Beam Ledge PDF

Copyright
by
Eulalio Fernandez Gomez
2012
The Dissertation Committee for Eulalio Fernandez Gomez Certifies that this is the
approved version of the following dissertation:
Design Criteria for Strength and Serviceability of Inverted-T

Straddle Bent Caps
Committee:
Wassim M. Ghannoum, Co-Supervisor

Oguzhan Bayrak, Co-Supervisor
James O. Jirsa
Sharon L. Wood
Ofodike A. Ezekoye

Straddle Bent Caps
by
Eulalio Fernandez Gomez, I.C., M.S.E.
Dissertation
Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of
The University of Texas at Austin
in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
The University of Texas at Austin

August 2012
Dedication
To my wife, Perla,
for all your love, support, and encouragement.
Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I would like to thank my advising professors, Dr. Wassim
Ghannoum and Dr. Oguzhan Bayrak, for all your continuous guidance and constructive
criticism. The many lessons I learned from you go far beyond engineering and research.
Many thanks are also extended to Dr. James O. Jirsa, Dr. Sharon L. Wood, and Dr.
Ofodike A. Ezekoye for serving in the doctoral committee, greatly improving the quality
of this dissertation.
I owe huge thanks to my project team mates David Garber and Nancy Larson,
whose dedication and determination made possible to accomplish as much as we did. It
has been a great pleasure to work with you. Thanks also to all the helping hands who
built those beams with us along these three years on the lab floor: Michelle Wilkinson,
Laura Chimelski, Daniel Bejarano, Allison Lehman, Alexander Pea, Michael
Weyenberg, and Michael Carrell. Also thanks to the many fellow students who helped us
pouring concrete in multiple occasions.
This project was possible thanks to the financial support provided by the Texas
Department of Transportation. I would like to thank our project director Jamie Farris and
our monitoring committee: Dean Van Landuyt, Courtney Holle, Glenn Yowell, Mike
Stroope, Nicholas Nemec, Roger Lopez, and Duncan Stewart, for all their valuable
contributions.
Thanks are due to the staff of the Ferguson Laboratory: Blake Stasney, Dennis
Fillip, Barbara Howard, Jessica Hanten, Scott Hammock, Eric Schell, and Mike Wason,
who ensured that things run smoothly in the lab. Particularly, I would like to thank
Andrew Valentine who put a lot of effort into these beams.
Finally, I would like to thank my parents and wife for your unconditional love,
support, and example. This accomplishment is yours as much as it is mine.
vi

Straddle Bent Caps
Eulalio Fernandez Gomez, Ph.D.
The University of Texas at Austin, 2012
Supervisors: Wassim M. Ghannoum, Oguzhan Bayrak
Several recently built inverted-T bent caps in Texas have shown significant
inclined cracking triggering concern about current design procedures for such structures.
The repair of such structures is very costly and often requires lane closures. For these
reasons TxDOT funded Project 0-6416 aimed at obtaining a better understanding of the
structural behavior of inverted-T bent caps and developing new design criteria to
minimize such cracking in the future. Several tasks of the aforementioned project are
addressed in this dissertation with particular focus on developing design criteria for
strength and serviceability of inverted-T bent caps.
Literature review revealed a scarcity of experimental investigation of inverted-T
specimens. As part of this dissertation, an inverted-T database was assembled with
experimental results from the literature and the current project. An extensive
experimental program was completed to accomplish the objectives of the project with
thirty one full-scale tests conducted on inverted-T beams. Experimental parameters
varied in the study were: ledge length, ledge depth, web reinforcement, number of point
loads, web depth, and shear span-to-depth ratio. The dissertation focuses on the effects of
ledge length, ledge depth, number of point loads, and developing design criteria for
strength and serviceability of inverted-T beams.
vii
Most inverted-T bent caps in Texas are designed using the traditional empirical
design procedures outlined in the TxDOT bridge design manual LRFD (2011 current
version) that follows closely the AASHTO LRFD bridge design specifications (2012
current version). Given the observed cracking in inverted-T bent caps, the accuracy and
conservatism of the traditional design methods were evaluated based on experimental
results. The accuracy and conservatism of STM design provisions recently developed in a
TxDOT study (TxDOT Project 0-5253, Strength and Serviceability Design of Reinforced
Concrete Deep Beams) were also evaluated.
viii
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................1
1.1
Overview .....................................................................................................1
1.2
Project Scope ..................................................................................................2
1.3
Organization ....................................................................................................3
CHAPTER 2 BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON DESIGN AND BEHAVIOR OF

INVERTED-T DEEP BEAMS .............................................................................5
2.1
Overview .....................................................................................................5
2.2
Field Problems ................................................................................................5
2.3
Background on Inverted-T Bent Caps ............................................................8

2.3.1 Inverted-T Beams vs. Rectangular Beams .............................................9
2.3.2 Components of an Inverted-T Beam ....................................................10
2.3.3 Strut-and-Tie Modeling of Inverted-T Bent Caps ...............................11
2.4
Inverted-T Design Provisions .......................................................................16

2.4.1 Inverted-T Beam Design Provisions of AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications, 2012 .............................................................................16
2.4.2 Inverted-T Beam Design Provisions of TxDOT Bridge Design Manual
LRFD, 2011 .........................................................................................24
2.4.3 Strut-and-Tie Modeling Provisions of TxDOT Project 5253 ..............27
2.5
Strut-and-Tie Modeling of Inverted-T Beams According to TxDOT Project

5253 Provisions.............................................................................................31
2.5.1 Outline of Strut-and-tie Modeling of Inverted-T Bent Caps ...............31
2.6
Inverted-T deep beam database ....................................................................36

2.6.1 Collection database ..............................................................................37
2.6.2 Filtered database ..................................................................................37
2.6.3 Evaluation database .............................................................................38
2.6.4 Database summary ...............................................................................38
ix
2.7
Summary ...................................................................................................40
CHAPTER 3 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM ............................................................41

3.1
Overview ...................................................................................................41
3.2
Testing Program ............................................................................................41

3.2.1 Nomenclature .......................................................................................43
3.2.2 Overview of Test Specimens ...............................................................45
3.2.3 Test Series ............................................................................................49
3.2.3.1
Shear span-to-depth ratio ................................................49
3.2.3.2
Series I: Ledge Length ....................................................50
3.2.3.3
Series II: Ledge Depth.....................................................55
3.2.3.4
Series III: Web Reinforcement Ratio ..............................59
3.2.3.5
Series IV: Number of Point Loads ..................................61
3.2.3.6
Series V: Loaded Chord ..................................................62
3.2.3.7
Series VI: Web Depth .....................................................63
3.3
Specimen Design ..........................................................................................64
3.4
Fabrication of Specimens ..............................................................................71

3.4.1 Steel Reinforcement Properties............................................................71
3.4.2 Concrete Properties ..............................................................................73
3.4.3 Construction of Specimens ..................................................................75
3.5
Test Setup..................................................................................................77
3.5.1 Strain Measurements ............................................................................78
3.5.2 Load and Displacement Measurements ...............................................81
3.5.3 Crack Width Measurements .................................................................82
3.6
Tests Procedure .............................................................................................83
3.7
Summary ...................................................................................................85
CHAPTER 4 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ..............................................................86

4.1
Overview ...................................................................................................86
4.2
Summary of Experimental Results ...............................................................86

4.2.1 Evaluation of Strength Data .................................................................90
4.2.2 Evaluation of Serviceability Data ........................................................92
4.3
Applicability of 45-Degree Load Spread ......................................................93
4.4
Series I: Ledge Length ..................................................................................96

4.4.1 Experimental Results ...........................................................................97
4.4.2 Strength Results ...................................................................................98
4.4.3 Serviceability Results.........................................................................102
4.4.4 TxDOT 5253 STM Design Provisions ..............................................105
4.4.5 Summary of Series I: Ledge Length ..................................................107
4.5
Series II: Ledge Depth ................................................................................107

4.5.1 Experimental Results .........................................................................107
4.5.2 Strength Results .................................................................................108
4.5.4 TxDOT 5253 STM design provisions................................................115
4.5.5 Summary of Series II: Ledge Depth ..................................................117
4.6
Series IV: Number of Point Loads ..............................................................117

4.6.1 Experimental Results .........................................................................118
4.6.2 Strength Results .................................................................................119
4.6.4 TxDOT 5253 STM design provisions................................................125
4.6.5 Summary of Series IV: Number of Point Loads ................................127
xi
4.7
Summary .................................................................................................127
CHAPTER 5 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS .................................................................130

5.1
Overview .................................................................................................130
5.2
Evaluation of Design Provisions .................................................................130

5.2.1 Failure Modes ....................................................................................131
5.2.2 Maximum Strength ............................................................................133
5.2.2.1
Effects of Number of Point Loads.................................135
5.2.2.2
Effects of Ledge Geometry ...........................................142
5.2.3 Summary ............................................................................................144

5.3
Serviceability Evaluation ............................................................................144

5.3.1 First Diagonal Cracking under Service Loads ...................................145
5.3.2 Crack Width Control ..........................................................................152
5.3.3 Summary ............................................................................................159
5.4
STM Application for Inverted-T Beams .....................................................160

5.4.1 Geometric Layout of Strut-and-Tie Models for Inverted-T Beams ...160
5.4.2 Ledge Depth and Cantilever Projection .............................................167
5.4.3 STM Conservatism for Long Ledges .................................................168
5.5
Design Recommendations ..........................................................................170

5.5.1 Ledge Geometry.................................................................................170
5.5.2 Strength Design..................................................................................171
5.5.3 Serviceability .....................................................................................172
5.6
Summary .................................................................................................172
CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS .....................................................174

6.1
Summary .................................................................................................174
6.2
Conclusions .................................................................................................175
6.2.1 Applicability of 45-Degree Load Spread Under Ledge Loads ..........175
6.2.2 Ledge Length Effects .........................................................................176
xii
6.2.3 Ledge Depth Effects ..........................................................................176

6.2.4 Number of Point Loads Effects..........................................................176
6.2.5 Comparison Sectional Shear Provisions vs. STM provisions............176
6.3
Design Recommendations ..........................................................................176

6.3.1 Strength Design.........................................................................176
6.3.2 Serviceability ............................................................................177
6.3.3 Detailing....................................................................................177
APPENDIX A COLLECTION DATABASE REFERENCES ....................................178

APPENDIX B EXPERIMENTAL SPECIMENS DETAILS .......................................180
B.1 Overview .................................................................................................180
APPENDIX C DESIGN EXAMPLE ......................................................................201
C.1 Overview .................................................................................................201
APPENDIX D TESTS SUMMARY ........................................................................219
D.1 Overview .................................................................................................219
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................251
VITA. ....................................................................................................................253
xiii
List of Tables
Table 2-1: Crack width summary of bent caps in service ................................................... 7
Table 2-2: TxDOT Project 5-5253-01 concrete efficiency factors, v ............................... 27
Table 2-3: Database assembly .......................................................................................... 39
Table 3-1: Testing program .............................................................................................. 46
Table 3-2: Series I: Ledge length ...................................................................................... 55
Table 3-3: Series II: Ledge depth...................................................................................... 59
Table 3-4: Series III: Web reinforcement ratio ................................................................. 61
Table 3-5: Series IV: number of point loads ..................................................................... 62
Table 3-6: Series V: Loaded chord ................................................................................... 63
Table 3-7: Series VI: Web depth ...................................................................................... 64
Table 3-8: Capacity / demand design ratios using the STM TxDOT 5253 provisions..... 68
Table 3-9: Capacity / demand design ratios using the TxDOT LRFD provisions............ 69
Table 3-10: Capacity / demand design ratios using the AASHTO LRFD provisions ...... 70
Table 3-11: Mean yield stress of reinforcement ............................................................... 72
Table 3-12: Typical concrete mixture proportions for a specified 28-day compressive
strength of 3000 psi................................................................................................... 73
Table 3-13: Mean compressive strengths at testing day ................................................... 74
Table 4-1: Summary of experimental results .................................................................... 88
Table 4-2: Series I experimental results............................................................................ 98
Table 4-3: Series II experimental results ........................................................................ 108
Table 4-4: Series IV experimental results ....................................................................... 119
Table 5-1: Vtest / Vpred results for STM 5253 and AASHTO/TxDOT LRFD provisions 131
Table 5-2: Overall accuracy of inverted-T provisions .................................................... 134
Table 5-3: Test specimens with a/d ratios of 2.50 .......................................................... 137
Table 5-4: Test specimens with a/d ratio of 1.85 ............................................................ 138
Table 5-5: Test specimens with a/d ratio of 1.85 and multiple loading points ............... 139
Table 5-6: Range of experimental / predicted shear strength results .............................. 144
xiv
Table 5-7: Specimens in first diagonal cracking evaluation ........................................... 146

Table 5-8: Crack width evaluation specimens ................................................................ 156
Table 5-9: Strength estimations considering the effects of ledge confinement .............. 170
xv
List of Figures
Figure 2-1: IH-35 S. Exit 165 / San Antonio, TX; left: north face, right: south face ......... 7
Figure 2-2: Simply supported bent cap in IH-35 / LP 340, Waco, TX. .............................. 8
Figure 2-3: Partial moment connection bent cap in I-10/Geronimo, El Paso, TX.............. 8
Figure 2-4: Left: (a) rectangular bent cap, (b) inverted-T bent cap; right: flow path of
forces in strut-and-tie models: (c) compression-chord loaded beam, (d) tensionchord loaded beam ...................................................................................................... 9
Figure 2-5: (a) CCC node in compression-chord loaded beam, (b) CCT node in tensionchord loaded beam ...................................................................................................... 9
Figure 2-6: Inverted-T bent caps main components ......................................................... 10
Figure 2-7: Longitudinal elevation of an inverted-T bent cap with discontinuous ledges 11
Figure 2-8: Inverted-T and rectangular cross sections ...................................................... 11
Figure 2-9: Stress trajectories in deep beams (Adapted from Birrcher, et al. 2009) ........ 12
Figure 2-10: Idealized strut-and-tie model of an inverted-T deep beam .......................... 12
Figure 2-11: Addition of hanger forces to shear forces in inverted-T strut-and-tie models
................................................................................................................................... 13
Figure 2-12: a/d influence on strut-and-tie models; left: direct strut model, right: multiple
panel model, bottom: transition zone model ............................................................. 14
Figure 2-13: Strut-and-tie model of an inverted-T bent cap; top: tri-dimensional model,
center: cross-sectional models, bottom: longitudinal model..................................... 15
Figure 2-14: Notation and potential crack locations for ledge beams (AASHTO, 2012) 17
Figure 2-15: Design of beam ledges for shear (AASHTO, 2012) .................................... 18
Figure 2-16: Notation (AASHTO, 2012) .......................................................................... 19
Figure 2-17: Design of beam ledges for flexure and horizontal force (AASHTO, 2012) 19
Figure 2-18: Single-ledge hanger reinforcement (AASHTO, 2012) ................................ 21
Figure 2-19: Inverted-T beam hanger reinforcement (AASHTO, 2012) .......................... 21
Figure 2-20: Design of beam ledges for punching shear (AASHTO, 2012) .................... 22
Figure 2-21: Determination of A2 (AASHTO, 2012) ...................................................... 24
Figure 2-22: Clarification of terms Av and Ah (TxDOT, 2001) ...................................... 26
xvi
Figure 2-23: Node efficiency factors (Williams, 2011) .................................................... 28

Figure 2-24: Available development length for ties (Williams, 2011) ............................. 29
Figure 2-25: Bend radius for curved bars at nodes (Williams, 2011) ............................... 30
Figure 2-26: Length of bend of curved bars at nodes (Williams, 2011) ........................... 31
Figure 2-27: Loads and reactions acting on inverted-T bent cap...................................... 31
Figure 2-28: Hanger tie widths ......................................................................................... 32
Figure 2-29: Widths of compression and tension chords.................................................. 32
Figure 2-30: Development of strut and tie model ............................................................. 33
Figure 2-31: Truss forces in longitudinal model............................................................... 33
Figure 2-32: Forces in cross-sectional models.................................................................. 34
Figure 2-33: Proportion steel in ties to satisfy factored truss forces................................. 35
Figure 2-34: Load spread area for ledge reinforcement.................................................... 35
Figure 2-35: Summary of beam proportions for specimens with shear failures (n = 96);
bw = web width, d = effective web depth ................................................................. 37
Figure 2-36: Sources of inverted-T database .................................................................... 39
Figure 3-1: Specimen cross-sections to scale ................................................................... 42
Figure 3-2: Specimen nomenclature ................................................................................. 43
Figure 3-3: Definition for vertical and horizontal web reinforcement ratios.................... 45
Figure 3-4: Typical specimen geometries ......................................................................... 47
Figure 3-5: Typical reinforcement details......................................................................... 48
Figure 3-6: Free body and shear diagrams for a specimen subjected to three point loads 49
Figure 3-7: Ledge lengths ................................................................................................. 51
Figure 3-8: Flow path of forces in strut-and-tie models; (a) compression-chord loaded
beam, (b) tension-chord loaded beam ....................................................................... 52
Figure 3-9: (a) Compression-chord loaded beam, (b) tension-chord loaded beam
highlighting in red the tension field induced by the bottom loading ........................ 52
Figure 3-10: Effect of ledge length on tie width; (a) short ledge, (b) cut-off ledge ......... 53
Figure 3-11: Ledge length effect on support region; (a) short ledge, (b) long ledge ........ 54
Figure 3-12: hle / h ratios of distressed bent caps in service in Texas.............................. 56
xvii
Figure 3-13: Load spreading in specimens with: (a) deep ledge and (b) shallow ledge ... 57
Figure 3-14: Inclination angle of ledge strut..................................................................... 57
Figure 3-15: Ledge Depths; (a) Deep Ledge, (b) Shallow Ledge (Garber 2011) ............. 58
Figure 3-16: Web reinforcement ratios; (a) #5 @ 5 on center at each face with
v =
h = 0.006, (b) #4 @ 6.5 on center at each face with v = h = 0.003 .................. 60

