FUNDAMENTALS OF TRIBOLOGY

MUHAMMAD ISMAIL
Squadron Leader
Department of Aerospace Engineering
College of Aeronautical Engineering

PAKISTAN AIRFORCE ACADEMY RISALPUR

CONTENTS
Topic

Page

Foreword

ii

Preface

iii

Tribology

Friction and its Measurement

Adhesion and Mechanism of Friction

Wear and Surface Damage

Surface Temperature of Sliding Solids

11

Rolling Friction

16

Viscosity

21

Lubrication

31

Boundary Lubrication

37

Types of Lubricants

40

Bibliography

41

Foreword

This compilation of short notes on Tribology presents essential

knowledge about the subject in a crisp manner. Many other references on this
subject contain too exhaustive details which are not always immediately
required, and looking for the desired information becomes rather cumbersome.
The information in the present notes is based upon the current views on the
mechanism of friction and lubrication. It is extremely beneficial for the people,
especially for practicing maintenance engineers, who wish to become familiar
with the basic ideas current in this field.

Dr S K N ZAIDI
Group Captain
Professor & Head of
Aerospace Engineering Department

ii

PREFACE
The absence of some study material in the context of tribology, in one
binding, has been felt for long at PAF College of Aeronautical Engineering.
The compilation of this handout is the first attempt in this direction.

The primary intention of this work is to provide the students and

practicing engineers with some appreciation and understanding of the
increasing important role which lubricants play in modern engineering and to
explain the physical principles on which bearing and sliding mechanisms
function. Hence, a brief account of the mechanism of friction, wear and surface
damage, surface temperature of sliding solids, and lubrication has been included
in this handout. The treatment is non-mathematical and has been kept very
simple.

MUHAMMAM ISMAIL
Squadron Leader

March, 1991

iii

TRIBOLOGY
Tribology is the science and technology of interacting surfaces in relative
motion (and the practices related thereto), including the subject of friction, wear
and lubrication.

FRICTION AND ITS MEASUREMENT

FRICTION
When one solid body is slid over another there is a resistance to the
motion which is called friction. Considering friction as a nuisance, attempts are
made to eliminate it or to diminish it to as small a value as possible. No doubt a
considerable loss of power is caused by friction (e.g. about 20% in motor cars,
9% in airplane piston engine and (1 -2)% in turbojet engines) but more
important aspect is the damage that is done by friction the WEAR or
SEIZURE of some vital parts of machines. This factor limits the design and
shortens the effective working life of the machines.
The Laws of Friction
There are two basic laws of friction;

First Law: The friction is independent of the area of contact

between the solids e.g. if one pulls a brick along a table, the friction is
same whether the brick is lying flat, or on its side, or standing on its end
[Fig 1(i), (ii), (iii)].

(i)
(ii)

Fig-1. Figure illustrating the two basic laws of friction.

1

Second Law:
The friction is proportional to the load between
the surfaces, e.g. if the load is doubled by putting a second brick on top
of first, the force required to cause sliding is twice as great. If a pile of
four bricks is used, the friction would be four times as great, and so on
[Fig 1 (iv)].
Hence for any particular pair of surfaces, the ratio of Friction / Load is
constant, and this constant is called the coefficient of friction (). Hence;
= Friction / Load
It may be noted that varies widely for different solids.
Examples
The following examples may be of interest to the reader:For a case of a brick sliding over a clean wooden table = 0.5, i.e.
force equal to one-half of the weight of the brick is required to pull it
along.
For ice sliding on ice, = 0.02 0.03.
For copper sliding over copper, = 0.8 to 1.0, and if the metal is
carefully cleaned so that all traces of surface contamination are removed,
it may rise to a much higher value.
Static and Kinetic Friction
Static friction is the force required to start sliding and kinetic friction is
the force required to maintain it. It is known that kinetic friction is less than the
static friction and kinetic friction is nearly independent of the speed of sliding.

Measurement of Friction
To measure the friction, the basic requirements are simply a means of
applying a normal load W and a means of measuring a tangential force F. The
following section gives a brief account of some ways of doing this.
If the lower surface is flat, the simplest method is to use the gravity
loading and to tilt the lower surface until sliding begins (Fig 2)

Fig. 2. Two simple means of measuring friction

If is the angle at which sliding begins, then, normal force = w cos ,
and tangential force = w sin,
so that,
= tan .
It is a convenient quick rough method to determine , but the vibration
during the tilting may produce error. Generally, once sliding is started at
an angle , the upper body accelerates down the slope. This is because
the friction to start sliding (the static coefficient of friction s) is
generally greater than the friction which arises during sliding
(the coefficient of kinetic friction k).
The second method also uses the gravity loading but the lower
surface is kept horizontal and the tangential loading is applied by means
of dead load over pulley and = F/W.
Both the methods are however, defective because of the inertia of the
moving parts they cannot readily detect fluctuations which occur during sliding.
For this reason, it is often more fruitful to use a device of high natural
frequency. On the basis of this approach various sophisticated apparatus have
been developed. The schematic diagrams of two such devices are shown below
(Fig 3 & 4)
3

Fig. a. Apparatus with high natural

Frequency for determining friction
between sliding solids. A, carriage
holding lower surface (and heating
element): B, Lower surface in form of
finely abraded flat surface: C. Upper
surface or slider, usually hemispherical
in shape: D, E. spring and screw for
applying normal load; F, Stiffening
spring supporting slider; G, Duralumin
arm holding slider and loading spring;
H, Bifilar suspension holding arm G; M,
Mirror for recording deflexion of arm G.

Fig-4. Apparatus for measuring friction

between surfaces over a wide load
range. A, Turntable carrying lower
specimen: B; C, Upper surface or slider;
D, Cylindrical beam supporting slider;
E, Lever arm holding beam D; G,
Micrometer for raising or lowering end
of lever arm and so flexing beam in
vertical plane; H, Galvanometer
elements for recording flexing of beam
in horizontal direction. By using wires
of various thicknesses for the beam D a
practical load range from about 5
milligrams to 100 grams may be
obtained.

