.

2.

Structural adhesive processes: Rapid adhesive bonding and dual-resin bonding are two
such processes. They require less curing time, and are easier to apply. More expensive
than epoxy, but not prohibitively so.

Mechanical Fastening: Mechanical fastening refers simply to the process of bolting joints, using
standard or non-standard fasteners. There are some considerations, however.
A. Type of fastener: Standard bolts will not do, since they can be tightened beyond the thickness of
the composite, resulting in crushing. Pre-sized bolts must be machined. Additionally, different
composites react badly to some materials, so care must be taken in choosing the proper material
for the fastener.
B. Installation: Care must be taken when drilling composites, as this can create stress
fractures. Adhesive bonding agent should be applied to the surface of the cut, to re-cure the
composite. Also, gaskets or liners of some flexible material are necessary to prevent the bolt or
fastener from creating stresses in the hole.

3.

Welding

A. Thermal welding
i.
Electron welding: Electrons are applied to a joining compund that is activated by their
presence. Strong, but very costly.
ii.
Heat welding: Simple hot gas welding. Very easy, but not as strong. Can deform some
composites.
B. Friction welding
i.
Spin welding: Pieces are spun against each other, heating up and melting some of their
materials. The material then cools and bonds together. Strong, but very limited in
application.
ii.
Vibration welding: Similar to spin welding, except the motion is linear. A wider range of
applications.
iii.
Rotational welding: Similar to above
iv.
Ultrasonic welding: Similar, but at much higher speeds and smaller ranges of motion.
B. Electromagnetic welding: Less common
i.
Induction: Passes a magnetic field through a material, creating heat and thus a weld
ii.
Resistance welding: A metal insert is trapped between two composites, and then heated
by induction, creating a weld at that location.
4. Friction Fit: This calls for specific pieces to be milled that can hold pieces together. Can make for ease
of assembly, but can be costly to design and manufacture. Also, not as string in many instances as
adhesives. See attached chart for an example; the range of designs is limitless.