Figure 3-17: (a) One point load specimen, (b) three point load specimen ....................... 62
Figure 3-18: Strut-and-tie model, web-shear critical elements ......................................... 65
Figure 3-19: Location of critical elements for design ....................................................... 67
Figure 3-20: Fabrication of Specimens; (a) cage assembly and instrumentation, (b) cage
being moved to casting area, (c) re-bar cage in the steel formwork, (d) placing of
concrete (e) internal vibrators, (f) screeding, (g) top surface finishing (from Garber
2011) ......................................................................................................................... 76
Figure 3-21: Test setup ..................................................................................................... 78
Figure 3-22: Typical location of strain gauges in longitudinal section; ........................... 79
Figure 3-23: Strain gauges in hanger and ledge reinforcements; (a) longitudinal section,
(b) cross section ........................................................................................................ 79
Figure 3-24: Strain gauge installation; (a) grind off bar deformations, (b) glue strain
gauges to steel bar, (c) isolate with butyl tape and foil tape, (d) seal ends with
electrical tape ............................................................................................................ 80
Figure 3-25: Load cell arrangement at supports ............................................................... 81
Figure 3-26: Location of linear potentiometers ................................................................ 82
Figure 3-27: Linear potentiometers at the loading point and mid-span ............................ 82
Figure 3-28: Crack width measurement ............................................................................ 83
Figure 3-29: Three point loads, testing procedure; (a) test # 1, (b) test #2 - after repair . 84
Figure 4-1: Determination of specimen shear strength, Vtest ............................................ 91
Figure 4-2: Visual and gauge-based determination of Vcrack (Garber 2011) ..................... 92
Figure 4-3: Typical crack width progression .................................................................... 93
Figure 4-4: 45-degree load spread; (top) short ledge, (bottom) cut-off ledge .................. 94
xviii
Figure 4-5: Typical hanger strains at failure (specimen 15a: DC3-42-1.85-03); three
point load test, short and cut-off ledge...................................................................... 95
Figure 4-6: Typical hanger strains at failure (specimen 16a: SS1-42-2.50-03); one point
load test, shallow ledge ............................................................................................. 96
Figure 4-7: Series I: Ledge Length: comparisons of Vtest normalized by fc bw d .......... 100
Figure 4-8: Series I: Ledge Length: comparisons of Vtest normalized by
........ 101
Figure 4-9: Series I: Ledge Length: comparisons of Vcrack normalized by
....... 103
Figure 4-10: Series I: Ledge Length: comparisons of crack width progression ............. 104
Figure 4-11: Series I: Ledge Length: comparisons of Vtest / Vpred .................................. 106
Figure 4-12: Series II: Ledge Depth: comparisons of Vtest normalized by fc bw d ........ 110
Figure 4-13: Series II: Ledge Depth: comparisons of Vtest normalized by
....... 111
Figure 4-14: Series II: Ledge Depth: comparisons of Vcrack normalized by
..... 113
Figure 4-15: Series II: Ledge Depth: comparisons of crack width progression ............. 114
Figure 4-16: Series II: Ledge Depth: comparisons Vtest / Vpred ....................................... 116
Figure 4-17: Deep and slender beams as classified per AASHTO Art. 5.6.3.1.............. 118
Figure 4-18: Series IV: Number of Point Loads: comparisons of Vtest normalized by
.................................................................................................................... 120
.................................................................................................................... 121
Figure 4-20: Series IV: Number of Point Loads: comparisons of Vcrack normalized by
.................................................................................................................... 123
Figure 4-21: Series IV: Number of Point Loads: comparisons of crack width progression
................................................................................................................................. 124
Figure 4-22: Series IV: Number of Point Loads: comparisons Vtest / Vpred..................... 126
Figure 5-1: Range of experimental / calculated strengths from the experimental program
................................................................................................................................. 134
Figure 5-2: AASHTO a/d limit for sectional shear design ............................................. 135
Figure 5-3: Test specimens with a/d ratios of 2.50 ......................................................... 137
Figure 5-4: Test specimens with a/d ratio of 1.85 .......................................................... 138
xix
Figure 5-5: Test specimens with a/d ratio of 1.85 and multiple loading points.............. 139
Figure 5-6: Deep beam-sectional shear limit .................................................................. 141
Figure 5-7: STM and LRFD strength predictions for different ledge lengths ................ 142
Figure 5-8: STM and LRFD strength predictions for different ledge depths ................. 143
Figure 5-9: Types of cracks in inverted-T deep beams................................................... 145
Figure 5-10: Effect of section size on diagonal cracking load of inverted-T beams ...... 147
Figure 5-11: Effect of concrete tensile strength on diagonal cracking load of inverted-T
beams ...................................................................................................................... 147
Figure 5-12: Effect of a/d ratio on diagonal cracking load of inverted-T beams ........... 148
Figure 5-13: Effect of longitudinal reinforcement on diagonal cracking load of invertedT beams with similar cross-section size.................................................................. 148
Figure 5-14: Diagonal cracking strength results and prediction for rectangular deep
beams (adapted from Bircher, et al 2008). .............................................................. 150
Figure 5-15: Measured diagonal cracking forces for different ledge configurations from
the experimental program ....................................................................................... 150
Figure 5-16: Ledge length effect on diagonal cracking load .......................................... 151
Figure 5-17: Ledge depth effect on diagonal cracking load ........................................... 152
Figure 5-18: Service load level estimation (Birrcher, et al., 2008)................................. 154
Figure 5-19: Typical crack width progression plot ......................................................... 154
Figure 5-20: Crack width data for specimens with a/d=1.85 .......................................... 157
Figure 5-21: Crack width data for specimens with a/d=2.50 .......................................... 158
Figure 5-22: Crack width data for all specimens with serviceability criteria ................. 159
Figure 5-23: Width variation in bottle-shape struts ........................................................ 162
Figure 5-24: Hanger and intermediate tie strains at various loading stages for specimen
16a: SS1-42-2.50-03 ............................................................................................... 164
Figure 5-25: Hanger and intermediate tie strains at various loading stages for specimen
19a: DS1-42-2.50-06/03 ......................................................................................... 165
Figure 5-26: Horizontal ledge-tie strains at various loading stages for specimen 16a:
SS1-42-2.50-03 ....................................................................................................... 166
xx
Figure 5-27: Horizontal ledge-tie strains at various loading stages for specimen 15a:
DC3-42-1.85-03 ...................................................................................................... 167
Figure 5-28: Typical cross-sectional models for 42-in. specimens with deep ledges and
75-in. specimens with shallow ledges ..................................................................... 168
Figure 5-29: Application of frustum area to calculate the confinement factor ............... 168
Figure 5-30: Perspective view of test setup with a long-ledge specimen ....................... 169
xxi
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
1.1
OVERVIEW
Diagonal web cracking of recently built inverted-T straddle bent caps has been
reported with increasing frequency in Texas, triggering concerns about current design
procedures for such elements. To address the concerns, the Texas Department of
Transportation (TxDOT) funded project 0-6416 with objectives of obtaining a better
understanding of the behavior of inverted-T beams and developing strength and
serviceability design criteria that will minimize such cracking in the future. This
dissertation reports on part of the work that was done within project 0-6416.
Inverted-T straddle bent caps are beam elements to which loads are applied at
ledges at the bottom of the section (bottom- or tension-chord loading). Loads need to be
transferred in the transverse direction from the ledges to the web, then vertically to the
compression chord, and finally in the longitudinal direction to the supports. This threedimensional flow of forces in addition to the deep beam loading conditions commonly
encountered in bent caps generates stress discontinuities that have been traditionally
designed for using empirical equations and rules of thumb. In the past two decades, US
structural design codes have adopted strut-and-tie modeling as a more rational option for
the design of deep beams and other structures with discontinuities like the ones present in
inverted-T bent caps.
Most inverted-T bent caps in Texas are designed using the traditional empirical
design procedures outlined in the TxDOT bridge design manual LRFD (2011 current
version) that follows closely the AASHTO LRFD bridge design specifications (2012
current version). Given the observed cracking in inverted-T bent caps, it was the intent of
this work to investigate the accuracy and conservatism of the traditional design methods.
It was also the intent of the work presented to investigate the accuracy and conservatism
of STM procedures for inverted-T beams. Of particular interest were the STM design
provisions recently developed in a TxDOT study (TxDOT Project 0-5253, Strength and
Serviceability Design of Reinforced Concrete Deep Beams). These provisions provided
several improvements on the AASHTO (2012) STM procedures, but were developed
using rectangular beam test data.
Due to scarcity of experimental investigations on inverted-T beams, a
comprehensive experimental program was undertaken as part of project 0-6416 to assess
the accuracy and validity of traditional design methods and the STM design guidelines of
project 0-5253 when used for the design of inverted-T beams.
1.2
PROJECT SCOPE
In order to accomplish the objectives mentioned above, the following tasks are
addressed in TxDOT project 0-6416:

1. Literature review
2. Inverted-T database
3. Examination of bent caps in the field
4. Experimental research on strength and serviceability of inverted-T beams.
Experimental parameters include:
i.
Ledge length
ii.
Ledge depth
iii.
Web reinforcement ratio
iv.
Number of point loads
v.
Loaded chord
vi.
Web depth
5. Development of design recommendations

6. Proof testing of the proposed design recommendations
The scope of this dissertation includes the work done in the literature review,
inverted-T database assembly, experimental research on ledge length, ledge depth, and
number of point loads series, as well as the development of the design recommendations.
Assembly of the inverted-T database produced 128 tests from the literature.
However, most of the tests were either not applicable to the inclined cracking focus of
this project or conducted on beams drastically smaller than the bent caps in service in
Texas. Moreover, very limited serviceability information regarding diagonal crack widths
was available in the literature. It was therefore deemed necessary to conduct a
comprehensive experimental program of full-scale inverted-T beam specimens to achieve
project goals.
Thirty one full-scale tests were conducted with some of the specimens measuring
among the largest reinforced concrete deep beams ever tested to determine shear
capacity.
Based on the results of the experimental series treated in this dissertation, design
recommendations for strength of inverted-T beams were developed and are presented in
the dissertation. Serviceability criteria for minimizing diagonal cracking in inverted-T
beams under service loads were developed based on test results of the series treated in
this dissertation.
The accuracy of the inverted-T design provisions in AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specification (2012) and TxDOT Bridge Design Manual LRFD (2011) is
compared with that of the STM provisions of TxDOT project 5253.
Additional tasks and design series not covered in this dissertation will be
presented in the final report of TxDOT project 0-6416 and another dissertation.
Additional tasks not covered include the evaluation of distressed bents caps in service,
and correlation of crack widths with beam residual capacity. Additional test series not
discussed in this dissertation focus on the effects of web reinforcement ratios, web depth,
and loaded chord on the behavior of inverted-T beams.
1.3
ORGANIZATION
Four topics are addressed in Chapter 2. First, a general description of the
distressed bent caps in service is presented. Second, some background information on

design and behavior of inverted-T bent caps is discussed. Third, current design provisions
for inverted-T beams from AASHTO LRFD Code, TxDOT bridge design manual, and
TxDOT project 5253 are summarized. Fourth, the assembly of the inverted-T database
from the literature is summarized.
In chapter 3, the experimental program is described in detail; an overview of the
specimens is provided, a description of the six experimental series is provided, design
and fabrication of the specimens is presented, the test setup and instrumentation is
described, and finally the test procedure is outlined.
Experimental results are presented in chapter 4. Criteria for strength and
serviceability evaluation are detailed. The design assumption for load spread under the
loading plates is verified with measured strains of hanger reinforcements. Comparisons of
strength, crack progression, and performance of STM provisions are presented for the
three experimental series covered in this dissertation.
Analysis of the experimental results is provided in Chapter 5. Comparisons
between traditional and STM design methods are made. An analysis of the failure modes
is provided along with strength and serviceability design recommendations.
Findings from the experimental program are summarized in Chapter 6 and
conclusions for each of the topics addressed in the dissertation are presented.
Appendix A presents the references from which the inverted-T database was
compiled. Detailed drawings of the specimens fabricated in the experimental portion of
this project are provided in Appendix B. Detailed designs for one of the experimental
specimens is provided in Appendix C. A brief description of each test conducted within
this project is provided in Appendix D along with some basic information and
particularities of atypical tests.
CHAPTER 2
Background Information on Design and Behavior of
Inverted-T Deep Beams
2.1
OVERVIEW
Four topics are addressed in this chapter. First, several cases of distressed
inverted-T bent caps in service in Texas are presented. Next, background information on
inverted-T beams behavior and strut-and-tie modeling for these members is provided.
Then, design provisions for inverted-T beams from the AASHTO LRFD code, TxDOT
bridge design manual, and TxDOT project 5253 are summarized. Finally, an inverted-T
deep beam database is described; tests included in this database contain results from the
literature review and from the experimental program of this study.
2.2
FIELD PROBLEMS
Several recently built inverted-T caps in Texas have shown significant inclined
cracking triggering concern about current design procedures for such structures. For this
reason TxDOT funded Project 0-6416 aimed at obtaining a better understanding of the
structural behavior of inverted-T bent caps and developing new design criteria to
minimize/eliminate such cracking in the future. As part of the aforementioned project,
this dissertation focuses on the effects of ledge geometry and number of point loads on
strength and serviceability of inverted-T beams.
One of the tasks of this project was to conduct a thorough inspection of the
distressed bent caps in service. In general, the measured crack widths were small ( 0.016
in.) posing only aesthetic and durability concerns, but in some cases, like the bent in El
Paso, diagonal crack widths measured up to 0.040 in. In all cases, observed cracking
patterns on both faces of the distressed bent caps were symmetric about the longitudinal
axis of the beams indicating web-shear deficiencies rather than torsional deficiencies.
While cracking is expected in reinforced concrete, the crack widths observed in some
caps suggest structural deficiencies that must be investigated. It is therefore important to

obtain a better understanding of the inverted-T bent cap behavior to determine the causes
of cracking and to adequately evaluate the severity of the problem. A summary of the
results from inspections of the bent caps is provided in Table 2-1. Maximum diagonal
crack widths of the inspected bent caps varied between 0.010 and 0.040 in. Vertical
reinforcement ratios ranged from 0.0043 to 0.0057 and horizontal reinforcement ratios
from 0.0019 to 0.0037. Shear span-to-depth ratio is presented, defining the shear span as
the distance between centers of the reaction and the concentrated load closest to that
reaction (consistent with ACI 318-11).
Table 2-1: Crack width summary of bent caps in service

Bent
Connection
type
a/d
Max diagonal
crack width(in)
Austin IH-35 / TX-290

Bent 3M
Simply
supported
0.0043
0.0037
1.40
0.020

Bent 6K
Simply
supported
0.0043
0.0037
1.68
0.016

Bent 28K
Simply
supported
0.0043
0.0037
1.40
0.030
San Antonio IH-35 S

Exit 165
Fixed or
Partial
Not
Not
available available
1.76
0.015
El Paso IH-10 / Geronimo

Partialy fixed 0.0057
Bent 4
0.0019
2.31
0.040
El Paso IH-10 / Geronimo

Partialy fixed 0.0057
Bent 5
0.0019
3.98
0.020
Waco IH-35 / LP 340

Bent 17
Simply
supported
0.0046
0.003
2.52
0.010
Waco IH-35 / LP 340

Bent 19
Simply
supported
0.0046
0.003
2.52
0.015
According to AASHTO (2012) and TxDOT Bridge Design Manual (2011) strutand-tie modeling should be considered for specimens in which the distance between the
center of a support and the center of applied load, this could be interpreted as the location
of the resultant force of all the applied loads, in this case all the bent caps presented
above could not be classified as deep beams and sectional shear design could be used
(although strut-and-tie modeling is also allowed). However, considering the a/d ratios
with shear span measured to the first concentrated load, several of these specimens would
be classified as deep beams and therefore strut-and-tie modeling would have to be
considered for web-shear design. It is not clear which of the two definitions of a/d ratios
is more representative of the actual behavior of inverted-T beams as most past tests were
conducted with single point loads. The test series conducted in this project comparing one
and three point loading will shed some light on this matter.
Figure 2-1 shows the conditions the inspected bent on exit 165 of IH-35 S just
outside of San Antonio, TX. Some of these bents have simple support connections to the
columns without moment transfer, like the bent located in IH-35 / LP 340 in Waco, TX,
shown in Figure 2-2. In some other cases, the bent caps have partial or full moment
connection with the columns, like the bent located in IH-35 / Geronimo in El Paso, TX,
shown in Figure 2-3.
Figure 2-1: IH-35 S. Exit 165 / San Antonio, TX; left: north face, right: south face
Figure 2-2: Simply supported bent cap in IH-35 / LP 340, Waco, TX.
Figure 2-3: Partial moment connection bent cap in I-10/Geronimo, El Paso, TX.
A summary of the condition of the distressed bent caps was provided, however
the evaluation of the distressed bent caps in the field is not within the scope of this
dissertation; but will be included in the final report of TxDOT project 0-6416, along with
detailed inspection reports for the distressed bents.
2.3
BACKGROUND ON INVERTED-T BENT CAPS

In this section, the behavior of inverted-T beams is described and compared with
that of rectangular beams. Behavioral implications of tension-chord loading are

discussed. The application of strut-and-tie modeling to inverted-T beams is also
discussed.
2.3.1
Inverted-T Beams vs. Rectangular Beams

Inverted-T straddle bent caps are often used in bridge construction to reduce the
elevation of bridges and/or to improve available clearance beneath the beams (Figure
2-4). The bridge-deck stringers are supported on ledges at the bottom of the inverted-T
bent cap, effectively loading the caps along their tension chord. This arrangement
generates a tension field in the web near loading points (Figure 2-5), as forces are hung
from the compression chord at the top of the beam. In contrast, top- or compressionchord loading does not generate such tension field in the web.
Elevation
reduction
Clear
height
b)
a)
d)
c)
Figure 2-4: Left: (a) rectangular bent cap, (b) inverted-T bent cap; right: flow path of
forces in strut-and-tie models: (c) compression-chord loaded beam, (d) tension-chord
loaded beam
CCC Node *
CCT Node *
b)
a)
* Note: C = Compression
T = Tension
Tension field
Figure 2-5: (a) CCC node in compression-chord loaded beam, (b) CCT node in
tension-chord loaded beam
2.3.2
Components of an Inverted-T Beam

Inverted-T cross sections have two main components: (1) stem or web; this is the
main component carrying the shear forces, and (2) ledges; these are the brackets at the
bottom of the cross section where the loads are applied to the beam. These components
are shown in Figure 2-6 along with the reinforcement terminology. Two additional types
of reinforcement are required in an inverted-T beam compared to the typical
reinforcement of a rectangular beam: (1) hanger reinforcement; these are the vertical
stirrups engaged in transferring the loads applied at the bottom of the beam to the
compression chord at the top of the beam (excess web-shear reinforcement can be used as
hanger reinforcement), and (2) ledge reinforcement; the main function of this
reinforcement is to resist flexural tension forces in the cantilevered ledge. Ledges may be
continuous or discontinuous near the supports (Figure 2-7).
Figure 2-6: Inverted-T bent caps main components
10
Figure 2-7: Longitudinal elevation of an inverted-T bent cap with discontinuous ledges
Figure 2-8: Inverted-T and rectangular cross sections