Effect of Speed
As was pointed out earlier, s > k but the difference is not very great.
This is because the basic mechanism is essentially unchanged, the only
alteration being the effective time of contact at any instant. If the mechanism of
friction changes, however, a marked change in friction may occur.

For

example, with increasing speed of sliding, frictional heating may produce

softening or melting of surface layers and the friction may be largely due to the
rheological (concerning flow & deformation of metals) properties of a thin, soft
or molten surface film. This occurs at moderate speeds with ice and at
extremely high speeds with metals. Under these conditions the friction may be
very low ( < 0.1).
Frictional Characteristics
For two clean specimens of the same metal sliding together in air the
friction is high ( = 1 to 1.5) and some what irregular and the track shows very
heavy damage and tearing [Fig 5(a)].

Fig-5. Friction traces for:(a) Copper sliding on copper (b) Load sliding on steel

Fig-5(c).

Stick Slip motion

5

When a soft metal slides on a harder metal the friction is of the same
order but generally shows a regular intermittent motion of a stick-slip nature
[Fig 5(b & c)]. During the stick the upper surface moves with the lower
surface until the restoring force is sufficient to initiate sliding. A rapid slip
then occurs and continues until the upper surface becomes again firmly attached
to the lower surface. Corresponding to the jerky motion the wear track on the
lower surface consists of intermittent smears of metal transferred from the
upper slider.

For hard metals sliding on soft metals the sliding is often smooth, and
corresponding to this the friction track consists of a well defined uniform
groove in the lower surface. In other cases the motion is intermittent and the
friction track is in the form of irregular groove.

ADHESION AND MECHANISM OF FRICTION

Adhesion
When surfaces are placed together they make contact over the tips of
their asperities and the pressures here are extremely high. Over these regions
where intimate contact occurs, strong adhesion takes place and specimen
becomes, in effect, a continuous solid ( Fig 6 ). With metals this process may
be referred as Cold Welding.

Fig-6. Sketch showing plastic deformation at the points of real contact. At

these regions junctions are formed. The surrounding regions are deformed
elastically so that when the load is removed these elastic stresses are released,
and the junctions are broken.
When the surfaces slide over one another the junctions so formed must be
sheared and the force to do this is nearly equal to the frictional resistance. If one
surface is much harder than the other, the asperities on the harder surface will
plough out grooves in the softer one and there will be an additional ploughing
term that must be considered in estimating the friction (generally neglected
being small in comparison).
Mechanism of Friction
If the material that has to be sheared has a mean shear strength S then
F=AxS, where A is the real area of contact and is proportional to the load and
independent of the size of the bodies, and

Where, P is the yield pressure and is defined as the stress at which a substantial
amount of plastic deformation takes place under load (also known as yield
point). Experimentally, S is almost equal to the bulk shear strength of the softer
metal of the sliding pair.
In practice, the value of may be modified by small amounts of surface
contamination (impurity due to mixing of other materials).

WEAR AND SURFACE DAMAGE

Wear is the actual removal of surface material due to the frictional force
between two mating surfaces. This can result in a change in component
dimension which can lead to looseness and subsequent improper operation. The
adhesion mechanism of friction enables us to understand the basic mechanism
of metallic wear, when a junction shears during sliding it may shear in one or
other of four ways.
If the Junction is weaker than the materials on either side of it,
shear will occur along the interface itself. Consequently there will be
very little transfer of metal from one surface to the other and very little
wear. For example when a tin-base alloy slides on steel ( = 0.7),
practically no tin is transferred to steel.
If the Junction is stronger than one of the metals but weaker than
the other, shearing will take place, not at the interface itself, but a little
distance within the softer material, so that for quite a small increase in
friction, there may be anormous increase in metallic wear. Thus for a
lead-base alloy sliding on steel, the coefficient of friction is about unity,
whilst the wear may be fifty times higher than for corresponding tin-base
alloy.
This type of wear gradually builds up a film of softer metal on the
harder surface, so that, ultimately, the sliding is characteristic of similar
metals.
If the Junction is stronger than both metals, the shearing will not
occur at the interface. Most of the shearing will occur in the softer of the
two metals but occasionally small fragments of the harder metal will also
be ploughed out, e.g. when copper slides on steel, this type of 13ehavior
is observed.

Finally, we may consider the behavior of similar metals. Here the

Junctions are of the same material as both surfaces, but the process of
deformation and sliding will work harden them, and considerably
increase their shear strength. As a result, shearing will rarely occur at the
interface itself but within the bulk of the metals. Consequently, the
surface damage will be very large. It is for this reason that the sliding
together of similar metals may cause heavy wear.
Besides the adhesive wear, as discussed above, other possible types of
wears are described below:
Abrasive Wear. This type of wear occurs when hard particles or
a rough surface runs against a soft surface. One example is sand paper
smoothing wood, and the other is diamond powder embedded in lead lap
polishing a glass surface.
Fatigue Wear.
As the surfaces run over each other, opposing
asperities are deformed and ultimately fatigued off.
Corrosive Wear. Oxygen, moisture or other active chemicals in
the lubricant form a layer which prevents the surfaces adhering together.
This layer is rubbed off during contact.
Delamination Wear.
Delamination wear takes its name from
the fact that wear debris consists of flakes.