2.3.3
Strut-and-Tie Modeling of Inverted-T Bent Caps

Many inverted-T bent caps can be classified as deep beams when their shear span
(a) is equal or less than 2.0 times their effective depth (d), as illustrated in Figure 2-9. For
low shear span-to-depth ratios, the assumption that plain sections remain plain is not
valid and sectional design approaches are not applicable. Several empirical methods and
rules of thumb have been used to design deep beams due to the disturbed state of
11
stresses they exhibit, (see Figure 2-9). Such methods, however, lack transparency and
versatility as they each target very specific elements and sections (e.g., rectangular deep
beams, inverted-T beams, corbels, etc.).
a
0.29P
3d
Slender beam behavior
Deep beam behavior
flexural theory assumptions apply
complicated state of stress
0.71P
Figure 2-9: Stress trajectories in deep beams (Adapted from Birrcher, et al. 2009)
Strut-and-tie modeling (STM) is a relatively new design method that offers a
rational approach for obtaining lower-bound solutions for the strength design of deep
beams. In STM, the complex state of stresses in a member is idealized as a system of
uniaxial force elements acting as a truss within the concrete member, as shown in Figure
2-10. Compression elements of the truss are called struts and are comprised of the
concrete resisting the compression fields. Tension elements are called ties and are
comprised of the reinforcement in the member. The regions where struts and ties intersect
are called nodes. A more detailed explanation of the strut-and-tie method and its
application to deep beams can be found in Birrcher, et al. (2009) and Williams (2011).
tension tie
compression strut
node
0.29P
0.29P
3d
0.71P
d
Figure 2-10: Idealized strut-and-tie model of an inverted-T deep beam
12
0.71P
One important parameter influencing the behavior of inverted-T bent caps is the
tension field induced in the web by the bottom- or tension-chord loading. At the loading
points, the applied forces being hung from the compression chord add to the shear
carried by the specimen. Illustrated in Figure 2-11 is the strut-and-tie model of a
compression-chord loaded beam and the strut-and-tie model for the same beam loaded at
the tension chord. The STM for both beams are identical except for the forces in the ties
hanging the loads from the compression chord. The tie forces in the inverted-T beam
are larger than the corresponding ties in the rectangular beam by the amount of the force
being hung at that location (e.g., +P in Figure 2-11).
1.5P
1.5P
3P
0.5P
1.5P
Rectangular
Rectangular
cap
bent
Cap
3P
3.5P
Compression-chord loading
Compression-Chord
Loading
1.5P
1.5P
3P
1.5P
1.5P
1.5P
3P
3.5P
P
1.5P
Inverted-T
Inverted-T
cap
bent
Cap
1.5P
Tension-chord loading
Tension-Chord
Loading
1.5P
Figure 2-11: Addition of hanger forces to shear forces in

inverted-T strut-and-tie models
Another important parameter influencing the inverted-T deep beam behavior is
the shear span-to-depth (a/d) ratio. Specimens with shear span-to-depth ratios smaller
than 2.0 present a direct strut from the loading point to the support. In this type of
models, the shear capacity of the member is generally controlled by the strength of the
13
direct strut and nodes, which in turn depends of the concrete strength. Specimens with
shear span-to-depth ratios larger than 2.5 transfer shear forces through a multi-panel
model; the capacity of this type of members is generally controlled by the strength of the
intermediate ties (vertical ties at mid shear span). Specimens with shear span-to-depth
ratios between 2.0 and 2.5 (transition zone) generally resist shear through a combination
of both load transfer mechanisms acting simultaneously. The three models are illustrated
in Figure 2-12.
a/d 2.5
a/d < 2.0

d
a
2.0 a/d 2.5
d
Figure 2-12: a/d influence on strut-and-tie models; left: direct strut model,
right: multiple panel model, bottom: transition zone model
Inverted-T bent caps transfer the loads in multiple dimensions: from the ledges to
the web, from the tension- to the compression-chord, and from the loading points to the
supports. In order to properly model this behavior it is necessary to consider a threedimensional strut-and-tie model, such as the one shown in Figure 2-13. The model can be
divided into two two-dimensional models to simplify the analysis, provided that the
interaction between them is considered as follows: first, the external loads are applied to
the longitudinal model and forces are calculated for the hanger ties, then, these calculated
hanger forces are applied to the cross-sectional models.
14
Figure 2-13: Strut-and-tie model of an inverted-T bent cap; top: tri-dimensional model,
center: cross-sectional models, bottom: longitudinal model
15
2.4
INVERTED-T DESIGN PROVISIONS

In this section, design provisions for inverted-T beams of the following three
codes are summarized:
2.4.1
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 2012
TxDOT Bridge Design Manual LRFD, 2011
TxDOT Project 5253 Strut-and-Tie Modeling provisions
Inverted-T Beam Design Provisions of AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design

Specifications, 2012
The AASHTO Code specifies separate design provisions for the web portion of an
inverted-T and the ledge portion. For the web portion, rectangular-beam design
provisions apply. If the shear span-to-depth ratio of a beam is less than about 2.0, the
AASHTO Code specifies that strut-and-tie modeling should be considered. AASHTO
(2012) Clause 5.6.3.1 specifies: The strut-and-tie model should be considered for the
design of deep footings and pile caps or other situations in which the distance between
the centers of applied load and the supporting reactions is less than about twice the
member thickness. A detailed overview of the rectangular beam provisions of AASHTO
(2008) can be found in Birrcher (2008) and will not be covered here. Note that these
provisions changed little in AASHTO (2012).
The AASHTO Code specifies that beam ledges in inverted-T specimens may be
designed using the strut-and-tie model or the provisions of Articles 5.13.2.5.2 through
5.13.2.5.5; these provisions are summarized as follows:
Beam ledges shall be designed to resist forces at the cracks shown in Figure
2-14:
Flexure, shear, and horizontal forces at the location of Crack 1
Tension force in the supporting element at the location of Crack 2
Punching shear at points of loading at the location of Crack 3
Bearing force at the location of Crack 4
16
Figure 2-14: Notation and potential crack locations for ledge beams (AASHTO, 2012)
If the strut-and-tie approach is not used, the following design checks must be performed
for ledge design.
1. Shear Friction
Shear friction shall be designed according to Article 5.8.4, which states that the nominal
interface shear resistance must satisfy the following equations for normal weight
concrete:
(AASHTO Eq. 5.8.4.1-3)
(2-1)
(AASHTO Eq. 5.8.4.1-4)
(2-2)
(AASHTO Eq. 5.8.4.1-5)
(2-3)
(AASHTO Eq. 5.13.2.4.2-1)
(2-4)
(AASHTO Eq. 5.13.2.4.2-2)
(2-5)
but:
additionally:
where:
Vni
nominal shear resistance of the interface plane (kips)
cohesion factor (c = 0 for ledges)
Acv
area of concrete considered to be engaged in interface shear

transfer (in.2), see Figure 2-15
interior beams: minimum of (W+4av, S) times de
exterior beams: minimum of (W+4av, S, 2c) times de
17
de
depth of ledge from bottom surface to center of gravity of

top
tension
steel
(in.),
as
shown
in
Figure 2-14
friction factor = 1.4 for normal weight concrete placed

monolithically
Avf
Area of shear friction steel (in.2)
Pc
permanent net compressive force normal to the shear plane

(kips)
K1
0.25 for normal weight concrete placed monolithically
K2
1.5 ksi for normal weight concrete placed monolithically
The provisions neglect any cohesion in the concrete area and consider only the
friction shear strength provided by the prestressed and mild reinforcement at the ledgeweb interface. The width of the interface area is considered equal to the width of the
loading plate plus four times the distance from the face of the web to the center of the
load (av). This value is consistent with the results of the experimental and analytical work
of Ma (1971).
Figure 2-15: Design of beam ledges for shear (AASHTO, 2012)
2. Ledge Top Reinforcement

Primary tension reinforcement As (Figure 2-16), shall be determined as for ordinary
members subjected to flexure and axial load, and shall satisfy:
(AASHTO Eq. 5.13.2.4.2-5)
18
(2-6)
where:
An
area of reinforcement in ledge resisting tensile force Nuc

(in.2)
Figure 2-16: Notation (AASHTO, 2012)

The provisions here provide a minimum steel area to resist longitudinal forces
perpendicular to the inverted-T beam axis generated by the beams supported on the ledge.
These longitudinal forces must be taken at least as 20% of the vertical load applied on the
ledge.
Primary tension reinforcement As shall be spaced uniformly within the region (W+5af) or
2c, as illustrated in Figure 2-17.
Figure 2-17: Design of beam ledges for flexure and horizontal force
(AASHTO, 2012)
The area of closed stirrups Ah (Figure 2-16) or ties placed within 2de/3 from the primary
reinforcement As shall satisfy:
(AASHTO Eq. 5.13.2.4.2-6)
in which:
19
(2-7)
(AASHTO Eq. 5.13.2.4.2-7) (2-8)
where
(AASHTO Art. 5.5.4.2.1)
(2-9)
3. Hanger Reinforcement
Forces acting as hangers and forces acting as shear must be superimposed to design the
vertical hanger reinforcement (Ahr in Figure 2-18) at the loading points, as stated in
AASHTO Art. 5.13.2.5.5: The hanger reinforcement specified herein shall be provided
in addition to the lesser shear reinforcement required on either side of the beam reaction
being supported.
Service Load Check
The hanger nominal shear resistance Vn for the service limit state in single-beam ledges
shall be taken as:
(
(AASHTO Eq. 5.13.2.5.5-1) (2-10)
This section is limiting the shear stresses to half of the yield stress of the hanger
reinforcement to reduce cracking under service loads, and conservatively distributing the
stresses in a width of W+3av instead of using 4av.
Ultimate Load Check
The hanger nominal shear resistance Vn for the strength limit state in inverted T-beam
ledges shall be taken as the lesser of:
(AASHTO Eq. 5.13.2.5.5-2) (2-11)
and:
(
)
(AASHTO Eq. 5.13.2.5.5-3) (2-12)
where:
Ahr
area of one leg of hanger reinforcement as illustrated in

Figure 2-18 (in.2)
20
spacing of bearing places (in.)
spacing of hanger bars (in.)
df
distance from the top of ledge to compression

reinforcement as illustrated in Figure 2-19 (in.)
bf
full width of the flange as shown in Figure 2-19 (in.)
Figure 2-18: Single-ledge hanger reinforcement (AASHTO, 2012)
Figure 2-19: Inverted-T beam hanger reinforcement (AASHTO, 2012)

The second equation considers Vn = Vc + Vs, where the concrete contribution (Vc)
is equal to two square roots of the compressive strength (in psi units, or 0.063 roots of the
compressive strength in ksi units), and the steel contribution (Vs) is based on effective
hanger bars encompassed in the area created by a 45-deg spreading of the loads under the
bearing plate. The same width over which hanger bars are effective was suggested to be
conservative by Garber (2011), and is evaluated in more depth in Chapter 4 of this
dissertation.
Note that the area of hanger reinforcement at each beam reaction (Ahr) as
determined by the above strength check must be added to the area of web shear
21
reinforcement required to resist the lesser shear force on either side of the beam reaction
being supported.
4. Development of Reinforcement
Ledge and hanger reinforcement shall be properly developed in accordance with
Article 5.11.1.1, which states that the basic tension development length, db in in. for
number 11 bars and smaller shall be taken as:
(AASHTO 5.11.2.1.1) (2-13)
but not less than:

(AASHTO 5.11.2.1.1) (2-14)
where:
Ab
area of bar (in.2)
fy
specified yield strength of reinforcing bars (ksi)
fc
specified compressive strength of concrete at 28 days (ksi)
db
diameter of bar (in.)
5. Punching Shear
The truncated pyramids assumed as failure surfaces for punching shear, as
illustrated in Figure 2-20, shall not overlap.
Figure 2-20: Design of beam ledges for punching shear (AASHTO, 2012)
Nominal punching shear resistance, Vn, in kips, shall be taken as:
i. At interior pads, or exterior pads where the end distance c is
greater than S/2:
22

(AASHTO Eq. 5.13.2.5.4-1) (2-15)
b. At exterior pads where the end distance c is less than S/2 but c 0.5W is less than de:
(AASHTO Eq. 5.13.2.5.4-2) (2-16)

c. At exterior pads where the end distance c is less than S/2 and c 0.5W is greater than de:
(AASHTO Eq. 5.13.2.5.4-3) (2-17)

These equations require that the truncated pyramids of adjacent loads do not
overlap. In cases where overlapping occurs the AASHTO Code requires an investigation
of the combined surface areas to be conducted.
6. Bearing
Bearing resistance of ledges shall be taken as:
(AASHTO Eq. 5.7.5-2) (2-18)
where:
Pn
nominal bearing resistance (kip)
A1
area under bearing device (in.2)
modification factor
A2
(AASHTO Eq. 5.7.5-3) (2-19)
a notational area defined as shown in Figure 2-21 (in.2)
23
Figure 2-21: Determination of A2 (AASHTO, 2012)

This provision recognizes that triaxial confinement provides additional bearing
capacity thereby allowing beam specimens with less than full-width bearings to reach
their full shear capacity.
2.4.2
Inverted-T Beam Design Provisions of TxDOT Bridge Design Manual

LRFD, 2011
The TxDOT Bridge Design Manual mandates designers to adhere to the
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 5th edition, with 2010 interim revision,
unless directed otherwise. The AASHTO (2012) provisions for inverted-T beams
summarized in section 2.4.1 are all applicable with the following modifications:
1. Use concrete TxDOT class C with fc = 3.6 ksi; higher strengths may be
used in special cases
2. Use grade 60 reinforcing steel
3. Limit tensile stress in steel reinforcement, fss under Service I limit state to
0.6 fy
4. Limit reinforcement steel to 22 ksi under Service I limit state with dead
load only to minimize cracking
5. Use df, not de, in all ledge punching shear calculations
6. The truncated pyramids assumed as failure surfaces for punching shear
(Figure 2-20 shall not overlap, therefore:
(2-20)
(2-21)
7. Normal punching shear resistance, Vn (in kips), shall be taken as:
24
o At interior pads:
o At exterior pads:
(2-22)
but not greater than Vn for interior pads
(2-23)
8. Replace AASHTO Equation 5.13.2.5.5-1 with the following:

(
(2-24)
This section allows for higher stresses in the hanger reinforcement than those
allowed in the AASHTO LRFD code. The limit is increased to 2/3 of fy, instead of 1/2.
9. Replace the following sentence in AASHTO Art. 5.13.2.5.5: The edge
distance between the exterior bearing pad and the end of the inverted Tbeam shall not be less than de with the following: The edge distance
between the exterior bearing pad and the end of the inverted T-beam shall
not be less than 12 in.
10. Replace the following sentence in AASHTO Art. 5.13.2.5.5: The hanger
reinforcement specified herein shall be provided in addition to the lesser
shear reinforcement required on either side of the beam reaction being
supported with the following: Do not superimpose loads on stirrups
acting has hangers and loads on stirrups acting as shear reinforcement.
Proportion the web reinforcement in the stem of an invert T-beam based
on required hanger reinforcement or required shear reinforcement,
whichever is greater. [sic]
This statement is consistent with the conclusions from Ma (1971). In that study,
stresses due to hanging loads and web shear were found to be additive before yielding of
the hanger bars. However, due to the conservative estimates of steel and concrete
contributions, the study found that the stirrup design is safe without the need to
superimpose shear and hanger forces at loading points.
11. Take the modulus of rupture, fr, as
concrete (in ksi units).
25
, for all normal weight
12. Provide minimum stirrups and longitudinal side face reinforcing in the
region between each face of column and first girder such that the
following are satisfied:
(2-25)
and:
(2-26)
where:
Av
Area of transverse reinforcement (in.2); Figure 2-22
Ah
Area of skin reinforcement (in.2); Figure 2-22
bw
web width (in.); Figure 2-22
sv
spacing of transverse reinforcement (in.); Figure 2-22
sh
spacing of skin reinforcement (in.); Figure 2-22
Figure 2-22: Clarification of terms Av and Ah (TxDOT, 2001)

The minimum web and skin reinforcement requirement (numbered 12 above) was
introduced in the 2011 manual revision along with a maximum spacing limitation of 12
in. or d/4, as mandated per AASHTO Art. 5.6.3.6. The recommendations are consistent
with the findings of TxDOT Project 0-5253 that recommends a minimum reinforcement
ratio of 0.3% in each orthogonal direction be used in deep beams to (1) adequately
restrain the width of diagonal cracks at service loads, (2) distribute the diagonal cracks,
and (3) allow for enough force redistributions to reach the full design strength of
compression struts.
26
2.4.3
Strut-and-Tie Modeling Provisions of TxDOT Project 5253

TxDOT Project 0-5253 and 5-5253-01 developed new strut-and-tie (STM)
modeling provisions and recommended modifications to both the ACI 318 and AASHTO
LRFD codes; these provisions are presented by Birrcher, et al. (2009) and Williams
(2011).
The most significant modifications proposed for AASHTO LRFD are:
Concrete efficiency factors, , for the nodal faces are modified according
to Table 2-2.
Table 2-2: TxDOT Project 5-5253-01 concrete efficiency factors, v

Node Type
Face
Bearing Face
CCC
CCT
0.85
0.70
CTT
Back Face
Strut-to-Node
Interface*
* If crack control reinforcement requirement of AASHTO Art. 5.6.3.5 is not satisfied, use v = 0.45
for the strut-to-node interfaces
The concrete efficiency factors () reduce the compressive strength of the

concrete in the node depending on the type of node (CCC, CCT, or CTT) and face
(bearing face, back face, strut-to-node interface) under consideration. The three types of
nodes and their efficiency factors for each face are illustrated in Figure 2-23.
27
Figure 2-23: Node efficiency factors (Williams, 2011)

One can note from Table 2-2 that the efficiency factor at a strut-to-node interface
is the same for both CCC and CCT nodes. Current recommendations therefore do not
reduce the nodal strength due to the presence of a tension field in CCT nodes. In
compression-chord loaded members, the node below the applied load is a CCC node.
However, the same node in a tension-chord loaded inverted-T member is a CCT node
(Figure 2-5). TxDOT project 0-6416 that includes the work presented in this dissertation
aims to explore potential differences between tension- and compression-chord loaded
members that may affect efficiency factors of CCT nodes.
Design of struts is simplified by focusing on the design of the strut-tonode interfaces, which implicitly accounts for the strut capacity and
eliminates trivial checks.
The location of the critical point at which the yield strength of tie bars
must be developed was revised according to Figure 2-24.
28
Figure 2-24: Available development length for ties (Williams, 2011)
Strength provided by compression steel is included in the nominal

resistance of the back face of the nodes, as follows:
(2-27)
(2-28)
where:
fcu
limiting compressive stress at the face of the node (ksi)
Acn
effective cross-sectional area of the face of a node (in.2)
fy
Yield strength of mild steel reinforcement (ksi)
Asn
area of reinforcement entering the back face (in.2)
confinement modification factor, taken as
but not
more than 2 as defined in AASHTO Art. 5.7.5, see

Figure 2-21
v
concrete efficiency factor, as specified in Table 2-2
Minimum bend radius of curved bars at nodes is specified to limit the

radial compressive stress to a permissible level, see Figure 2-25.
(2-29)
29
where:
rb
bend radius of a curved-bar node, measured to the inside of

a bar (in.)
Ast
total area of longitudinal mild steel reinforcement in the

ties (in.2)
back face concrete efficiency factor as specified in

Table 2-2
width of the strut transverse to the plane of the strut-and-tie

model (in.)
fc
specified compressive strength of concrete (ksi)
Figure 2-25: Bend radius for curved bars at nodes (Williams, 2011)
To provide sufficient length along the bend of a curved bars at nodes

required to develop differences in tie forces (see Figure 2-26), the
following equation must be satisfied:
(2-30)
where:
ld
development length for straight bars (in.)
smaller of the two angles between the strut and the ties that
extend from the node
db
diameter of bar (in.)
30
Figure 2-26: Length of bend of curved bars at nodes (Williams, 2011)

2.5
STRUT-AND-TIE MODELING
OF
INVERTED-T BEAMS ACCORDING
TO
TXDOT
PROJECT 5253 PROVISIONS

TxDOT project 5253 demonstrated the effectiveness of the modifications
proposed to the AASHTO LRFD STM design procedures. As such, the modified design
procedures will be used when estimating the capacities of the inverted-T beams tested in
this study. A detailed design example for one of the specimens of the experimental
program is provided in Appendix C. More details on the use of TxDOT 5253 STM design
can be found in Williams (2011). The STM design procedures as applied to inverted-T
beams are summarized next. Validity of the proposed application of STM provisions of
project 5253 will be investigated in subsequent chapters.
2.5.1
Outline of Strut-and-tie Modeling of Inverted-T Bent Caps

The design procedures for inverted-T bent caps are summarized as follows:
1. Define loads and solve statics (Figure 2-27).
P
RA
RH
Figure 2-27: Loads and reactions acting on inverted-T bent cap

2. Define geometry of the longitudinal strut-and-tie model
31
a. Assume 45-degree spread of loads under the loading plates to

define width of hanger ties, as shown in Figure 2-28
Figure 2-28: Hanger tie widths

b. Define depth of compression block using the following equation
and assume prismatic strut in compression chord of depth a:
(2-31)
where:
As
area of longitudinal tension steel (in.2)
fy
yield strength longitudinal tension steel (psi)
As
area of longitudinal compression steel (in.2)
fy
yield strength longitudinal compression steel (psi)
bw
web width (in.)
fc
specified compressive strength of concrete (psi)
c. Define width of tension chord tie wAJ as twice the distance from
the extreme tension fiber to centroid of longitudinal steel
reinforcement (Figure 2-29).
Figure 2-29: Widths of compression and tension chords
32
d. Define location of intermediate ties (BC) using the technique

proposed by Wight and Parra-Montesinos (2003). Project a line at
25 degrees form the edge of the support plate at node A to the top
of the beam to define the limit of tie BC; tie BC will be centered
half way between the 45-degree projection from the loading plate
at DE and the 25-degree projection from support plate at node A
(see Figure 2-30).
Figure 2-30: Development of strut and tie model

e. Check angles between strut and ties to be equal or greater than 25
deg.
3. Solve for truss forces in longitudinal model (Figure 2-31).
Figure 2-31: Truss forces in longitudinal model

4. Solve for truss forces in cross-sectional model using the hanger tie forces
found in step 3 (Figure 2-32) and the external loads.
33
Known forces, from longitudinal STM
le
C'
P
2
H'
P
2
F-HI
2
P
2
F-DE
2
le
D'
F-HI
2
P
2
F-BC
2
P
2
F-DE
2
B'
B
F-BC
2
P
2
E'
le
I'
Figure 2-32: Forces in cross-sectional models

5. Calculate required steel area to satisfy calculated forces in tension chord
with the following equation:
(2-32)
where:
AsAJ
required steel area for tie AJ (in.2)
FAJ
calculated factored truss force in tie AJ (kip)
0.90; resistance factor for tension ties (AASHTO Art.

5.5.4.2.1)
fy
yield strength of tie reinforcement (ksi)
6. Calculate required steel area to satisfy calculated forces in hanger ties

using equation 2-32. Uniformly distribute required steel within load
spreading area calculated in step 2a (Figure 2-33).
7. Calculate required steel area to satisfy calculated forces in intermediate
ties using equation 2-32. Uniformly distribute required steel within tie
width calculated in step 2d (Figure 2-33).
34
Figure 2-33: Proportion steel in ties to satisfy factored truss forces

8. Calculate required steel area to satisfy calculated forces in horizontal ties
in cross-sectional models using equation 2-32. Uniformly distribute
required steel within load spreading area the smaller of W+5af or 2c as
defined in AASHTO 5.13.2.5.3 (see Figure 2-34). AASHTO load spread
recommendations for ledge reinforcement were used as the experimental
program of this study did not investigate ledge strength and therefore did
not provide information that would allow modifications to AASHTO.
Figure 2-34: Load spread area for ledge reinforcement

9. Perform nodal strength checks following procedure for rectangular beams
as indicated in Section 2.4.3. Detailed examples of STM for rectangular
deep beams are provided in Birrcher, et al. (2009) and Williams (2011).
10. Proportion crack control reinforcement as specified in TxDOT project
5253: provide at least 0.3% distributed vertical and horizontal
reinforcement ratios with maximum bar spacing of d/4 or 12 in.
11. Ensure proper anchorage for ties as specified in Section 2.4.1-4, see Figure
2-24 to Figure 2-26.
12. Perform shear serviceability check. Shear force at the critical section,
defined as the midpoint between the center of the support and the first
35
concentrated load, under service loads must be less than the diagonal
cracking load defined as:
[
( )]
(2-33)
where fc is the specified concrete strength in psi.

The empirical equation 2-33 was developed for rectangular deep beams.
Applicability of this equation is evaluated in Section 5.3.
2.6
INVERTED-T DEEP BEAM DATABASE

This section documents the inverted-T deep beam database task of TxDOT
Project 0-6416. The purpose of this database is to supplement the results of the
experimental program in verifying the accuracy of proposed design provisions. The
database assembly comprised three stages: (1) Collection database, (2) Filtered database,
and (3) Evaluation database.
The majority of the specimens found in the literature are unrepresentative of the
bent caps in service in Texas. Most of the inverted-T specimens found in the literature
have shear areas of less than 200 in.2. Texas bent caps typically have shear areas of 1,200
in.2 or greater. Also, a significant number of specimens in the literature review have an
aspect ratio greater than 4; some have a depth over 12 times greater than their width
(Figure 2-35). Such a high aspect ratio is unrealistic for inverted-T bent caps.
Conventional beams have an aspect ratio of approximately one to three.
36
Shear Area bwd, (in.2)
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Project 0-6416 (n = 25)
Literature Review (n = 63)
10
15
20
Aspect Ratio of cross section, d / bw
25
30
Figure 2-35: Summary of beam proportions for specimens with shear failures (n = 96);
bw = web width, d = effective web depth
2.6.1
Collection database
The first stage, collection database, consisted in gathering all the inverted-T
specimens found in the literature and collecting all the pertaining information regarding
geometry, reinforcement, boundary conditions, strength, and serviceability. A total of 128
specimens from 14 different sources compose the collection database; including 31 tests
conducted within Project 0-6416. The collection database was compiled based on the
research papers cited in Appendix A.
2.6.2
Filtered database
The second stage, filtered database, consisted in removing 41 specimens for the
following reasons: (1) specimens did not fail; this information is essential to evaluate the
performance of the specimens and calibrate the new design provisions for inverted-T
beams, (2) specimens were lacking plate size information; this information is essential to
generate strut-and-tie models to evaluate the performance of the specimens, (3)
specimens had no shear reinforcement; this condition is unrealistic, as in-service beams
generally have a minimum amount of transverse reinforcement, (4) specimens had
complicated support conditions, complicated geometry, or complicated reinforcement
details; these conditions hinder the generation of strut-and-tie models to evaluate their
performance.
37
2.6.3
Evaluation database
The third stage, evaluation database, consisted in further refinement of the
database removing specimens that were unrepresentative of the distressed field members.
In this stage 56 test were filtered due to the following reasons: (1) specimens with a web
depth-to-web width aspect ratio greater than four; specimens under this condition
resemble walls and their behavior is different from that of bent caps that typically have an
aspect ratio on the order of one to three, (2) specimens had web widths smaller than 4.5;
this minimum limit was selected as the required width to accommodate two number five
longitudinal bars with one in. of clear space between them, with a number three stirrup
and a clear cover of in., (3) combined tension- and compression-chord loading, this
condition is unrepresentative of the field specimens which do not present loads on both
chords, and (4) specimens with torsional loads, these specimens were filtered out since
the distressed field members showed no signs of torsional problems but only web shear
deficiencies (in all cases the observed cracking pattern is consistent with web shear
distress).
Filtering based on failure mode was not performed as it is the intent of the project
to perform a comprehensive assessment of all design provisions for inverted-T beams
(not just those applicable to web shear). As such some beams in the evaluation database
had ledge or flexural failures.
2.6.4
Database summary
A total of one hundred twenty eight specimens from fourteen different sources are
included in the collection database (Figure 2-36). A summary of the database filtering
record is provided in Table 2-3. Thirty one specimens remained in the evaluation
database, all of them conducted within project 0-6416. This fact highlights the
importance of the experimental program and the need for a large number of test
specimens to fully evaluate the strength and serviceability behavior of inverted-T bent
caps.
38
Collection Database, n = 128

Graf & Brenner
1%
Ferguson
1%
Shtt
5%
Taylor
4%
Evaluation Database, n = 31
Leonhardt &
Walther
3%
TxDOT 0-6416
24%
Furlong &
Ferguson
19%
Galal & Sekar

6%
ZhuWanichakornHsu-Vogel
3%
Tan, Kong,
Cusens &
Weng
Besser
5%
Fereig &
4%
Smith
1%
TxDOT 0-6416
100%
Furlong &
Mirza
21%
Fereig & Smith
3%
Figure 2-36: Sources of inverted-T database

Table 2-3: Database assembly
Stage 1
filtering
Collection Database
128 tests
specimen did not fail
10 tests
incomplete plate size information
10 tests
no shear reinforcement
2 tests
complicated supports/geometry/reinforcement
19 tests
Stage 2
filtering
Filtered Database
87 tests
h / bw > 4
11 tests
bw < 4.5in.
9 tests
tension- and compression-chord loaded
9 tests
torsional loads
27 tests
Evaluation Database
31 tests
39
2.7
SUMMARY
Four topics were reviewed in this chapter. First, several cases of distressed
inverted-T bent caps in service in Texas were presented including diagonal crack width
information. Next, background information on strut-and-tie modeling design and
behavior of inverted-T beams was presented. Then, design provisions for inverted-T
beams from the AASHTO LRFD code, TxDOT bridge design manual, and TxDOT
project 5253 were summarized. Finally, assembly of the inverted-T deep beam database
was presented.
40
CHAPTER 3
Experimental Program
3.1
OVERVIEW
Design, fabrication, and testing details of the 19 specimens on which 31 tests
were conducted are discussed in this chapter. Additionally, material properties and
instrumentation details are presented for each specimen.
The experimental program was designed to encompass the variables found in the
beams exhibiting problems in the field and to investigate the influence of these variables
in the strength and serviceability of inverted-T bent caps. Parameters varied in the tests
were ledge length, ledge depth, shear reinforcement, web depth, shear span-to-depth
ratio, loaded chord, and number of loading points.
3.2
TESTING PROGRAM
Literature review revealed the scarcity of research of tension-chord loaded
specimens. Cross-sections of the specimens analyzed in this project are shown to scale in
Figure 3-1 to highlight the significant differences between dimensions of the bent caps in
service and the specimens found in the literature. In order to properly address the
objectives of this study it was deemed necessary to fabricate full-scale specimens within
the experimental program.
41
Figure 3-1: Specimen cross-sections to scale
42
The experimental program was divided into six series in order to isolate the
effects on strength and serviceability of each one of the variables analyzed in this study.
These series are presented as follows and detailed in sections 3.2.3.2 through 3.2.3.7.
Series I: Ledge length
Series II: Ledge depth
Series III: Web reinforcement
Series IV: Number of point loads
Series V: Loaded chord
Series VI: Web depth
This dissertation focuses on the effects of ledge geometry and number of point
loads on strength and serviceability of inverted-T straddle bent caps (Series I, II, and IV).
3.2.1
Nomenclature
The specimen naming system used to identify the experimental variables studied
in each specimen is described in this section. Details of each of the experimental

variables are provided in sections 3.2.3.2 to 3.2.3.7. A typical specimen name is shown in
Figure 3-2.
Web reinforcement ratio (0.3%, 0.6%)
Shear span-to-depth ratio
DS1-42-1.85-03
Web Height (in.)
No. of Point Loads

Ledge Length (C = Cut-off, S = Short, L = Long)
Ledge Depth (D = Deep, S = Short)
Figure 3-2: Specimen nomenclature

The first character (D or S) refers to the ledge depth, Deep or Shallow. Deep
ledges have a height equal to half of the depth of the web, whereas shallow ledges have a
43
height equal to one third of the depth of the web. More details on ledge depths are
provided in section 3.2.3.3.
The second character (C, S, or L) refers to the ledge length, Cut-off, Short, or
Long. Cut-off ledges end at the edge of the outer most loading plate. Short ledges extend
beyond the outer most loading plate a distance equal to the ledge height. Long ledges run
continuously from support to support. More details on ledge lengths are provided in
section 3.2.3.2.
The third character refers to the number of point loads applied to the specimen (1
or 3). Specimens with one point load were directly comparable with compression-chord
loaded specimens from TxDOT Project 0-5253, whereas specimens with multiple point
loads are more representative of field conditions. Spreading the load over multiple
loading points also allowed the use of shallower ledges by helping avoid local failures in
the ledges. More details on the number of point loads are provided in section 3.2.3.5.
The next two groups of characters indicate the web depth in in., and the shear
span-to-depth (or a/d) ratio. More details on web height and a/d ratio are provided in
sections 3.2.3.7 and 3.2.3.1 respectively.
The last group of characters refers to the web reinforcement ratio, as defined in
Figure 3-3. 03 refers to specimens with v = h = 0.3%, 06 refers to specimens with
v = h = 0.6% and 06/03 refers to specimens with v = 0.6% and h = 0.3%; More
details on web reinforcement ratios are provided in section 3.2.3.4.
44
bw
Ah
Av
sh
sv
Section A-A
Figure 3-3: Definition for vertical and horizontal web reinforcement ratios
3.2.2
Overview of Test Specimens

An overview of the 31 test regions of 19 full-scale specimens are presented in this
section. Tests were conducted as described in section 3.6. A summary of the experimental
specimens is provided in Table 3-1. Typical specimen geometries and reinforcing details
are shown in Figure 3-4 and Figure 3-5. One should note that for all specimens web
width was 21 in., while ledge overhang was 10.5 in. Other dimensions varied between
specimens. Details of geometry and reinforcing details of each specimen are provided in
Appendix B.
45
Table 3-1: Testing program

Test
01a
01b
02a
02b
03a
03b
04a
04b
05b
06a
06b
07a
08b
09a
10a
10b
11a
12a
14a
15a
15b
16a
16b
17a
17b
18a
18b
19a
19b
20a
20b
Specimen
DS1-42-1.85-03
DS1-42-2.50-03
DS1-42-1.85-06
DS1-42-2.50-06
DL1-42-1.85-06
DL1-42-2.50-06
SS3-42-1.85-03
SS3-42-2.50-03
SS3-42-2.50-06
SC3-42-2.50-03
SC3-42-1.85-03
SS1-75-1.85-03
SS1-75-2.50-06
DS3-42-2.50-03
DL1-42-1.85-03
DL1-42-2.50-03
SL3-42-1.85-03
SL3-42-1.85-06
SS1-75-1.85-03b
DC3-42-1.85-03
DS3-42-1.85-03
SS1-42-2.50-03
SS1-42-1.85-03
DC1-42-2.50-03
DL3-42-1.85-03
SL1-42-2.50-03
SC1-42-2.50-03
DS1-42-1.85-06/03
DS1-42-2.50-06/03
SC1-42-1.85-03
DC1-42-1.85-03
Ledge
Depth
Ledge
Length
h/2
h/2
h/2
h/2
h/2
h/2
h/3
h/3
h/3
h/3
h/3
h/3
h/3
h/2
h/2
h/2
h/3
h/3
h/3
h/2
h/2
h/3
h/3
h/2
h/2
h/3
h/3
h/2
h/2
h/3
h/2
Short
Short
Short
Short
Long
Long
Short
Short
Short
Cut-off
Cut-off
Short
Short
Short
Long
Long
Long
Long
Short
Cut-off
Short
Short
Short
Cut-off
Long
Long
Cut-off
Short
Short
Cut-off
Cut-off
Loading d
Points (in)
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
3
3
3
1
1
3
1
1
3
3
1
3
3
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
37.6
37.6
37.6
37.6
37.6
37.6
37.6
37.6
37.6
37.6
37.6
68.2
68.2
37.6
37.6
37.6
37.6
37.6
68.2
37.6
37.6
37.6
37.6
37.6
37.6
37.6
37.6
37.6
37.6
37.6
37.6
a/d
ratio
Support
Plate
1.96
2.65
1.85
2.50
1.85
2.50
1.85
2.50
2.50
2.50
1.85
1.87
2.53
2.50
1.85
2.50
1.85
1.85
1.87
1.85
1.85
2.50
1.85
2.50
1.85
2.50
2.50
1.85
2.50
1.85
1.85
16" x 20" 26" x 9"