10

SURFACE TEMPERATURE OF SLIDING SOLIDS

During sliding the real area of contact is generally very small and this has
a very important influence on the temperature developed during sliding. The
energy lost during sliding is dissipated mainly in the form of heat and this will
occur over a few small regions of contact.
Theoretical Calculation for Surface Temperature
In the following paragraphs two models for the theoretical calculation of
surface temperature of sliding objects are being discussed:
Model-1. In this case a cylinder is rubbing on a flat surface [Fig
7 (a) ] and it is assumed that heat is uniformly generated over circular
interface, and it is conducted up the body of cylinder and finally carried
away by radiation from the cylindrical surface.
If is fraction of the frictional heat which goes into the cylinder, kz
is the thermal conductivity of the cylinder, and is the radiation loss per
sq cm per unit degree temperature excess, then the temperature rise at the
interface is,

Where, J = Mechanical Equivalent of heat

The main defect of this model is that in fact contact occurs over a few
asperities, the area of which constitutes only a very small fraction of the
end surface of the cylinder. These are the regions at which the frictional
heat itself is generated. Consequently, the main loss of heat arises from
the conduction into the bulk of the metal from the minute frictional hot
spots.
Model 2. In this model, the actual contact region is treated as a
square of side 21, and k1 , k2 are the thermal conductivities of the lower
moving surface and the upper stationary surface, respectively [Fig 7(b)].
11

K2

2r
2t

K1

(a)

(b)
Fig-7. Two models of calculating theoretical surface temperatures (a) Contact
assume over the whole circular interface between slider and surface (b)
Contact assumed to occur over a single junction <taken to be a square of side
zl>. The junction is considered to be very small as compared with the size of the
bodies.
The temperature rise is given by,
( )
( )[
Where, X1

(
, where

is the density and

the specific heat of moving surface.

Experimental Determination of Surface Temperature

Some of the experimental techniques employed for the determination of
the surface temperature are discussed below:The thermoelectric Method. If two dissimilar metals are joined
together and the junction is heated, a potential is developed which is a
measurers of the junction temperature (the Thermoelectric Effect).
Similarly, if two different metals are slid together the thermoelectric
potential developed may be readily measured with the help of the
arrangements shown in Fig 8. The temperatures reached depend upon the
load, the speed of sliding and the thermal conductivity of the metals.
Average values of the temperatures may be found by using suitable
galvanometer, but in many cases the temperatures fluctuate very rapidly
indeed. To record the fluctuating temperatures the instrument of rapid
response such as Cathode Ray Oscillograph are used.
12

Fig. 8. Thermoelectric method of determining surface temperature. The

thermoelectric potential developed between dissimilar metals is measured by a high
frequency galvanometer or cathode ray oscilloscope.

Visual or Photographic Method.

If bad thermal conductors
are slid together the frictional heat is conduced away much less
effectively than with metals. It is not possible to use the thermoelectric
method with non-conductors, however other methods can be employed
for noting temperature rise. For example, if polished surfaces of glass or
quartz are used,

Fig-9. Photographic record of hot spots formed between a steel pin rubbing on
a glass plate load 1200 grams. The inner most track which just produces
visible blackening of the photographic plate corresponds to a sliding speed of
about 70 cm/sec.
13

and the apparatus is so arranged that a clear image of the rubbing surfaces
can be seen. It is found that if the sliding is carried out in dark, a number
of tiny stars of light appear at the interface between the rubbing surfaces.
The points of light are reddish in colour at low speeds and become whiter
and brighter as the speed or load is increased. These luminous points
correspond to small hot spots on the surface. Their varying positions and
distribution over the surface can be recorded by placing a photo-graphic
plate on a turn-table with the gloss side upward and allowed to rotate
with the metal slider resting on it (Fig 9).
Infra-Red Cell Method.
Another method which is very
effective (if one of the surfaces is transparent) is to use a lead sulphide
cell. Lead sulphide is a semi-conductor and when electromagnetic
radiation falls on it, its electrical resistance falls. Modern lead sulphide
cells are available which are sensitive to infra-red radiations and which
have a rapid response. Schematic diagram of experiential arrangement is
shown in Fig 10.

Fig-10. Apparatus for investigating frictional hot spots using a lead sulphide
infra-red cell. (A) Disc of glass or quartz; (B) upper surface slider; (C)
Photocell; (D) Brass enclosure; (E) Chopper with alternate segments covered
with a suitable filter.

14

The Main Characteristics of Surface Temperature

The salient characteristics of the rise in surface temperature during the
process of friction are briefly described below:Local high temperatures are easily developed, although the load
may be light and the sliding speed may be only a few feet per second
(Fig 11).

Fig-11. Oscillograph record of a single hot spot developed on asteel slider

rubbing on glass, using apparatus shown in Fig. 10 without the chopper.
The rise in temperature is normally limited by the melting point of
the solid.
Exception to sub para 20(b) can occur, if the metal can be readily
oxidized and if the oxidization is an exothermal process, the hot spot
temperature may be very much higher because of the heat of oxidation
liberated at the oxidizing surface.

15

ROLLING FRICTION
Other than sliding, an other way in which surfaces can move over one
another is rolling, and it is much easier to roll surfaces along than to slide them.
Types of Rolling
Rolling can take place in two different ways, as described below:The first type of rolling occurs when a car wheel is driven over a
road or a train wheel over a rail. Here considerable tangential forces are
involved in pulling the vehicle along, and the conventional frictional grip
between the wheel and the surface is of great importance.
The other type of rolling involves only a minute tangential traction
i.e. the rolling that occurs when a ball or cylinder rolls freely over
another surface called free rolling which is most commonly applied in
ball bearings and roller bearings. The resistance in these cases is
phenomenally low ( 0.001 ).
The rolling friction is accounted for by the elastic hysteresis losses within
the metals themselves and is scarcely affected by the presence or absence of
lubricant films. However, the lubricant films may play an important part in
reducing surface attrition or wear but they have little effect on the rolling
resistance itself. In real ball and roller bearings, the behavior is complicated by
friction of the cage and other factors, but the hysteresis losses must play a very
important role.
Mechanism of Rolling
Reynolds, in his study or rolling friction, found that when a metal
cylinder rolled over a rubber surface, it moved forward a distance less than its
circumference in each revolution of the cylinder. He assumed that a certain
amount of slip occurred between the roller and concluded that the occurrence of
this slip was responsible for the rolling resistance.
16