16" x 20" 26" x 9"
16" x 20" 26" x 9"
16" x 20" 26" x 9"
16" x 20" 26" x 9"
16" x 20" 26" x 9"
16" x 20" 18" x 9"
16" x 20" 18" x 9"
16" x 20" 18" x 9"
16" x 20" 18" x 9"
16" x 20" 18" x 9"
16" x 20" 30" x 10"
16" x 20" 30" x 10"
16" x 20" 18" x 9"
16" x 20" 26" x 9"
16" x 20" 26" x 9"
16" x 20" 18" x 9"
16" x 20" 18" x 9"
16" x 20" 30" x 10"
16" x 20" 18" x 9"
16" x 20" 18" x 9"
16" x 20" 26" x 9"
16" x 20" 26" x 9"
16" x 20" 18" x 9"
16" x 20" 18" x 9"
16" x 20" 26" x 9"
16" x 20" 26" x 9"
16" x 20" 26" x 9"
16" x 20" 26" x 9"
30" x 20" 26" x 9"
30" x 20" 26" x 9"
Loading
Plate
Plate dimensions: [in direction of span] x [transverse to direction of span]
46
0.003
0.003
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.003
0.003
0.006
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.006
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.006
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.003
0.003
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006
0.003
0.003
0.006
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.006
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.006
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.003
Figure 3-4: Typical specimen geometries
47
Figure 3-5: Typical reinforcement details
48
3.2.3
Test Series
3.2.3.1 Shear span-to-depth ratio

Shear span-to-depth (a/d) ratios equal to 2.50 and 1.85 were used throughout the
test program and in all test series. Shear span-to-depth ratio is defined within the context
of this document as the ratio of the distance from the center of the support to the center of
the nearest loading point (a) with respect to the effective depth of the specimen (d)
measured from the centroid of web longitudinal tension steel to the extreme compression
fiber of the web; see Figure 3-6.
The a/d ratios used in this study were selected to be directly comparable with
compression-chord loaded specimens of TxDOT Project 0-5253. Specimens with a/d
ratios of 1.85 capture the deep beam behavior transferring shear through a direct
compression strut. Specimens with a/d ratios of 2.50 transfer shear forces through a
double strut (or double panel) system and are at the limit of sectional shear behavior
(Birrcher, et al., 2009).
d
a
Test region of interest
Figure 3-6: Free body and shear diagrams for a specimen subjected to three point loads
49
AASHTO bridge design specifications (2012) Art. 5.6.3.1 specifies that: The
strut-and-tie model should be considered for the design of deep footings and pile caps or
other situations in which the distance between the centers of applied load and the
supporting reactions is less than about twice the member thickness. The definition of
the shear span in AASHTO may be interpreted in such way that all the specimens with
three point loads in the experimental program can be designed using the sectional shear
approach regardless of some of them having 33% of their total load concentrated at 1.85d
from the center of the support. Experimental results of this project will be used to validate
the applicability of sectional shear design for this type of members.
3.2.3.2 Series I: Ledge Length
The distressed bent caps in the field had several ledge length configurations.
Some had ledges that were interrupted right next to the outer most stringer (cut-off ledge
in Figure 3-7), whereas some had long ledges running continuously from support to
support (long-ledge in Figure 3-7). In other cases the ledge ended in between these two
extreme cases (short-ledge in Figure 3-7).
50
1
1
a) Cut-off Ledge
1
1
b) Short Ledge
1
1
c) Long Ledge
Figure 3-7: Ledge lengths

Inverted-T beams are tension-chord loaded specimens in which the forces have to
be hung from the compression chord before being transferred to the support, as shown
in Figure 3-8. This tension-chord loading induces a tension field in the web, highlighted
in red in Figure 3-9, and changes the configuration of the node at the top of the beam at
the loading point. In compression-chord loaded specimens, only compression forces
converge at this node; whereas, in tension-chord loaded specimens an additional tension
tie converges at this node.
51
b)
a)
Figure 3-8: Flow path of forces in strut-and-tie models; (a) compression-chord loaded
beam, (b) tension-chord loaded beam
CCC Node *
CCT Node *
b)
a)
* Note: C = Compression
T = Tension
Figure 3-9: (a) Compression-chord loaded beam, (b) tension-chord loaded beam
highlighting in red the tension field induced by the bottom loading
The ledge length has a direct effect on the area over which the tension field
spreads, and consequently the width of the hanger tie; this effect is illustrated in Figure
3-10. In the cases of short and long ledges, this tension field has enough room to fully
spread over a distance equal to the length of the bearing pad plus two times the ledge
height. In the case of cut-off ledges, the force can only spread on one side of the bearing
plate thereby reducing the width of the tension field and increasing tensile stresses.
52
Engaged Reinforcement
(a)
End of Ledge
End of Ledge
(b)
Figure 3-10: Effect of ledge length on tie width; (a) short ledge, (b) cut-off ledge
Long ledges may also affect the strength of the support region by: (1) increasing
the confinement of the support nodal region, and (2) increasing the support bearing width
compared with short and cut-off ledges (see Figure 3-11 for illustration).
53
b)
a)
Figure 3-11: Ledge length effect on support region; (a) short ledge, (b) long ledge
Series I was designed to evaluate the influence of the ledge length on the strength
and serviceability of the inverted-T specimens. Twenty tests were conducted in eight
groups of two or three directly comparable specimens, in which every parameter was kept
constant except the ledge length. The specimens evaluated in this series are outlined in
Table 3-2.
54
Table 3-2: Series I: Ledge length
Test
01a
10a
15a
15b
17b
02a
03a
17a
01b
10b
02b
03b
06b
04a
11a
18b
16a
18a
06a
04b
Ledge Number
Web
Length of Loads Depth (in.)
DS1-42-1.85-03
Short
Deep
1
42
DL1-42-1.85-03
Long
DC3-42-1.85-03
Cut-off
DS3-42-1.85-03 Deep Short
3
42
DL3-42-1.85-03
Long
DS1-42-1.85-06
Short
Deep
1
42
DL1-42-1.85-06
Long
DC1-42-2.50-03
Cut-off
DS1-42-2.50-03 Deep Short
1
42
DL1-42-2.50-03
Long
DS1-42-2.50-06
Short
Deep
1
42
DL1-42-2.50-06
Long
SC3-42-1.85-03
Cut-off
SS3-42-1.85-03 Shallow Short
3
42
SL3-42-1.85-03
Long
SC1-42-2.50-03
Cut-off
SS1-42-2.50-03 Shallow Short
1
42
SL1-42-2.50-03
Long
SC3-42-2.50-03
Cut-off
Shallow
3
42
SS3-42-2.50-03
Short
Specimen
Ledge
Depth
a/d
v= h
1.85
0.003
1.85
0.003
1.85
0.006
2.50
0.003
2.50
0.006
1.85
0.003
2.50
0.003
2.50
0.003
3.2.3.3 Series II: Ledge Depth

The purpose of the Series II specimens was to evaluate the effects on strength and
serviceability of the ledge-depth to web-depth ratio (hle / h). The inspected distressed bent
caps had values of hle / h between 0.28 and 0.42. Ledge-depth to web-depth ratios were
selected as 0.5 and 0.33 in test specimens to be representative of the distressed beams in
the field as can be seen in Figure 3-12. An attempt to design test specimens with a hle / h
ratio equal to 0.25 was made but was abandoned due to insufficient safety factors against
local ledge failures.
55
0.5
Deep ledge hle / h = 0.5

0.4
Shallow ledge hle / h = 0.33

0.3
0.2
0.1
US-59/ N W. Little
York, Bent #5 (E.
Col.)
US-59/ N W. Little
York, Bent #4 (W.
Col.)
IH-45 N. Freeway,
Bent #5 (W. Col.)
IH-45 N. Freeway,
Bent #5 (E. Col.)
IH-10/ Geronimo
Exit, Bent #5 (N.
Col.)
IH-10/ Geronimo,
Bent #4 (S. Col.)
IH-35/ LP 340, Bent

#19 (E. Col.)
IH-35/ LP 340, Bent

#17 (E. Col.)
Figure 3-12: hle / h ratios of distressed bent caps in service in Texas

As mentioned in section 3.2.3.2, tension-chord loading of the specimens induces a
tension field in the web as the forces have to be hung to the compression chord. The
ledge depth has a direct effect on the width of the area over which this tension field
spreads. Deeper ledges allow applied forces to spread over a wider area and consequently
can decrease the tensile stresses in the web. This effect is illustrated in Figure 3-13.
56
(a)
Deep
Ledge
(b)
Shallow
Ledge
Figure 3-13: Load spreading in specimens with: (a) deep ledge and (b) shallow ledge
Additionally, the ledge depth will define the inclination of the ledge strut as
shown in Figure 3-14. This inclination will impact the strength of the ledge and may lead
to incompatibility of strains in the associated nodes particularly as the angle between the
strut and tie reduces below 25 degrees.
qDeep
qShallow
Figure 3-14: Inclination angle of ledge strut
57
The test specimens were constructed with hle / h equal to 0.5 or 0.33 as illustrated
in Figure 3-15. These hle / h ratios are representative of the range of configurations used
in practice. Eighteen tests are included in this series for a total of nine direct comparisons.
The specimens evaluated in this series are outlined in Table 3-3.
(a)
(b)
Figure 3-15: Ledge Depths; (a) Deep Ledge, (b) Shallow Ledge (Garber 2011)
58
Table 3-3: Series II: Ledge depth
Test
16b
01a
06b
15a
04a
15b
11a
17b
20a
20b
18b
17a
16a
01b
18a
10b
04b
09a
Ledge
Depth
SS1-42-1.85-03 Shallow
DS1-42-1.85-03 Deep
SC3-42-1.85-03 Shallow
DC3-42-1.85-03 Deep
DS3-42-1.85-03 Deep
SL3-42-1.85-03 Shallow
DL3-42-1.85-03 Deep
DC1-42-1.85-03 Deep
DC1-42-2.50-03 Deep
DS1-42-2.50-03 Deep
SL1-42-2.50-03 Shallow
DL1-42-2.50-03 Deep
DS3-42-2.50-03 Deep
Specimen
Ledge Number
Web
a/d
v= h
Short
42
1.85
0.003
Cut-Off
42
1.85
0.003
Short
42
1.85
0.003
Long
42
1.85
0.003
Cut-Off
42
1.85
0.003
Cut-Off
42
2.50
0.003
Short
42
2.50
0.003
Long
42
2.50
0.003
Short
42
2.50
0.003
3.2.3.4 Series III: Web Reinforcement Ratio

This series was designed to evaluate the effects of web reinforcement on strength
and serviceability of inverted-T specimens, considering direct strut or double panel
failure modes. Two amounts of web reinforcement were used: 0.3% and 0.6% of the
effective web area (Figure 3-16). In most tests, the vertical and horizontal web
reinforcement ratios were equal. Two specimens had 0.3% horizontal and 0.6% vertical
web reinforcement ratios. The lower limit of 0.3% was selected to match the minimum
requirement of the TxDOT Bridge Design Manual LRFD (2011), the AASHTO LRFD
Bridge Design Specifications 2012, and the findings of TxDOT Research Project 0-5253.
The maximum limit of 0.6% was selected to encompass the maximum reinforcement
ratios found in the distressed bents in the field of 0.57%. Web reinforcements were
59
chosen such that bar spacing was small enough to ensure adequate crack control (see
Figure 3-16). According to Project 0-5253, adequate crack control was ensured for web
bar spacing less than 12 in. or d/4. Fourteen tests were conducted in six groups of two or
three directly comparable specimens in which every parameter was kept constant except
the web reinforcement ratio. The specimens evaluated in this series are outlined in Table
3-4.
6.5
#5 Rebar
#4 Rebar
6.5
(a)
(b)
Figure 3-16: Web reinforcement ratios; (a) #5 @ 5 on center at each face with
v = h = 0.006, (b) #4 @ 6.5 on center at each face with v = h = 0.003
60
Table 3-4: Series III: Web reinforcement ratio

Test
01a
19a
02a
10a
03a
11a
12a
01b
19b
02b
10b
03b
04b
05b
Specimen
Ledge
Depth
DS1-42-1.85-03
DS1-42-1.85-06/03 Deep
DS1-42-1.85-06
DL1-42-1.85-03
Deep
DL1-42-1.85-06
SL3-42-1.85-03
Shallow
SL3-42-1.85-06
DS1-42-2.50-03
DS1-42-2.50-06/03 Deep
DS1-42-2.50-06
DL1-42-2.50-03
Deep
DL1-42-2.50-06
SS3-42-2.50-03
Shallow
SS3-42-2.50-06
Ledge Number
Web
a/d
Short
42
1.85
Long
42
1.85
Long
42
2.50
Short
42
1.85
Long
42
2.50
Short
42
2.50
0.003
0.006 0.003
0.006
0.003
0.006
0.003
0.006
0.003
0.006 0.003
0.006
0.003
0.006
0.003
0.006
3.2.3.5 Series IV: Number of Point Loads

This series was designed to evaluate the effects of single vs. multiple loading
points on strength and serviceability of inverted-T specimens. The specimens in this
series were loaded with one or three point loads (Figure 3-17). The specimens with a
single loading point allowed for a direct comparison with compression-chord loaded
specimens from TxDOT project 0-5253. The specimens with multiple loading points
allowed the use of shallower ledges as distributing the applied force to multiple locations
helped prevent local failure of the ledge and ensured web shear failure. Twelve tests were
conducted in six groups of two directly comparable specimens in which every parameter
was kept constant except the number of point loads. The specimens evaluated in this
series are outlined in Table 3-5.
61
a)
b)
Figure 3-17: (a) One point load specimen, (b) three point load specimen
Table 3-5: Series IV: number of point loads

Test
16b
04a
01a
15b
10a
17b
18b
06a
16a
04b
01b
09a
Specimen
SS1-42-1.85-03
SS3-42-1.85-03
DS1-42-1.85-03
DS3-42-1.85-03
DL1-42-1.85-03
DL3-42-1.85-03
SC1-42-2.50-03
SC3-42-2.50-03
SS1-42-2.50-03
SS3-42-2.50-03
DS1-42-2.50-03
DS3-42-2.50-03
Ledge
Depth
Ledge Number
Web
1
Shallow Short
42
3
1
Deep
Short
42
3
1
Deep
Long
42
3
1
Shallow Cut-Off
42
3
1
Shallow Short
42
3
1
Deep
Short
42
3
a/d
v= h
1.85
0.003
1.85
0.003
1.85
0.003
2.50
0.003
2.50
0.003
2.50
0.003
3.2.3.6 Series V: Loaded Chord

The purpose of this series is to evaluate the differences between compression- and
tension-chord loaded members. Strength and serviceability of tension-chord loaded
specimens tested in this project will be compared with compression-chord loaded
specimens from the previous TxDOT Project 0-5253. Twenty three tests were conducted
62
in four groups of directly comparable specimens, in which every parameter was kept
constant except the loaded chord. The specimens evaluated in this series are outlined in
Table 3-6.
Table 3-6: Series V: Loaded chord
Test
Specimen
01a
10a
16b
20b
20a
5A
9A
7A
7B
14a
7c
13B
13a
02a
03a
13b
10b
17a
18b
16a
18a
18b
11B
DS1-42-1.85-03
DL1-42-1.85-03
SS1-42-1.85-03
SC1-42-1.85-03
DC1-42-1.85-03
III-1.85-03 *
III-1.85-03b *
I-03-2 *
I-03-4 *
SS1-75-1.85-03b
SS1-75-1.85-03(c)
IV-2175-1.85-03 *
DC1-42-1.85-06
DS1-42-1.85-06
DL1-42-1.85-06
C1-42-1.85-06
DL1-42-2.50-03
DC1-42-2.50-03
SC1-42-2.50-03
SS1-42-2.50-03
SL1-42-2.50-03
SC1-42-2.50-03 (c)
III-2.5-03 *
Ledge
Depth
Deep
Deep
Shallow
Shallow
Deep
Shallow
Deep
Deep
Shallow
Deep
Deep
Shallow
Shallow
Shallow
-
Ledge
Length
Short
Long
Short
Cut-Off
Cut-Off
Loaded
Number
Web
Chord
of Loads Depth (in.)
Tension
Tension
Tension
42
Tension
1
Tension
Compression
Compression
Compression
44
Compression
Short
Tension
Compression
1
75
Compression
Short
Tension
Long
Tension
1
42
Short
Tension
Compression
Long
Tension
Cut-Off
Tension
Cut-Off
Tension
Short
Tension
1
42
Long
Tension
Compression
Compression
a/d
v= h
1.85
0.003
1.85
0.003
1.85
0.006
2.50
0.003
* Specimen from previous TxDOT Project 0-5253

(c) Inverted-T specimen loaded at the compression chord
3.2.3.7 Series VI: Web Depth

This series was designed to evaluate the effects of web depth on strength and
serviceability of inverted-T specimens. Literature review revealed a significant difference
in size of the distressed bent caps in the field and the specimens used to calibrate the
shear provisions in the current code (TxDOT Bridge Design Manual - 2011). Full-scale
specimens with different web depths were constructed to evaluate the web depth effect.
63
Web depths of 42 and 75 in. were used in this series. This series contains four specimens
in two pairs of directly comparable specimens, in which every parameter was kept
constant except the web depth. The specimens evaluated in this series are outlined in
Table 3-7. Test setup restrictions limited the number of specimens that could be
successfully tested for this series.
Table 3-7: Series VI: Web depth
Test
16b
14a
16a
22a
3.3
Specimen
SS1-42-1.85-03
SS1-75-1.85-03b
SS1-42-2.50-03
SS1-75-2.50-03
Ledge
Depth
Shallow
Shallow
Ledge Number
Web
42
Short
1
75
42
Short
1
75
a/d
v =h
1.85
0.003
1.85
0.003
SPECIMEN DESIGN
Specimens of the experimental program were designed using the Strut-and-Tie
Modeling (STM) provisions of TxDOT Project 5253. Estimated capacities were also
calculated using the AASHTO LRFD 2012, and TxDOT LRFD 2011 specifications.
Furlong, et al. (1974) identified six failure modes in inverted-T beams:
1. Flexure. Either controlled by yielding of the main reinforcement leading to
excessive cracking or by concrete crushing in the compression block.
2. Torsion. Compression in top or compression in bottom.
3. Web Shear. This failure mode is the focus of the current project.
4. Yielding of hanger reinforcement.
5. Punching shear in ledge.
6. Shear friction in ledge.
Consistent with the objectives of the project, the specimens in this experimental
program were designed to fail in web shear. STM inherently considers all failure modes.
In order to ensure web shear failures, the strut-and-tie designs were adjusted such that
specimen capacities are controlled by the elements carrying the web shear; i.e. direct strut
64
for beams with a/d = 1.85, and intermediate web tie for beams with a/d = 2.50 (see
Figure 3-18).
Figure 3-18: Strut-and-tie model, web-shear critical elements
According to STM procedures, elements governing the capacities of the invertedT specimens are:
1. Strut-to-Node Interface (STNI) at the support
2. STNI at the compression chord
3. Intermediate tie
4. Hanger tie
5. Tension chord
6. Bearing at loads and support
7. Ledge tie
8. Ledge strut
When estimating specimen capacities using the TxDOT LRFD and AASHTO
LRFD specifications the following elements need to be considered:
9. Bearing at loads and support
10. Stirrups for web shear
11. Hangers at service
12. Hangers at ultimate
13. Shear friction steel
14. Shear friction concrete
15. Ledge punching shear
65
16. Ledge reinforcement

17. Flexure
The location of the listed design elements is shown in Figure 3-19. Ratios of
capacity to demand for each one of these elements are presented in Table 3-8 to Table
3-10 for all three design methods. The estimated nominal capacity (Vn) of each specimen
is also presented in the tables and is taken as the shear at the critical section that causes
the weakest element in each specimen to fail. In the tables, a value of 1.00 indicates the
element governing the capacity of the specimen. Highlighted in the tables are values
between 1.00 and 1.20 indicating potentially critical elements. The specified yield stress
of steel was 60 ksi. The specified compressive strength of concrete was 3000, 3500, and
4000 psi for the various beams. Even though initial designs were made using specified
material properties, results in Table 3-8 to Table 3-10 are based on measured material
properties that are listed in sections 3.4.1and 3.4.2. Appendix C contains a detailed design
example of one of the experimental specimens.
66
a/d = 1.85
2
4
6
5
a/d = 2.50
2
3
1
4
6
5
11-12
17
14
15
10
7
8
13
16
Figure 3-19: Location of critical elements for design
67
Table 3-8: Capacity / demand design ratios using the STM TxDOT 5253 provisions
Ledge strut
Ledge tie
Bearing at
loads
Tension Chord
Hanger tie
DS1-42-1.85-03
DS1-42-2.50-03
DS1-42-1.85-06
DS1-42-2.50-06
DL1-42-1.85-06
DL1-42-2.50-06
SS3-42-1.85-03
SS3-42-2.50-03
SS3-42-2.50-06
SC3-42-2.50-03
SC3-42-1.85-03
SS1-75-1.85-03
SS1-75-2.50-06
DS3-42-2.50-03
DL1-42-1.85-03
DL1-42-2.50-03
SL3-42-1.85-03
SL3-42-1.85-06
SS1-75-1.85-03b
DC3-42-1.85-03
DS3-42-1.85-03
SS1-42-2.50-03
SS1-42-1.85-03
DC1-42-2.50-03
DL3-42-1.85-03
SL1-42-2.50-03
SC1-42-2.50-03
DS1-42-1.85-06/03
DS1-42-2.50-06/03
SC1-42-1.85-03
DC1-42-1.85-03
Intermediate tie
01a
01b
02a
02b
03a
03b
04a
04b
05b
06a
06b
07a
08b
09a
10a
10b
11a
12a
14a
15a
15b
16a
16b
17a
17b
18a
18b
19a
19b
20a
20b
STNI at
compression
chord
Specimen
STNI at
support
Test
Vn
STM TxDOT 5253 (Capacity/Demand)
kips
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
463
202
479
338
464
353
456
215
415
257
427
628
474
236
468
235
409
424
361
370
389
213
503
250
359
269
258
361
417
444
460
1.00
3.49
1.00
2.13
1.00
2.01
1.00
3.12
1.67
2.62
1.00
1.10
1.00
2.81
1.00
2.86
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
3.11
1.00
2.10
1.00
2.20
2.16
1.00
1.73
1.18
1.02
1.81
3.59
1.86
2.35
1.90
2.13
1.63
5.67
3.01
3.49
1.32
1.52
2.02
6.49
1.91
3.38
1.72
1.68
1.83
1.33
2.11
4.18
1.49
1.32
1.67
1.71
1.12
1.94
1.73
1.00
1.00
N/A
1.00
N/A
1.00
N/A
1.00
N/A
1.00
1.00
1.00
N/A
N/A
1.61
1.00
N/A
1.00
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
1.00
N/A
1.00
N/A
1.00
1.00
N/A
1.00
N/A
N/A
1.64
2.20
1.53
1.56
1.58
1.50
1.75
3.17
1.83
2.83
1.70
1.00
1.00
2.34
1.19
1.17
1.83
1.84
1.60
1.41
1.64
3.08
1.51
2.00
1.88
2.51
2.15
2.07
1.63
1.20
1.43
1.49
2.53
1.41
1.48
1.53
1.51
1.14
2.00
1.06
1.57
1.24
2.07
2.26
1.72
1.58
2.33
1.36
1.25
3.37
1.27
1.21
2.35
1.35
1.89
1.38
1.88
1.83
1.63
1.39
1.35
1.24
2.65
5.33
2.50
3.11
2.48
2.92
4.81
8.42
4.63
7.03
5.13
1.98
1.84
7.41
2.51
4.34
4.59
4.62
1.67
4.20
4.00
5.53
2.70
3.31
4.36
3.29
3.42
2.39
2.38
1.61
1.43
1.75
2.52
1.66
1.50
1.72
1.64
1.25
2.19
1.35
2.15
1.57
1.79
1.52
2.92
1.20
1.46
2.20
2.17
2.27
4.01
2.64
3.06
1.50
3.61
2.69
1.76
1.83
2.05
1.50
1.10
1.71
2.22
4.42
2.14
2.64
2.16
2.51
2.88
5.03
2.68
4.21
3.07
1.57
1.39
5.99
2.16
3.74
2.96
2.92
1.55
3.73
3.55
3.36
1.64
3.07
3.98
2.25
2.35
2.19
2.18
1.10
1.33
68
Table 3-9: Capacity / demand design ratios using the TxDOT LRFD provisions
Punching shear
Ledge
reinforcement
Flexure
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
238
240
362
363
359
316
255
255
377
249
249
387
293
248
237
197
240
381
358
231
231
252
252
220
223
229
229
319
422
236
231
6.25
5.44
4.01
3.52
3.90
3.97
10.47
8.63
6.20
8.85
10.72
3.90
3.61
8.56
6.02
6.29
9.50
6.23
2.04
8.17
8.17
5.68
6.55
4.56
8.51
4.70
4.70
3.28
2.86
3.68
3.46
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.14
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.20
1.14
1.00
1.00
1.20
1.00
1.00
1.07
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
4.11
2.44
3.66
2.55
6.11
5.23
8.53
6.03
3.86
7.22
8.75
1.89
2.03
4.20
2.87
1.87
8.49
5.57
2.03
8.91
5.26
4.39
5.06
4.34
7.23
4.97
4.35
3.03
2.17
4.11
4.19
3.43
2.13
2.30
1.67
2.32
1.67
5.60
3.96
2.28
4.26
5.16
1.61
1.81
2.76
2.50
1.77
5.57
3.66
1.80
6.19
4.37
2.76
3.19
3.15
4.75
3.09
2.56
2.48
1.81
2.52
3.17
2.13
1.27
1.43
1.02
1.45
1.00
4.48
3.17
1.50
2.73
3.31
1.00
1.00
2.28
1.53
1.00
4.76
2.99
1.53
3.25
2.71
2.96
3.42
1.43
3.83
3.27
2.18
1.41
1.01
2.19
2.23
4.28
3.64
2.88
2.50
2.91
2.87
4.83
3.98
1.61
2.45
2.97
2.44
2.09
6.54
4.40
4.60
5.12
3.22
1.88
4.66
7.77
2.25
2.59
2.06
8.79
2.48
1.65
2.84
2.47
1.39
2.26
2.42
2.08
1.59
1.39
1.57
1.58
3.57
2.95
2.05
1.93
2.34
1.33
1.19
4.33
2.41
2.51
3.51
2.25
1.00
2.74
4.61
1.49
1.71
1.19
5.01
1.42
1.21
1.43
1.24
1.23
1.69
3.95
2.35
2.56
1.83
2.59
1.86
4.77
3.39
1.36
2.45
2.97
2.38
1.99
3.45
2.90
1.90
5.16
3.31
3.06
4.58
4.22
3.37
3.89
2.23
6.06
4.53
2.32
2.69
1.93
2.09
3.19
2.54
1.87
1.64
1.21
1.75
1.47
1.99
1.64
1.13
1.63
1.98
1.61
1.75
1.57
2.76
2.46
2.29
1.36
1.73
1.99
1.99
1.79
2.42
2.14
2.28
2.04
2.04
1.64
1.43
2.59
2.62
69
Shear friction
concrete
Shear friction
steel
kips
Hanger at
service
DS1-42-1.85-03
DS1-42-2.50-03
DS1-42-1.85-06
DS1-42-2.50-06
DL1-42-1.85-06
DL1-42-2.50-06
SS3-42-1.85-03
SS3-42-2.50-03
SS3-42-2.50-06
SC3-42-2.50-03
SC3-42-1.85-03
SS1-75-1.85-03
SS1-75-2.50-06
DS3-42-2.50-03
DL1-42-1.85-03
DL1-42-2.50-03
SL3-42-1.85-03
SL3-42-1.85-06
SS1-75-1.85-03b
DC3-42-1.85-03
DS3-42-1.85-03
SS1-42-2.50-03
SS1-42-1.85-03
DC1-42-2.50-03
DL3-42-1.85-03
SL1-42-2.50-03
SC1-42-2.50-03
DS1-42-1.85-06/03
DS1-42-2.50-06/03
SC1-42-1.85-03
DC1-42-1.85-03
Shear stirrups
01a
01b
02a
02b
03a
03b
04a
04b
05b
06a
06b
07a
08b
09a
10a
10b
11a
12a
14a
15a
15b
16a
16b
17a
17b
18a
18b
19a
19b
20a
20b
Bearing at
loads
Specimen
Vn
Test
Hanger at
ultimate
TxDOT LRFD - 2011 (Capacity/Demand)
Table 3-10: Capacity / demand design ratios using the AASHTO LRFD provisions
Hanger at
service
Hanger at
ultimate
Shear friction
steel
Shear friction
concrete
Punching shear
Ledge
reinforcement
Flexure
DS1-42-1.85-03
DS1-42-2.50-03
DS1-42-1.85-06
DS1-42-2.50-06
DL1-42-1.85-06
DL1-42-2.50-06
SS3-42-1.85-03
SS3-42-2.50-03
SS3-42-2.50-06
SC3-42-2.50-03
SC3-42-1.85-03
SS1-75-1.85-03
SS1-75-2.50-06
DS3-42-2.50-03
DL1-42-1.85-03
DL1-42-2.50-03
SL3-42-1.85-03
SL3-42-1.85-06
SS1-75-1.85-03b
DC3-42-1.85-03
DS3-42-1.85-03
SS1-42-2.50-03
SS1-42-1.85-03
DC1-42-2.50-03
DL3-42-1.85-03
SL1-42-2.50-03
SC1-42-2.50-03
DS1-42-1.85-06/03
DS1-42-2.50-06/03
SC1-42-1.85-03
DC1-42-1.85-03
Shear stirrups
01a
01b
02a
02b
03a
03b
04a
04b
05b
06a
06b
07a
08b
09a
10a
10b
11a
12a
14a
15a
15b
16a
16b
17a
17b
18a
18b
19a
19b
20a
20b
Specimen
Bearing at
loads
Test
Vn
AASHTO LRFD - 2012 (Capacity/Demand)
kips
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
238
240
362
363
359
316
255
255
377
249
249
387
293
248
237
197
240
381
358
231
231
252
252
220
223
229
229
319
422
236
231
6.25
5.44
4.01
3.52
3.90
3.97
10.47
8.63
6.20
8.85
10.72
3.90
3.61
8.56
6.02
6.29
9.50
6.23
2.04
8.17
8.17
5.68
6.55
4.56
8.51
4.70
4.70
3.28
2.86
3.68
3.46
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.14
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.20
1.14
1.00
1.00
1.20
1.00
1.00
1.07
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
3.08
1.83
2.07
1.47
2.09
1.44
6.40
4.52
2.89
5.41
6.56
1.42
1.52
3.15
2.15
1.41
6.37
4.18
1.53
6.69
3.94
3.29
3.80
3.26
5.42
3.73
3.27
2.27
1.63
3.08
3.14
3.43
2.13
2.30
1.67
2.32
1.67
5.60
3.96
2.28
4.26
5.16
1.61
1.81
2.76
2.50
1.77
5.57
3.66
1.80
6.19
4.37
2.76
3.19
3.15
4.75
3.09
2.56
2.48
1.81
2.52
3.17
2.13
1.27
1.43
1.02
1.45
1.00
4.48
3.17
1.50
2.73
3.31
1.00
1.00
2.28
1.53
1.00
4.76
2.99
1.53
3.25
2.71
2.96
3.42
1.43
3.83
3.27
2.18
1.41
1.01
2.19
2.23
4.28
3.64
2.88
2.50
2.91
2.87
4.83
3.98
1.61
2.45
2.97
2.44
2.09
6.54
4.40
4.60
5.12
3.22
1.88
4.66
7.77
2.25
2.59
2.06
8.79
2.48
1.65
2.84
2.47
1.39
2.26
2.42
2.08
1.59
1.39
1.57
1.58
3.57
2.95
2.05
1.93
2.34
1.33
1.19
4.33
2.41
2.51
3.51
2.25
1.00
2.74
4.61
1.49
1.71
1.19
5.01
1.42
1.21
1.43
1.24
1.23
1.69
3.95
2.35
2.56
1.83
2.59
1.86
4.77
3.39
1.36
2.45
2.97
2.38
1.99
3.45
2.90
1.90
5.16
3.31
3.06
4.58
4.22
3.37
3.89
2.23
6.06
4.53
2.32
2.69
1.93
2.09
3.19
2.54
1.87
1.64
1.21
1.75
1.47
1.99
1.64
1.13
1.63
1.98
1.61
1.75
1.57
2.76
2.46
2.29
1.36
1.73
1.99
1.99
1.79
2.42
2.14
2.28
2.04
2.04
1.64
1.43
2.59
2.62
As can be seen from Table 3-8, all specimens were expected to fail by web shear
or hanger ties according to STM provisions of TxDOT Project 5253. Only limited
concerns of localized ledge failures and flexural failures arose at the design phase.
Capacity predictions shown in Table 3-9, using the TxDOT LRFD 2011
specifications, and Table 3-10, using the AASHTO LRFD 2012, indicate that most
70
specimens should fail by web shear with only a few showing other modes of failure as
slightly more critical.
3.4
FABRICATION OF SPECIMENS
Test specimens were constructed using materials and methods typically used in
practice. Steel formwork was used to expedite the fabrication process and ensure
dimensional accuracy. Specimens were allowed to cure for at least 28 days prior to
testing. The following sections describe in detail the construction process and materials
used.
3.4.1
Steel Reinforcement Properties

Grade 60 deformed bars satisfying the requirements of ASTM A615 were used
for all steel reinforcement. Each bar size for every beam was tested to determine actual
yield strength in accordance with ASTM A370 testing procedures. Measured material
properties of the reinforcements for each specimen are summarized in Table 3-11.
71
Table 3-11: Mean yield stress of reinforcement
Test
01a
01b
02a
02b
03a
03b
04a
04b
05b
06a
06b
07a
08b
09a
10a
10b
11a
12a
14a
15a
15b
16a
16b
17a
17b
18a
18b
19a
19b
20a
20b
Specimen
DS1-42-1.85-03
DS1-42-2.50-03
DS1-42-1.85-06
DS1-42-2.50-06
DL1-42-1.85-06
DL1-42-2.50-06
SS3-42-1.85-03
SS3-42-2.50-03
SS3-42-2.50-06
SC3-42-2.50-03
SC3-42-1.85-03
SS1-75-1.85-03
SS1-75-2.50-06
DS3-42-2.50-03
DL1-42-1.85-03
DL1-42-2.50-03
SL3-42-1.85-03
SL3-42-1.85-06
SS1-75-1.85-03b
DC3-42-1.85-03
DS3-42-1.85-03
SS1-42-2.50-03
SS1-42-1.85-03
DC1-42-2.50-03
DL3-42-1.85-03
SL1-42-2.50-03
SC1-42-2.50-03
DS1-42-1.85-06/03
DS1-42-2.50-06/03
SC1-42-1.85-03
DC1-42-1.85-03
# 11 Bars # 6 Bars
f y (ksi) f y (ksi)
69.24
69.24
64.13
64.13
67.90
67.90
68.60
68.60
69.50
66.20
66.20
64.95
72.50
63.60
71.01
71.01
75.18
70.38
66.10
63.63
63.63
65.44
65.44
70.06
70.06
68.70
68.70
65.80
65.80
66.36
66.36
63.38
63.38
63.38
63.38
63.38
63.38
64.68
64.68
61.83
63.50
63.50
62.03
66.50
62.63
61.90
61.90
60.62
63.26
61.97
66.00
66.00
69.57
69.57
64.13
64.13
71.41
71.41
70.92
70.92
64.04
64.04
72
# 5 Bars
f y (ksi)
# 4 Bars
f y (ksi)
64.69
64.69
60.68
60.68
64.69
64.69
62.75
62.75
60.90
60.25
60.25
73.15
61.53
60.22
64.29
64.29
63.58
64.80
64.69
63.09
63.09
77.76
77.76
69.77
69.77
N/A
N/A
64.94
64.94
N/A
N/A
63.14
63.14
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
67.25
67.25
N/A
64.27
64.27
65.73
N/A
64.58
64.43
64.43
65.57
62.62
65.08
63.16
63.16
66.58
66.58
62.44
62.44
64.47
64.47
65.18
65.18
67.28
67.28
3.4.2
Concrete Properties
TxDOT engineers typically specify concrete strengths ranging between 3600 and
5000 psi for inverted-T bent caps. Specimens were designed using specified compressive
strengths of 3000, 3500, and 4000. The variations in specified compressive strengths
were intended to ensure web shear failures. Mean compressive strength of three cylinders
was measured the same day of testing for each specimen; actual strengths varied from
2870 to 6400 psi. For each specimen, standard 4 x 8 test cylinders were cast following
ASTM C31 procedures and tested in accordance with ASTM C39. Typical proportions of
the concrete mixture are presented in Table 3-12. A summary of all specimen concrete
compressive strengths are presented in Table 3-13.
Table 3-12: Typical concrete mixture proportions for a specified