Tabor, however, after more detailed investigation and repetition of

Reynolds experiments, showed that interfacial slip between a rolling element
and an elastic surface is in reality almost negligible and in any case quite
inadequate to account for the observed frictional losses. From the evidence of
his experiments Tabor concluded that rolling resistance arises primarily from
elastic-hysteresis losses in the materials of the rolling element and the surface.
This conclusion is supported by the experimental fact that rolling friction is
scarcely affected by the presence or absence of lubricant films. The typical
example of a ball rolling on a flat plate will give a clearer picture of the
physical mechanism now believed to be involved.
Fig (12) shows a steel ball resting on a flat steel plate; the actual arc of
contact is exaggerated in order to show the form of elastic deformation. As the
ball rolls in the direction of the arrow, the elastic deformation will assume a
shape similar to that as shown in Fig (12). A form of bulge will be pushed up
from the plate surface in front of the ball and a cavity will follow a similar
bulge on the trailing edge of the ball. This type of deformation occurs when the
ball and plate are both made of material having similar elastic properties. The
plate surface over which the ball moves will undergo stretching and contraction
as the ball pushes a minute bow-wave of metal along in front of it. Similarly,
the ball surface itself will undergo cyclic stretching and contraction as it
continually modifies its original spherical shape.

Fig-12.

Mechanism of Rolling Friction:(a)

Elastic ball and plate at rest

(b)

Elastic ball rolling on plate

17

The continual deformation of the plate and distortion of the ball,

elastic-hysteresis, require energy and manifest themselves as the main sources
of resistance to rolling.
Friction of a Complete Rolling Contact Bearing
The conclusion that friction in rolling contact bearing is largely due to
elastic-hysteresis means that its magnitude will be influenced by all the factors
which normally cause variation in hysteresis effects. In the case of the rolling
elements alone, these would be the elastic properties of the materials, the speed
of rolling and the temperature. Additional factors which may influence the
frictional behavior of complete rolling contact bearing are the condition, shape
and relative positions of the surfaces, the magnitude and direction of the load,
the friction between the cage and the rolling elements, the friction between the
cage and the rings and the conditions of lubrication.
Friction of a Lubricant in a Rolling Contact Bearing
It is evident that lubrication is required to minimize sliding friction in
complete bearings. An additional function of the lubricant is to act as a
protection for the accurately-ground and highly-polished surfaces of the balls,
rollers and rings. If free moisture is allowed to contact the bearing elements,
corrosion and pitting will follow and the bearing life will be considerably
shortened. At the same time, a suitable lubricant should prevent the entry of
external contaminating matter in the form of dirt or abrasive dust.
In certain instances where ball or roller bearings operate at very high
speeds or under high ambient temperature conditions, e.g. in aircraft turbines, it
is necessary for the lubricant to serve as a heat-transfer medium by absorbing
heat generated at the contact areas of the rolling elements and carrying it away
from the bearing. In such cases, copious flow of lubricant serves to maintain an
even temperature throughout the bearing and prevents the development of a
high temperature differential between the inner and outer races.
Choice of Lubricant
The problem as to whether or not an oil or grease is the most suitable
lubricant for a particular rolling contact bearing is often determined solely by
the application itself.
18

For the lubrication of ball and roller bearings mineral greases and mineral
oils are almost invariably used. Where circumstances permit, the aim of the
lubrication engineer should be first to choose the most satisfactory lubricant and
secondly to consider the design of a suitable bearing housing in which to
accommodate it. In any particular application, a decision must first of all be
made as to whether oil or grease is to be the choice. Some of the considerations
which influence this choice are discussed below.
Oil Lubrication
There is not doubt that oil is the most positive means of lubrication as its
fluidity enables it to penetrate readily to all parts of the bearing where sliding
friction is likely to occur. Oil is preferable under heavily-loaded high speed
conditions or high temperatures as it acts as a heat-transfer medium and serves
to prevent the bearing temperature from rising excessively. With grease
lubrication no heat balance can be obtained; in fact, an excess of grease may
retain the heat. Operating speed is usually the main factor in determining the
adoption of oil as a lubrication medium since, for a given bearing bore,
manufacturers do not recommend the use of grease above a certain limiting
speed.
Other conditions in which oil is found to be the most suitable lubricant
are in light machines or precision instruments where resistance to rotation must
be kept to an absolute minimum and where bearings are completely enclosed in
casings containing other parts for which oil lubrication is essential.
Grease Lubrication
Greases find much winder application than oils and are suitable in the
majority of bearing where there are no extremes of high temperature or high
speed. Some of the advantages of grease lubrication are:A grease is easier to retain in a bearing housing than oil and the
cleanliness in operation is of importance in textile or foodstuff machinery
where oil stains might be detrimental to the product.
A grease provides an excellent self-sealing device against the entry
of grit and harmful impurities such as might be present in the
environment of, say, cement kilns, quarries or chemical factories.
19

In addition, grease provides an effective and almost permanent protective

coating on the rolling contact elements whereas during idle periods an oil might
tend to drain away and leave the surface dry and exposed to corrosion. From an
economic point of view, grease is a cheap and convenient lubricating medium
due to the infrequent attention and replenishment which grease-lubricated
bearings require.
Viscosity
.
Viscosity, the single most important property of a hydraulic fluid, is a
measure of the sluggishness with which a fluid moves. It can be simply
described as the resistance of the lubricant to flow; more precisely it is the
property by virtue of which a fluid offers resistance to a shearing displacement.
In reality, the ideal viscosity for a given hydraulic system is a
compromise. Too high a viscosity results in:
(a)

High resistance to flow, which causes a sluggish operation.

(b)

Increases power consumption due to frictional losses.

(c)

Increased pressure drop through valves and lines.

(d)

High temperatures caused by friction.

On the other hand if the viscosity is too low, the result is:
(a)

Increased leakage losses past seals.

(b)

Excessive wear due to break down of the oil film between moving

parts.
Viscous Flow
The concept of viscosity can be understood by examining two parallel
plates separated by an oil film of thickness y as shown in Fig 13.

Fig-13. Fluid velocity profile between parallel plates due to viscosity

20

The lower plate is stationary, while the upper plate moves with a velocity
as it is being pushed by a force F as shown. Due to viscosity, the oil adheres
to both surfaces. Thus, the velocity of the layer of fluid in contact with the
lower plate is zero, and the velocity of the layer in contact with the top plate is
. The consequence is a linearly varying velocity profile whose slope is
/ y.
The absolute viscosity, z, of the oil can be represented mathematically:
z =
Shear Stress in oil ()
Slope of the velocity profile ( / y )
The shear stress in the fluid has units of force per unit area and is caused
by the adjacent sliding layers of oil film.
Calculations in hydraulic systems often involves the use of kinematic
viscosity rather that absolute viscosity. Kinematic viscosity (v) equals absolute
viscosity (z) divided by mass density ( ):
v=

Units of Viscosity
Two different units of absolute viscosity in the metric and British
systems are in current use.
Poise. When the shearing force on the moving surface is one
dyne, the wetted area one square centimeter, the relative velocity one
centimeter per second, the unit of viscosity is equal to one poise (named
after the French physicist Poiseuille).
Reyn. When the shearing force is one pound weight, the area
one square inch, the relative velocity one inch per second, the unit of
viscosity is equal to one reyen (name after the English scientist
Reynolds).
Given:

1 reyn = 6.895 x 104 Poise

21

Checking the units for the kinematic viscosity, we find the following two
units:
Stoke.
In metric system, may be written in terms of
cm /sec, and the kinematic viscosity of 1 cm2/sec is called stoke.
2

Newt.
Using the English units, can be given by ft2 /sec, and
the kinematic viscosity of 1 ft2 /sec, is called Newt.
Given:

1 Newt = 6.45 x 104 stokes

Measurement of Viscosity
Many types of viscosimeters (or viscometers), like Rotational, U-tube (or
capillary), Efflux, Saybolt and Redwood Falling Sphere are available but
viscosity is usually measured by a Saybolt Viscosimeter which is schematically
shown in Fig (14). Basically, this device consists of an inner chamber
containing the sample oil to be tested. A separate outer compartment, which
completely surrounds the inner chamber, contains a quantity of oil whose
temperature is controlled by an electrical thermostat and heater. A standard
orifice is located at the bottom of the center oil chamber. When the oil sample
is at the desired temperature, the time it takes to fill a 60-cm3 container through
the metering orifice is then recorded. The time(t), measured in seconds, is the
viscosity of the oil in official units called Saybolt Universal Seconds. Since a
thick liquid flows slowly, the SUS viscosity will be higher than that for a thin
liquid.
An empirical relationship between the viscosity in SUS and the
corresponding metric system units of centistokes(cS) is given as
(cS) = 0.226 t 195 t 100 SUS
t
(cS) = 0.220 t 135 t 100 SUS
t
where represents the viscosity in centistokes and t is measured in SUS
or simply seconds.
22

Fig-14

Saybolt Viscosimeter

Kinematic viscosity ( ) is related to the absolute viscosity (z) as,

(cS) = z(cP)/.
Since in the metric system, mass density equals specific graviy (generally 0.9
for most hydraulic fluids), therefore,
(cS) = z(cP)
0.9

23

A quick method to determine the kinematic and absolute viscosities of fluids is

show in Fig (15).

Fig-15.

Kinematic Viscosimeter

24

This test measures flow through a capillary instrument using gravity flow at
constant temperature. The time in seconds is then multiplied by the calibration
constant for the viscosimeter to obtain the kinematic viscosity of the sample oil
in centistokes. The absolute viscosity can then be calculated by using above
equation.
Absolute Viscosities of Typical Fluids at 68oF (20oC)

The viscosity values of some typical liquids is listed below for the
general awareness of the reader;
Fluid

Abs. Viscosity
(Centi-poise)

Bitumen

105 - 109

Honey

2000

*SAE 50 oil

800

Glycerin

500

SAE 30 oil

300

Olive oil

100

SAE 10 oil

70

Ethylene-glycol

20

Mercury

1.6

Turpentine

1.5

Water

1.0

Petrol

0.6

Ether

0.2

*SAE American Society of Automotive Engineers

Variation of Viscosity with Temperature

The viscosity of all liquids decrease with rise in temperature and this is
particularly apparent with hydrocarbon lubricating oils. The variation in
absolute and kinematic viscosities with temperature for a typical light
lubricating oil (SAE 10W) is shown in Figures (16) & (17) respectively.
25

Fig.

Fig.