28-day compressive strength of 3000 psi
Material
Type I Portland Cement
Flys Ash
CA: 3/4" River Rock
FA: Sand
Water
HRWR Admixture
Set Retardant Admixture
Water/Cement Ratio
Slump
73
Quantity
300 lb/cy
79 lb/cy
1846 lb/cy
1554 lb/cy
22 gallons/cy
30 oz/cy
5.6 oz/cy
0.62
6 2 inches
Table 3-13: Mean compressive strengths at testing day
Test
01a
01b
02a
02b
03a
03b
04a
04b
05b
06a
06b
07a
08b
09a
10a
10b
11a
12a
13a
13b
14a
15a
15b
16a
16b
17a
17b
18a
18b
19a
19b
20a
20b
Specimen
DS1-42-1.85-03
DS1-42-2.50-03
DS1-42-1.85-06
DS1-42-2.50-06
DL1-42-1.85-06
DL1-42-2.50-06
SS3-42-1.85-03
SS3-42-2.50-03
SS3-42-2.50-06
SC3-42-2.50-03
SC3-42-1.85-03
SS1-75-1.85-03
SS1-75-2.50-06
DS3-42-2.50-03
DL1-42-1.85-03
DL1-42-2.50-03
SL3-42-1.85-03
SL3-42-1.85-06
DC1-42-1.85-06
C1-42-1.85-06
SS1-75-1.85-03b
DC3-42-1.85-03
DS3-42-1.85-03
SS1-42-2.50-03
SS1-42-1.85-03
DC1-42-2.50-03
DL3-42-1.85-03
SL1-42-2.50-03
SC1-42-2.50-03
DS1-42-1.85-06/03
DS1-42-2.50-06/03
SC1-42-1.85-03
DC1-42-1.85-03
74
f 'c
(psi)
5258
5389
5024
5088
4830
4986
5891
5891
6255
5873
5873
5925
6404
5687
4929
4929
5037
5250
3727
3727
2867
4568
4568
5703
5721
4035
4202
4281
4281
4173
4173
4330
4303
3.4.3
Construction of Specimens
Cage assembly, strain gage instrumentation, and casting took approximately two
weeks per beam. Specimens were allowed to cure for at least 28 days before testing.
Specimens were built and tested in an up-side down orientation (i.e., loaded from the
bottom). Reinforcing steel was ordered from a local supplier; bars were cut and bent
before being shipped to the Ferguson Laboratory. Upon assembling of the steel cages
(Figure 3-20a), strain gauges were glued to the steel reinforcement as described in section
3.5.1. The specimens were then moved to the casting area (Figure 3-20b) and placed into
the steel forms (Figure 3-20c). Two pre-mixed concrete trucks were ordered from a local
supplier for each 75-in deep beam, and one truck per each 42-in deep beam. For each
truck a slump tests was conducted according to ASTM C143. Within the limit of the
water held back at the batch plant, water was added to each mix to adjust the slump to the
target value of 6 2 in. Concrete was placed using a one-cubic yard bucket lifted by an
overhead crane as shown in Figure 3-20d. Internal and external vibrators were used to
ensure proper consolidation (Figure 3-20e). After initial setting, the top surface was
finished (Figure 3-20f-g) and covered with a plastic film to limit water evaporation.
Seven days after casting, forms were striped, specimens were uncovered, and stored in
the laboratory for at least 28 days before testing.
75
(a)
(c)
(b)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
Figure 3-20: Fabrication of Specimens; (a) cage assembly and instrumentation, (b)
cage being moved to casting area, (c) re-bar cage in the steel formwork, (d) placing of
concrete (e) internal vibrators, (f) screeding, (g) top surface finishing (from Garber
2011)
76
3.5
TEST SETUP
Specimens were tested at the Ferguson Structural Engineering Laboratory of the
University of Texas at Austin. The setup consists of an upside-down simply-supported

beam test setup (Figure 3-21). U-shape loading frames were introduced to spread loads
around the web and load the ledges evenly on both faces of the test specimens; as shown
in Figure 3-21. More details on the loading U frame can be found in Garber (2011).
The centerpiece of the setup is a 96,000-lb steel platen that serves as a rigid floor. Twelve
3-in diameter rods threaded into the strong floor reacted against two 7,000-lb transfer
girders. More details are available in Huizinga (2007).
Loads were applied using a double-acting hydraulic ram with 6-million pound
capacity for beams with a single loading point, and three 2-million pound capacity rams
for the three point load tests.
Three-in. diameter rollers were placed between loading-point steel plates while
two-in. diameter rollers were added at the supports; the rollers allowed for horizontal
movement and bending at those locations. A -in. reinforced neoprene bearing pad was
placed between loading plates and the concrete to ensure a uniform load distribution
avoiding stress concentrations. A thin layer of self-leveling gypsum cement was applied
between the reaction plates and the concrete to ensure a smooth planar bearing surface.
77
3 Diameter rods
Transfer beam
Loading plates
and roller
Specimen
Load Cells
Support plates
and roller
Steel platen
Loading U frame
Hydraulic Ram
Figure 3-21: Test setup

Each test was monitored using several instruments to measure strains, loads,
displacements, and crack widths. Instrumentation details are provided in the following
sections.
3.5.1
Strain Measurements
Strain gauges model FLA-3-11-10LT manufactured by Tokyo Sokki Kenkyujo
Co., Ltd. were affixed to the longitudinal, hanger, and ledge reinforcement at the
locations of maximum expected strain. In the transverse reinforcement strain gauges were
placed along the axis of the critical struts, as shown in Figure 3-22 and Figure 3-23.
Specimens with a shear span-to-depth ratio of 1.85 were instrumented along the axis of
the direct strut that spans from the support to the first loading point. Specimens with a
shear span-to-depth ratios of 2.50 were instrumented with strain gauges along the axis of
78
the direct strut that spans form the support to the first loading point as well as along the
first strut from the support of the multiple panel model (Figure 3-22a).
(a) a/d = 2.50

(b) a/d = 1.85
Figure 3-22: Typical location of strain gauges in longitudinal section;
(a) a/d = 2.50, (b) a/d = 1.85
The strain gauges were placed along the axes of the critical struts to measure steel
strains at the expected locations of the primary splitting cracks. Strain measurements in
the longitudinal steel were translated to stresses to calculate forces in the tension chord of
the specimens. Strains measured on the hanger and ledge reinforcement were used to
verify the assumed 45 degree load-spread (Figure 3-23) and the associated number of
hanger bars that transfer applied loads to the compression chord.
1
1
Assumed load spreading area

(a)
(b)
Figure 3-23: Strain gauges in hanger and ledge reinforcements;

(a) longitudinal section, (b) cross section
79
The installation procedure of the strain gauges is depicted in Figure 3-24. First the
bar deformations were removed using a grinder, without significantly reducing the cross
section of the bar. The cleared surface was polished to provide a smooth planar surface
(Figure 3-24a) that was then cleaned using acetone. Strain gauges were glued to the
cleaned surface (Figure 3-24b) and covered with a butyl rubber tape to water proof them.
Finally the strain gauges were wrapped in foil tape (Figure 3-24c) to further isolate them
and the ends were sealed with electrical tape (Figure 3-24d).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 3-24: Strain gauge installation; (a) grind off bar

deformations, (b) glue strain gauges to steel bar, (c) isolate with
butyl tape and foil tape, (d) seal80ends with electrical tape
3.5.2
Load and Displacement Measurements

A pressure gauge was placed at the hydraulic line feeding the loading rams. The
pressure readings were used to confirm load cell readings. The applied forces were
measured at the reaction supports using 500-kip capacity load cells placed at each of the
twelve support rods; as shown in Figure 3-25. Care was taken to balance the reaction at
each side of the supports to prevent torsion in the test specimens.
Threaded
Support Rod
Reaction Nut
500-kip
Load Cell
Test Specimen
Transfer Girder
Figure 3-25: Load cell arrangement at supports

Beam deflections and rigid body motions were measured using an arrangement of
five linear potentiometers located one at each support, one at mid-span, and two at the
location of the loading point (Figure 3-26 and Figure 3-27). The two linear
potentiometers at the location of the loading point allowed checking for rotation of the
beam along the longitudinal axis.
81
CL
Linear potentiometers
Figure 3-26: Location of linear potentiometers
Test Specimen
Loading U Frame
Linear Potentiometer
at Mid-Span
Linear Potentiometers
at Loading Point
Figure 3-27: Linear potentiometers at the loading point
and mid-span
3.5.3
Crack Width Measurements

Diagonal crack widths were measured on each face between each load increment
using crack comparators as shown in Figure 3-28. Independent measurements were taken
by two students and then averaged. Several cracks were selected arbitrarily to be
monitored at the same location throughout the entire test. The maximum diagonal crack
width on each face was recorded between each load increment; the location of the
maximum diagonal crack width generally varied between each load increment.
82
Figure 3-28: Crack width measurement

3.6
TESTS PROCEDURE
Test specimens were monotonically loaded in 50-kip increments up to the
appearance of the first diagonal crack, then in 100-kip increments up to failure. Crack
widths were measured between each load increment. Photographs of each face of the
specimen were taken before each load increment. A video camera was used to record the
failure of each test.
Specimens with only one point load were loaded at the appropriate location to get
the desired a/d ratio. After reaching failure, the load was removed, and post-tensioning
clamps were installed (Figure 3-29). The hydraulic ram was moved to the opposite end of
the beam and the load was reapplied to fail the second test region. Both test regions
cracked during the first test on each specimen. The cracking load was therefore not
recorded for the second test region of specimens with only one loading point.
Specimens with three loading points were designed such that both ends were
tested simultaneously. For those specimens, the cracking load was obtained for both test
regions. After reaching first failure of one end of the beam, the load was removed, posttensioning clamps were installed to strengthen the failed region, and the load was
reapplied to fail the opposite end of the beam. This testing procedure is depicted in Figure
3-29.
83
a)
b)
Failure crack Test # 1
External Post-tensioning clamps
Failure Crack Test # 2

Figure 3-29: Three point loads, testing procedure; (a) test # 1,
(b) test #2 - after repair
84
3.7
SUMMARY
Details of the experimental program are provided in this chapter. Experimental
variables studied in this project were: ledge length, ledge depth, web reinforcement,
number of point loads, loaded chord, and web depth. The design procedure from which
test specimen details were obtained is outlined. Fabrication of specimens, material
properties, and construction details are also provided in this chapter.
The testing frame described in this section consisted in an upside-down simplysupported beam setup, whose centerpiece consisted in a 96,000-lb steel strong floor, with
twelve 3-in diameter threaded rods reacting against two 7,000-lb transfer girders.
The testing procedure allowed for two tests to be performed on each beam; one
test for each shear span. External post-tensioned clamps were used to strengthen the beam
after the first shear span failure to get a second test out of the second shear span. Steel
strains, applied loads, reaction forces, and beam deflections were monitored throughout
the entire tests. Crack width measurements were taken between each load increment.
Results of the experimental program are presented in Chapter 4.
85
CHAPTER 4
Experimental Results
4.1
OVERVIEW
Experimental results of strength and serviceability of the 31 tests conducted in 19
full-scale specimens as part of the TxDOT Project 0-6416 are summarized and discussed
in this chapter. A brief report for each test is provided in Appendix D. Effects of the
ledge length, ledge depth, and numbers of point loads are discussed in detail in Sections
4.4, 4.5, 4.6 respectively.
4.2
SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Strength and serviceability results of the 31 tests in the experimental program are
summarized in Table 4-1. Fabrication details of the specimens are provided in Table 4-1
and Appendix B. The variables used in Table 4-1 are defined as follows:
bw
= web width, in.
= distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tensile

reinforcement of the web, in.
fc
= compressive strength of concrete at the time of testing measured in

accordance with ASTM C39, psi.
fyl
= yield strength of longitudinal reinforcement measured in

accordance with ASTM A370, ksi.
fyv
= yield strength of transverse reinforcement measured in accordance

with ASTM A370, ksi.
fyh
= yield strength of skin reinforcement measured in accordance with

ASTM A370, ksi.
fyha
= yield strength of hanger reinforcement measured in accordance

with ASTM A370, ksi.
86
a/d ratio = shear span-to-depth ratio; with the shear span (a) measured from
the center of the reaction plate to the center of closest loading
plate
Vcrack
= shear carried in the critical section of the test region when the first
diagonal crack formed, kips; the critical section is defined as the
point halfway between the support and the nearest load.
Specific details regarding the determination of the diagonal
cracking load are presented in Section 4.2.2
Vtest
= maximum shear carried in the critical section of the test region,

including self-weight of the specimen and test setup
Specific details regarding the determination of the applied shear
are presented in Section 4.2.1
87
Table 4-1: Summary of experimental results
Test
Specimen I.D.
bw
in
d
in
f'c
psi
01a
01b
02a
02b
03a
03b
04a
04b
05b
06a
06b
07a
08b
09a
10a
10b
DS1-42-1.85-03
DS1-42-2.50-03
DS1-42-1.85-06
DS1-42-2.50-06
DL1-42-1.85-06
DL1-42-2.50-06
SS3-42-1.85-03
SS3-42-2.50-03
SS3-42-2.50-06 (f)
SC3-42-2.50-03
SC3-42-1.85-03
SS1-75-1.85-03 (p)
SS1-75-2.50-06 (p)
DS3-42-2.50-03
DL1-42-1.85-03
DL1-42-2.50-03
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
37.64
37.64
37.64
37.64
37.64
37.64
37.64
37.64
37.64
37.64
37.64
68.2
68.2
37.64
37.64
37.64
5258
5389
5024
5088
4830
4986
5891
5891
6255
5873
5873
5925
6404
5687
4929
4929
Vtest
kip
fyl fyv fyh fyha a/d Vcrack

ksi ksi ksi ksi ratio kip
69
69
64
64
68
68
69
69
70
66
66
65
73
64
71
71
63
63
61
61
61
61
67
67
61
64
64
66
62
65
64
64
63
63
61
61
61
61
67
67
61
64
64
66
62
65
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
65
65
62
64
64
62
67
63
62
62
1.96
2.65
1.85
2.50
1.85
2.50
1.85
2.50
2.50
2.50
1.85
1.87
2.53
2.50
1.85
2.50
(f) Flexural failure

(p) Punching shear failure of the ledge
88
172
N/A
188
N/A
168
N/A
126
140
115
113
90
260
232
143
242
N/A
2.99
N/A
3.35
N/A
3.06
N/A
2.08
2.31
1.84
1.87
1.48
2.36
2.02
2.40
4.36
N/A
0.24
N/A
0.30
N/A
0.23
N/A
0.24
0.31
0.22
0.34
0.19
0.28
0.34
0.33
0.39
N/A
712
406
621
503
741
622
523
447
516
329
483
913
688
430
626
510
0.17
0.10
0.16
0.13
0.19
0.16
0.11
0.10
0.10
0.07
0.10
0.11
0.08
0.10
0.16
0.13
12.42
6.99
11.09
8.93
13.48
11.15
8.62
7.38
8.25
5.44
7.98
8.28
6.01
7.21
11.28
9.19
Table 4-1 (cont.d): Summary of experimental results
Test
Specimen I.D.
bw
in
d
in
f'c
psi
11a
12a
14a
15a
15b
16a
16b
17a
17b
18a
18b
19a
19b
20a
20b
SL3-42-1.85-03
SL3-42-1.85-06
SS1-75-1.85-03b
DC3-42-1.85-03
DS3-42-1.85-03
SS1-42-2.50-03
SS1-42-1.85-03
DC1-42-2.50-03
DL3-42-1.85-03 (f)
SL1-42-2.50-03
SC1-42-2.50-03 (r)
DS1-42-2.50-06/03
DS1-42-1.85-06/03
SC1-42-1.85-03 (le)
DC1-42-1.85-03
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
37.64
37.64
68.2
37.64
37.64
37.64
37.64
37.64
37.64
37.64
37.64
37.64
37.64
37.64
37.64
5037
5250
2867
4568
4568
5703
5721
4035
4202
4281
4281
4173
4173
4330
4303
Vtest
kip
fyl fyv fyh fyha a/d Vcrack

ksi ksi ksi ksi ratio kip
75
70
66
64
64
65
65
70
70
69
69
66
66
66
66
66
65
65
63
63
67
67
62
62
64
64
65
65
67
67
66
65
65
63
63
67
67
62
62
64
64
65
65
67
67
61
63
62
66
66
70
70
64
64
71
71
71
71
64
64
1.85
1.85
1.87
1.85
1.85
2.50
1.85
2.50
1.85
2.50
2.50
2.50
1.85
1.85
1.85

(r) Shear friction failure of the web-ledge interface
(le) Horizontal ledge tie failure in cross section
89
172
154
346
152
164
157
N/A
70
276
167
N/A
115
N/A
N/A
127
3.06
2.69
4.51
2.84
3.07
2.63
N/A
1.40
5.39
3.24
N/A
2.25
N/A
N/A
2.44
0.30
0.21
0.46
0.38
0.36
0.39
N/A
0.19
0.44
0.34
N/A
0.21
N/A
N/A
0.24
571
744
745
395
454
398
583
365
629
498
319
539
739
451
517
0.14
0.18
0.18
0.11
0.13
0.09
0.13
0.11
0.19
0.15
0.09
0.16
0.22
0.13
0.15
10.17
13.00
9.72
7.39
8.49
6.67
9.75
7.28
12.27
9.62
6.18
10.56
14.47
8.67
9.98
It should be noted that the majority of the specimens sustained web shear failures,
but in a few cases flexure, ledge punching shear, diagonal strut failure in the cross section
or ledge-to-web shear friction failures were observed. The value reported for Vtest is the
maximum shear carried at the critical section at the onset of failure, regardless of the
failure mode. A note was added in Table 4-1 to the specimens which experienced a
failure mode different than web shear.
4.2.1
Evaluation of Strength Data