16.- Variation of viscosity with temperature for SAE 10W Grade Oil
( Suffix W in SAE 10W sands for winter grade viscosity )

17.- A. S. T. M.
Standard Viscosity Temperature charts for liquid
petroleum products (D 341 43), Kinematic viscosity, high range

This rapid variation in viscosity with temperature is of great importance in

many practical applications where oils are required to function over a wide
temperature range.
Variation of Viscosity with Pressure

Most lubricating oils undergo considerable increase in viscosity when

subjected to high pressure. Many oils become in substance plastic solids at
pressures exceeding 20,000-30,000 psi. Typical examples are the high local
pressures developed when gear teeth mesh and the intense fluid-film pressures
in oil lubricated mechanisms, the components of which are subject to impact.
The manner in which viscosity varies with pressure for SAE 10W grade mineral
oil is illustrated in Fig (18).
26

Fig. 18.- Variation of viscosity with pressure, SAE 10W Oil

Viscosity Index
Oil becomes thicker as the temperature decreases and thins when heated.
Hence the viscosity of the given oil must be expressed at a specified
temperature. For most hydraulic applications, the viscosity normally equals
about 150 SUS at 100oF. It is a general rule of thumb that the viscosity should
never fall below 50 SUS or rise above 4000 SUS regardless of the temperature.
Where extreme temperatures are encountered, the fluid should have a high
viscosity index (VI).
VI is a relative measure of oils viscosity change with respect to
temperature change. An oil having a low VI is one that exhibits a large change
in viscosity with temperature change. A high VI oil is one that has a relatively
stable viscosity which does not change appreciably with temperature change.
The original VI scale ranged from 0 to 100, respecting the poorest to best
characteristics known at that time. Today, with improved refining techniques
and chemical additives, oils exist with VI values well above 100. A high VI oil
is a good all-weather-type out for use with outdoor machines operating in
extreme temperature swings. For the calculation of VI of any hydraulic fluid
see Fig (19).
27

Fig-19, Viscosity Index.

28

VI Improvers
By adding small amounts of extremely viscous polymers to normal-grade
oils it is possible to modify the steepness of the viscosity-temperature curve.
These polymers have relatively greater effects on the viscosity in the high range
than on the viscosity at low temperatures. Consequently, the VI of any type of
oil may be greatly improved. Because of these developments, VI rating is
becoming obsolescent as a means of assessing oils.
It is, however, still of value in expressing the relative change of viscosity
with temperature and in comparing the merits of various oils in specialized
applications, as, for example, in hydraulic systems. For such systems synthetic
oils having a VI of 160 and above are commercially available.
LUBRICATION
The behavior of surfaces is of course profoundly modified if a lubricant
is added to them. We may consider two main types of lubrication:
Fluid or Hydrodynamic Lubrication.
Boundary lubrication which also includes the Extreme pressure
(Extreme Temperature) Lubrication.
The general behavior of these groups can be represented schematically in the
following table.
Type of Lubrication

Coefficient of
Friction
0.001
0.001 0.15
1.0

Fluid
Boundary & Extreme Pressure
Unlubricated Surface

Wear
None
Slight
Heavy

Fluid Lubrication
55. In fluid lubrication the moving surfaces are completely separated by a
continuous film of lubricant and the resistance to motion arises solely from the
viscosity of the lubricant itself.

29

Resistance in a Hydrodynamic Bearing

In case of a journal (the part of a shaft which is in contact with, and
supported by, a bearing) rotating in a bearing (support provided to hold a
revolving shaft in its correct position) some idea of the resistance may be
obtained by assuming that the oil film is of uniform thickness all around the
journal (Fig 20).

Fig-20.

A petroff hydrodynamic bearing in which the oil film is uniform.

If dimensions are in cm and N is RPM, then,

Surface velocity of shaft = (2

r N)/60 cm / sec.

It is generally accepted that there is no slip of the liquid at the solid surfaces so
that the whole of this velocity difference between the shaft and the bearing must
be taken up by shear in the lubricant film. If film is thin, then,
Rate of shear in film = (2

r N)/(60 c),

Which is uniform in its value? According to Newtons law of viscous flow,

shear stress = Rate of shear stress x viscosity
= ( 2 r N z )/(60 c) dynes / cm2
Where z is the viscosity of oil in poises. If the length of the bearing is L, the
area over which this stress operates is 2 rL. Since the resultant viscous force
operates at a distance from the center of the shaft; The Resisting Torque G is
given by:
G = (2

rL){(2

= 4 x2 y3 L
60 c
30

r N z ) / (60 c) }
Nz

For very lightly loaded bearings or for vertically running shafts this
relation gives values which are very close to the observed values of the resisting
torque. However, for loads across the oil film which are not negligible the
bearing cannot run in the central position. For the oil film to possess any loadbearing capacity the journal must rotate eccentrically relative to bearing so that
the lubricant is squeezed through the converging gap between the sufaces and
its velocity increases under these conditions, a hydrodynamic pressure is built
up in the oil wedge and this is sufficient to keep the surfaces completely
separated.
Fig. 21. Pressure distribution (shown
shaded) in oil film for a journal running in a
half bearing convergence in the oil film
loads to a pressure great enough to
support the journal.

Fig. 22. Theoretical curve of

hydrodynamic lubrication between
journal and bearing.

For a journal running in a half bearing the pressure distribution is shown

(Fig 21), and similar results are obtaining for a full bearing. It is seen that the
convergence in the oil film leads to an asymmetric pressure distribution giving
a resultant upward thrust. This could not occur if the journal rotated centrally in
the bearing; the pressure would be zero throughout the film.
We have already seen that for a given journal and bearing the resisting
torque G is proportional to Nz, i.e. G (Nz). Thus if the nominal pressure on
the bearing is P (that is the load divided by the projected area of the bearing),
the effective coefficient of friction is simply a linear function of NZ/P, i.e.
= f ( Nz / P )
31

Another quantity of great importance is the distance of nearest approach

of the journal and bearing. This quantity is also dependent on the parameter
Nz/P. For a journal of diameter, D =1.25 inches, rotating in a bearing of length
L = 1.25 inches. With a diametrical clearance of 0.00125 in, and the distance
of nearest approach are plotted in Fig. 22.
The great advantage of hydrodynamic or fluid lubrication are that there
is, in the ideal case, no wear of the moving parts, and friction is extremely low.
The resistance to motion solely arises from the viscosity of the lubricant.
Clearly, lower the viscosity the lower the viscous resistance. However, there is
a limit to this, for as the viscosity is decreased, the distance of nearest approach
diminishes. If this becomes less than the height of the surface irregularities,
penetration of the hydrodynamic film occurs. For this reason it is customary to
use an oil of viscosity just sufficient to give a distance of nearest approach great
enough to ensure the maintenance of an unbroken hydrodynamic film.
Practical Complications in Fluid Lubrication
Although Reynolds theory (discussed above) remains the basic approach
to problem of hydrodynamic lubrication but practically, one complication arises
from side leakage of the oil; another from the effect of cavitation (the formation
of cavity between the surface of a moving body and a liquid normally in contact
with it) in oil which appears to break up the film into series of separate
filaments.
Apart from these we must take into account the following major factors:The effect of surface roughness.
The effect of pressure on the viscosity of oil: viscosity increase
with pressure.
The effect of temperature on the viscosity of oil: A rise in
temperature of 10% may reduce the viscosity to half its value.
The effect of high rates of shear on viscosity of oil: this often leads
to a decrease in viscosity.
32

These effects are all very difficult to deal with theoretically, but the most
important of these factors is the effect of temperature and much research has
gone into developing additives which reduce the temperature dependence of
viscosity. Development of synthetic lubricants is a result of these efforts.
Oxidation and Corrosion
Oxidation, which is caused by the chemical reaction of oxygen from the
air with particles of oil, can seriously reduce the life of a hydraulic fluid.
Petroleum oils are especially susceptible to oxidation because oxygen readily
unites with both carbon and hydrogen molecules. Most products of oxidation
are soluble in oil and are acidic in nature, which can cause corrosion of parts
throughout the system. The products of oxidation include insoluble gums,
sludge, and varnish which tend to increase the viscosity of the oil.
There are a number of parameters which hasten the rate of oxidation once
it begins. Included among these are heat, pressure, contaminants, water, and
metal surfaces.
However, oxidation is most dramatically affected by
temperature. The rate of oxidation is very slow below 140oF but doubles for
every 20oF temperature rise. Additives are incorporated in many hydraulic oils
to inhibit oxidation. Since this increases the costs, they should be specified only
if necessary, depending on temperature and other environmental conditions.
Rust and corrosion are two different phenomena, although they both
contaminate the system and promote wear. Rust is the chemical reaction
between iron or steel and oxygen. The presence of moisture in the hydraulic
system provides the necessary oxygen. One primary source of moisture is from
atmospheric air which enters the reservoir through the breather cap.
Corrosion, on the other hand is the chemical reaction between a metal
and acid. The result of rusting or corrosion is the eating away of the metal
surfaces of hydraulic components. This can cause excessive leakage past the
sealing surface of the affected parts. Rust and corrosion can be resisted by
incorporating additives on the metal surfaces to prevent chemical reaction.

33

Boundary Lubrication
When sliding surfaces are separated by lubricant films only few
molecules in thickness, the friction is influenced by the nature of the underlying
surface as well as by the chemical constitution of the lubricant. Viscosity plays
a little or no part in the frictional behavior. This type of lubrication is called
Boundary lubrication (or oiliness). The transition from the hydrodynamic to
boundary lubrication may be too gradual. As the sliding speed is decreased or
the load increased, the wedge of lubricant separating the surfaces becomes
thinner and thinner, and the number of surface asperities penetrating the film
becomes greater. The amount of boundary lubrication increases gradually,
while the fluid lubrication decreases. This type of mixed lubrication extends
over a very wide range of experimental conditions.
Cases of Boundary Lubrication
True boundary lubrication can, strictly speaking, only exist when sliding
speeds are so low and contact pressure so high that the existence of loadsupporting hydrodynamic wedge of lubricant are physically impossible. In
journal bearings, for example, boundary friction conditions may develop
whenever the shaft passes through zero speed during starting, stopping or
reversing. The rubbing surfaces of pistons, piston rings, crossheads, machine
tool guides, etc., all operate during part of their motion in the boundary region.
Boundary lubrication is evident in many metal-working processes such as deep
drawing, tube drawing, wire drawing, and metal cutting. Certain types of gears,
notably hypoid gears, operate under conditions of boundary friction.
Boundary Lubricants
All metals are covered with surface films of some kind. These can be
layers of water vapours, oxides, nitrides or sulphides or even dust, grease or
corrosion products. However, a boundary lubricant is defined as a film which is
deliberately introduced between the sliding surfaces and has the following
attributes:
A boundary lubricant must have a low shear strength.
It must adhere readily and firmly to the interacting surfaces.
34

Many animal and vegetable fats and oils possess the properties of
effective boundary lubrication. From industrial point of view, the most
important are:
Stearic acid (lard oil and mutton tallow).
Palmitic acid (cotton seed oil).
Palm oil
Oleric acid (olive oil)
Extreme Pressure (EP) Lubricants
The efficacy of even the best boundary lubricants decreases as the
temperature increases and when they are desorbed (reverse process of
adsorption) the friction and wear are almost as high as in the absence of
lubrication. Furthermore, at very high temperatures ( 250oC and above) the
oxidation of the lubricant may occur and produce harmful products. Hence, for
the surfaces which operate under very severe conditions, more stable protective
films are required, which are provided by EP Lubricants. (This name is
misleading, it would be more appropriate to call them Extreme temperature
lubricants).
Extreme pressure lubricants are a class of lubricants to which certain
active chemicals or chemical groups have been added. These additions are
called EP additives and generally are:Chlorine (chlorinated esters etc).
Sulphur (Sulphurised fats and oils etc).
Phosphorus (tricresyl Phosphate etc).
Through chemical reactions with the metals surfaces these additives form
solid surface films of metallic chlorides, sulphides and probably phosphides.
These boundary films have a relatively low shear strength (e.g. Iron chloride
= 0.2; Iron Sulphide = 0.5) so that rubbing between the interacting surfaces
occurs in additive film and thus protects the underlying metal. Moreover, the
melting points of EP layers are high (e.g. iron chloride 1200oF; iron sulphide
2150oF) so they will remain attached to the base metal even under extreme
conditions.
35

Types of Lubricants
The commonly used lubricants may be divided into the following
categories:Lubricating Oils
Lubricating Greases
Synthetic Lubricants
Solid Lubricants
Sources of Lubricating Oils
Lubricants in the form of vegetable or animal oils and fats, such as
cotton-seed oil, sperm oil and tallow have been used for many thousand years.
But it was not until the second half of the nineteenth century, that the value of
mineral oil as a lubricant was first appreciated. The bulk of lubricating oils
today are made from crude petroleum which is an oily liquid, varying in
appearance from light yellow to black, consisting essentially of hydrocarbons.
Types of Lubricating Oils
The maintenance engineer is interested in the following classifications:Circulating Oils: These are probably the highest-quality
lubricants available today and are obtainable over a wide range of
viscosities, i.e., from around 21 to 550 centi-stokes viscosity at 100oF.
This category includes:
Steam-turbine grade oil.
Hydraulic oils.
Heavy-duty internal-combustion-engine oils.

36

Gear Oils: These may be straight mineral oils of widely ranging

viscosity or compounded oil containing extreme-pressure (EP) additives
to improve the film strength and load-carrying ability. They are suitable
for enclosed gearsets of super, bevel, helical, spiral bevel, herringbone.
Such oils are best suited for average tooth loads and pinion speeds.
Machine or Engine Oils:
They are straight mineral red oils
which are used for general lubrication of external operating parts of
engines, pumps, and compressors.
Hydraulic Oils: Although the prime object of a hydraulic fluid
is to transmit power, a further important requirement is that it should also
possess the qualities of an efficient hydrodynamic and boundary
lubricant. It must lubricate all moving parts particularly those in sliding
contact, to minimize wear. Mineral oils treated with suitable additives
and synthetic types of hydraulic fluids may be used in hydrokinetic
systems for this purpose.
Lubricating Greases
Lubricating greases commonly consist of mineral oils thickened, by the
addition of metallic soaps, to a solid or semi-solid consistency. Sometimes
fatty or synthetic oils are used instead of mineral oils. The metallic soap is
normally obtained from animal or vegetable fats mixed with a suitatable alkali,
a calcium (lime) or sodium (soda). Lithium, aluminum, lead or barium may
also be used for special purposes. Today precision manufacture is so fine and
seals are so perfect that life time lubrication in bearing is practicable.
Furthermore, greases are available which will function over very wide range of
temperature. They are also able to exclude moisture, dust, corrosive gases, etc.
particularly, in ball or roller bearing.

37

Synthetic Lubricants
Synthetic lubricants are oily liquids which are not found naturally or not
produced directly during the normal manufacturing and refining processes of
the petroleum industry. However, most synthetics have some properties similar
to the petroleum-based lubricants and many are hydrocarbons which have
undergone a specific synthesis.
Industrial Synthetics
The most important specific chemical classes of compounds, which have
been found to have useful lubricating functions are:Esters Dibasic acid esters, Organo-phosphate esters.
Silicons
Silicate esters
Hydrocarbons Chlorinated and fluorinated hydrocarbons

(Esters are derivatives of acids, obtained by exchange of replaceable

hydrogen for alkyl radicals, with fruity smell)
Characteristics of Synthetics
The most compelling reasons for using synthetics are listed below:
They work over a greatly extended range of temperature.
They exhibit thermal stability, oxidation resistance, hydrolysis
resistance, rust preventive qualities and fire resistance properties.
Many of them are excellent solvents for Viscosity Index (VI)
improvers, oxidation inhibitors and rust inhibitors.
Certain synthetics possess a high degree of natural detergency and
act as scavenging agent for dirt and fuel deposits.
They are much costlier as compared to the petroleum products.
38

Applications of Synthetics
The synthetics are finding increasing use in:Hot running bearings.
Heavily loaded high speed gears, and
Jet turbines.
Solid Lubricants
The modern engineering mechanisms, especially those applied to the
fields of nuclear power, aviation and ballistic missiles, are required to operate
over a very wide temperature range (from -50oF to 700oF ). It is very difficult
to meet these requirements from lubricants based on organic fluids, particularly
from the point of view of chemical stability at very high temperatures or in
cases where inaccessible bearing mechanisms are required to function
intermittently. To satisfy these exacting demands, solid lubricants have been
developed.
A solid lubricant may be broadly defined as a material which
permanently retains its solid sate when interposed between mutually sliding
surfaces and which facilitates sliding entirely within the confines of the
lubricant layer.
Types of Solid Lubricants
Some of the commonly used types of slid lubricants are:Boron Nitride.
Graphite.
Mica.
Talc.

39

Metal working Lubricants

The principal metal working processes are machining or grinding, deep
drawing, wire drawing, rolling, extrusion, stamping and blanking, moulding and
forging. All these processes require the use of lubricants or coolants in one
form or other to facilitate the required mechanical changes and to ensure an
acceptable product.
Constituents of Metal Working Lubricants
The principal constituents of metal-working lubricants are:
Water
Mineral oils
Fatty oils and fatty acids
Waxes
Soaps
Extreme Pressure additives
Mineral solids
Synthetics

40

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Frication and Lubrication,
F.P. Bowden and D. Tabor (1960), Methuen & co Ltd London.
Lubrication and Friction,
Peter Freeman (1962), Pitman & Sons Ltd London.
Preventive Maintenance,
Petroman Course Manual.
Basic Lubrication Theory,
Alastair Cameron (1980), Ellis horwood Ltd. Chicester.
Fluid Power With Applicaton,
Anthony Esposio (1980), Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey.

41