The shear strength of the specimens (Vtest) was defined as the maximum shear
carried at the critical section. The critical section was defined as the point halfway
between the support and the nearest load. Vtest was calculated considering the reactions
measured by the load cells at the supports (RA and RB), the self-weight of the specimen
(SW) and of the transfer girders (2PTR) as shown in Figure 4-1. The self-weight of the
ledges was considered uniformly distributed along the entire length of the beam.
Strength results are normalized by both
and
in Table 4-1.
Specimens with a/d ratios of 1.85 behaved as deep beams and generally failed by
crushing of the direct strut between the support and the loading point. Shear strength of
these specimens is related to the concrete compressive strength and the size of the
element, and therefore more appropriately normalized by
. Specimens with a/d
ratios of 2.50 typically experienced sectional shear failures whereby diagonal tension in
the web influenced the shear capacity. It is therefore more appropriate to normalize them
by
90
Critical Section
LOH
LOH
L-a
RB
PTR
RA
PTR
SW
PL + PD + 2PTR
a/2
a/2
Vtest = SW(LOH + a/2) + RB + PTR

Where:
P L = R A + RB
PTR = 7.8 kip
PD = SW (2LOH + L)
L = 255.25in.
LoH = 38.375in.
SW = Specimen
Self-Weight, kip/ft
Figure 4-1: Determination of specimen shear strength, Vtest
91
4.2.2
Evaluation of Serviceability Data

In order to evaluate the serviceability performance of the specimens, two
parameters were considered: (1) first cracking load, and (2) progression of maximum
diagonal crack width.
The first diagonal cracking load was obtained by visual observation of the test
region between load increments. These observations provided a load range in which the
first diagonal crack appeared. Visual observations were corroborated through strain
gauge data. Strain measurements from skin and transverse reinforcements were analyzed
to find the load at which a sudden increase in strain occurred. A sample evaluation of
Vcrack is illustrated in Figure 4-2.
800
700
600
Shear (kip)
500
SSV1
SSV2
400
SSV3
SSV4
300
SSV5
SSV4
SSV3
Diagonal
Cracking 200
Load
(173 kips)
100
SSV5
SSV2
SSV1
0
0
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
Stirrup Strain (in/in)
0.006
0.007
0.008
0.009
Figure 4-2: Visual and gauge-based determination of Vcrack (Garber 2011)

The maximum diagonal crack width was located and recorded between each load
increment. Measurements were taken on each face of the specimens using crack
comparator cards by two students and then averaged to minimize reading errors. A
typical crack width progression is shown in Figure 4-3.
92
% of Maximum applied load
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
0.020
0.040
0.060
Maximum Diagonal Crack Width, in.
Figure 4-3: Typical crack width progression

4.3
APPLICABILITY OF 45-DEGREE LOAD SPREAD

In this Chapter, test strength results are compared with those estimated by the
STM modeling provisions of TxDOT project 5253. To apply the provisions that were
developed for rectangular beams to inverted-T beams, a 45-degree load spread under the
applied loads was assumed for hanger-tie dimensioning. Therefore, hanger ties were
given a width equal to the length of the bearing plate (W) plus twice the depth of the
ledge (df) for short and long ledges. In cut-off ledges, the hanger tie was assumed to
spread only twice the distance from the center of the loading plate to the edge of the
ledge, as shown in Figure 4-4. The same assumptions are made in AASHTO Eq.
5.13.2.5.5-3 to calculate the strength of hanger reinforcements.
93
45
W
df
W+2df
df
Figure 4-4: 45-degree load spread; (top) short ledge, (bottom) cut-off ledge
The hanger-tie width assumptions were validated by measuring strains in the
hanger reinforcements using electrical strain gauges during the tests; as described in
Section 3.6.1. Typical measured strains normalized by yielding strains for the hanger
reinforcement are shown in Figure 4-5 and Figure 4-6.
94
Assumed hanger tie width

(45-deg spreading)
c
df
df
df
df
df
Measured Strain / Yield Strain
1
0.9
Beam 15 Tes
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
Beam 1
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
50
100
150
200
Longitudinal position (in.)
250
300
Figure 4-5: Typical hanger strains at failure (specimen 15a: DC3-42-1.85-03);

three point load test, short and cut-off ledge
95
Assumed hanger tie width (45deg spreading)

df
df
df
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
Beam 16 Test 1
0.6
0.5
Beam 16 Test 1
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
50
100
150
Longitudial position (in.)
200
250
Figure 4-6: Typical hanger strains at failure (specimen 16a: SS1-42-2.50-03);

one point load test, shallow ledge
In the above figures, high strains can be seen to concentrate within the assumed
load spread length; without reaching yield. Similar strain distributions were observed in
most specimens. Strain gauge measurements thus indicate that the 45-degree load spread
assumption is reasonable and conservative. The observations noted here are consistent
with the preliminary findings reported by Garber (2011). It is therefore recommended to
calculate the hanger tie widths as shown in Figure 4-4.
4.4
SERIES I: LEDGE LENGTH

Three different ledge lengths were found in the inspection of the distressed bent
caps in the field: (1) Cut-off ledges ledges that are interrupted right next to the outer
most stringer, (2) Long ledges ledges that run continuously from support to support,
and (3) Short ledges ledges that end between the first two extreme cases allowing for a
96
45-deg spreading of the force from the loading plate to the bottom of the beam. Section
3.2.3.2 provides background information for the ledge length series.
This series was designed to evaluate the effects of ledge length on strength and
serviceability of inverted-T straddle bent caps. The results of Series I will be used to
develop design recommendations in regards to ledge length.
4.4.1
Twenty tests have been conducted to produce eight groups of two or three directly
comparable specimens in which every parameter was kept constant except the ledge
length. A summary of the experimental results from the ledge length series is provided in
Table 4-2. All variables are defined in Section 4.2 except for Vpred, which is the
predicted shear capacity using the strut-and-tie modeling provision of TxDOT Project
5253. Note that Vpred was evaluated using measured material properties and the procedure
outlined in Section 2.5.1.
97
Table 4-2: Series I experimental results

f 'c
Vtest
(psi) (kip)
5258
712
0.17
01a DS1-42-1.85-03
10a DL1-42-1.85-03
4929
626
0.16
15a DC3-42-1.85-03
4568
395
0.11
15b DS3-42-1.85-03
4568
454
0.13
17b DL3-42-1.85-03 (f) 4202
629
0.19
06b SC3-42-1.85-03
5873
483
0.10
04a SS3-42-1.85-03
5891
523
0.11
11a SL3-42-1.85-03
5037
571
0.14
02a DS1-42-1.85-06
5024
621
0.16
03a DL1-42-1.85-06
4830
741
0.19
17a DC1-42-2.50-03
4035
365
0.11
01b DS1-42-2.50-03
5389
406
0.10
10b DL1-42-2.50-03
4929
510
0.13
18b SC1-42-2.50-03 (r) 4281
319
0.09
16a SS1-42-2.50-03
5703
398
0.09
18a SL1-42-2.50-03
4281
498
0.15
06a SC3-42-2.50-03
5873
329
0.07
04b SS3-42-2.50-03
5891
447
0.10
02b DS1-42-2.50-06
5088
503
0.13
03b DL1-42-2.50-06
4986
622
0.16
(r) Shear friction failure of the web-to-ledge interface
Test
Vcrack
(kip)
Specimen
12.42
11.28
7.39
8.49
12.27
7.98
8.62
10.17
11.09
13.48
7.28
6.99
9.19
6.18
6.67
9.62
5.44
7.38
8.93
11.15
172
242
152
164
276
90
126
172
188
168
70
N/A
N/A
N/A
157
167
113
140
N/A
N/A
Vpred
(kip)
2.99
4.36
2.84
3.07
5.39
1.48
2.08
3.06
3.35
3.06
1.40
N/A
N/A
N/A
2.63
3.24
1.87
2.31
N/A
N/A
463
468
370
389
359
427
456
409
479
464
250
202
235
258
213
269
257
215
338
353
1.54
1.34
1.07
1.17
1.75
1.13
1.15
1.39
1.30
1.60
1.46
2.01
2.17
1.24
1.87
1.85
1.28
2.08
1.49
1.76
It is important to note that all specimens in this series failed in web shear except
DL3-42-1.85-03 and SC1-42-2.50-03, which failed in flexure and shear friction
respectively. The value reported for Vtest is the maximum shear carried at the critical
section at the onset of failure, regardless of the failure mode.
4.4.2
Strength Results
Twenty tests are compared in eight groups of two or three directly comparable
specimens in which every parameter was kept constant except the ledge length.
Comparison of strength results are provided in Figure 4-7 and Figure 4-8. For
completeness, in Figure 4-7 Vtest is normalized by
normalized by
, and in Figure 4-8 Vtest is
. In each sub-plot of Figure 4-7 and Figure 4-8, results are
98
compared for specimens in which every parameter was kept constant except the ledge
length.
99
D_1-42-1.85-03
D_3-42-1.85-03
0.25
0.25
0.20
0.20
S_3-42-1.85-03
D_1-42-1.85-06
0.25
0.25
0.20
0.2
(f)
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.10
Deep ledge
0.10
One point load
42 in. web depth
0.05
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
Deep ledge
0.10
Three point loads
D_1-42-1.85-03
42 in. web depth
0.05
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
Shallow ledge
0.1
Three point loads
D_3-42-1.85-03
42 in. web depth
0.05
0.05
0.00
Cut-off
Short
0.00
Long
D_1-42-2.50-03
Cut-off
0.00
Long
Short
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
Short
Long
Cut-off
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.2
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.10
Deep ledge
0.10
One point load
42 in. web depth
0.05
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
Shallow ledge
0.10
Shallow ledge
0.1
Three point loads
S_1-42-2.50-03
42 in. web depth
0.05
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
0.00
Cut-off
Short
0.00
Long
One point load

(r)D_1-42-2.50-03
42 in. web depth
0.05
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
Cut-off
Short
0.00
Long
Cut-off
Short
Long
Long
Deep ledge
One point load
S_3-42-2.50-03
42 in. web depth
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.6%
Cut-off

Figure 4-7: Series I: Ledge Length: comparisons of Vtest normalized by fc bw d
100
Short
D_1-42-2.50-06
S_3-42-2.50-03
S_1-42-2.50-03
D_1-42-1.85-06
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.6%
Cut-off
0.25
0.05
Deep ledge
One point load

S_3-42-1.85-03
42 in. web depth
Short
Long
D_1-42-2.50-06
D_1-42-1.85-03
D_3-42-1.85-03
14
14.00
12
12.00
10
10.00
6
4
2
0
Cut-off
S_3-42-1.85-03
D_1-42-1.85-06
14.00
14
12.00
12
10.00
10
8.00
8.00
6.00
Deep ledge
One point load
4.00
42 in. web depth
a/d = 2.00
1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
6.00
Deep ledge
Three point loads
4.00
D_1-42-1.85-03
42 in. web depth
a/d = 1.85
2.00
rv = rh = 0.3%
Shallow ledge6
Three point loads
4
D_3-42-1.85-03
42 in. web depth
a/d = 1.852
rv = rh = 0.3%
Short
0.00
Long
D_1-42-2.50-03
(f)
Cut-off
Short
0.00
Long
Cut-off
Short
Long
Cut-off
14
14.00
14.00
14
12
12.00
12.00
12
10
10.00
10.00
10
8.00
8.00
6.00
Deep ledge
One point load
4.00
42 in. web depth
a/d = 2.00
2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
6.00
Shallow ledge
One point load
4.00
D_1-42-2.50-03
42 in. web depth
a/d = 2.00
2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
Shallow ledge6
Three point loads
4
S_1-42-2.50-03
42 in. web depth
a/d = 2.502
rv = rh = 0.3%
4
2
0
Cut-off
Short
0.00
Long
(r)
Cut-off
Short
0.00
Long
Cut-off
Short
Long

Figure 4-8: Series I: Ledge Length: comparisons of Vtest normalized by
101
Short
D_1-42-1.85-06
Long
D_1-42-2.50-06
S_3-42-2.50-03
S_1-42-2.50-03
Deep ledge
One point load
S_3-42-1.85-03
42 in. web depth
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.6%
Deep ledge
One point load
S_3-42-2.50-03
42 in. web depth
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.6%
Cut-off
Short
Long
D_1-42-2.50-06
As can be observed in Figure 4-7 and Figure 4-8, there is a strong trend of
increased shear capacity with increasing ledge length. In only one comparison that trend
is not observed. The trend holds for both a/d =1.85 and a/d = 2.50. The trend also holds
for web reinforcement ratios of 0.3% and 0.6% and for deep and shallow ledges.
4.4.3
Serviceability Results
First cracking loads for the ledge length series are presented in Figure 4-9. Vcrack is
normalized by
since the first cracking is associated with the tensile strength of
the concrete. In each sub-plot of Figure 4-9, results are compared for specimens in which
every parameter was kept constant except the ledge length. Fourteen tests are compared
in six groups of two or three directly comparable specimens in which every parameter
was kept constant except the ledge length. First cracking load could only be obtained for
shear spans that were tested first in each beam.
Crack width progressions are presented in Figure 4-10. Twenty specimens are
presented in eight groups of two or three directly comparable specimens in which every
parameter was kept constant except the ledge length.
102
D_3-42-1.85-03
D_1-42-1.85-03
6
6.00
5.00
4.00
Deep ledge
One point load
42 in. web depth
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
2
1
0
Cut-off
Short
(f)
D_1-42-1.85-03
1.00
0.00
Long
Cut-off
D_1-42-1.85-06
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
S_3-42-1.85-03
Deep ledge
Three point loads
42 in. web depth
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
Short
3.00
2.00
0.00
Cut-off
Long
6.00
5.00
5.00
4.00
4.00
2
1
0
3.00
2.00
D_1-42-1.85-06
1.00
Shallow ledge
One point load
42 in. web depth
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
0.00
Cut-off
Short
Long
Cut-off
Short
Long
Long
Shallow ledge
Three point loads
42 in. web depth
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
3.00
2.00
S_3-42-2.50-03
S_1-42-2.50-03
1.00
0.00
Cut-off
Figure 4-9: Series I: Ledge Length: comparisons of Vcrack normalized by
103
Short
S_3-42-2.50-03
S_1-42-2.50-03
6.00
Deep ledge
One point load
42 in. web depth
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.6%
S_3-42-1.85-03
D_3-42-1.85-03
1.00
Shallow ledge
Three point loads
42 in. web depth
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
Short
Long
S_3-42-1.85-03
D_1-42-1.85-03
100
100
80
80
80
60
60
60
40
SC3-42-1.85-03
SS3-42-1.85-03
SL3-42-1.85-03
20
-
40
40
DS1-42-1.85-03
DS1-42-1.85-06
20
20
DL1-42-1.85-03
0
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
DL1-42-1.85-06
0
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
D_1-42-2.50-06
D_1-42-2.50-03
S_3-42-2.50-03
100
100
100
80
80
80
60
60
60
40
DC1-42-2.50-03
DS1-42-2.50-03
DL1-42-2.50-03
20
-
40
20
100
80
80
60
60
20
0
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
SS3-42-2.50-03
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
S_1-42-2.50-03
100
DC3-42-1.85-03
DS3-42-1.85-03
DL3-42-1.85-03 (f)
SC3-42-2.50-03
20
DL1-42-2.50-06
0
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
40
40
DS1-42-2.50-06
D_3-42-1.85-03
D_1-42-1.85-06
100
40
20
-
SC1-42-2.5-03 (r)
SS1-42-2.5-03
SL1-42-2.5-03
Note:
(r) Shear friction failure of
the web-to-ledge interface
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
Figure 4-10: Series I: Ledge Length: comparisons of crack width progression
104
Vcrack /
values varied from 1.40 to 5.39. As can be observed in Figure
4-9, there is a general trend of delayed shear cracking with increasing ledge length. The
trend holds for both a/d =1.85 and a/d = 2.50. The trend also holds for deep and shallow
ledges.
No clear trend can be distinguished in Figure 4-10 regarding crack width
progression. In some cases specimens with longer ledges showed a more accelerated
crack widening, whereas in some other cases specimens with cut-off ledges showed a
more accelerated crack widening.
4.4.4
TxDOT 5253 STM Design Provisions

Specimens of the experimental program were designed using the strut-and-tie
modeling provisions of TxDOT Project 5253. Vtest/Vpred ratios from the twenty specimens
of Series I are shown in Figure 4-11 in eight groups of two or three directly comparable
specimens.
105
D_3-42-1.85-03
D_1-42-1.85-03
2.50
2.50
2.00
2.00
D_1-42-1.85-06
S_3-42-1.85-03
2.50
2.50
2.00
2.00
(f)
1.50
1.50
1.00
1.00
Deep ledge
One point load
42 in. web depth
0.50
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
0.50
0.00
Cut-off
Short
0.00
Long
D_1-42-2.50-03
1.50
1.50
1.00
Deep ledge
Three point loads
D_1-42-1.85-03
42 in. web depth
0.50
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
Cut-off
0.00
Long
Short
1.00
Shallow ledge
Three point loads
D_3-42-1.85-03
42 in. web depth
0.50
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
Cut-off
Short
0.00
Long
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.00
1.00
Shallow ledge
Three point loads
S_1-42-2.50-03
42 in. web depth
0.50
1.00
1.00
Deep ledge
One point load
42 in. web depth
0.50
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
0.50
0.00
Cut-off
Short
0.00
Long
Shallow ledge
(r)D_1-42-2.50-03One
point load
42 in. web depth

0.50
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
Cut-off
Short
0.00
Long
Short
0.00
Long

Figure 4-11: Series I: Ledge Length: comparisons of Vtest / Vpred
106
Cut-off
Short
Long
Deep ledge
S_3-42-2.50-03One point load

42 in. web depth
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.6%
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
Cut-off
D_1-42-1.85-06
42 in. web depth

a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.6%
D_1-42-2.50-06
S_3-42-2.50-03
S_1-42-2.50-03
Deep ledge
S_3-42-1.85-03One point load
Cut-off
Short
Long
D_1-42-2.50-06
Vtest/Vpred ratios varied between 1.07 and 2.17. It is important to note that all
points fall above 1.0, which indicates that the STM provisions of TxDOT Project 5253
produced conservative strength estimates for the twenty inverted-T specimens of the
ledge length series. Additionally, there is a clear trend of increased conservatism as the
ledge length increases. There are a couple of cases which did not follow this trend, but
considering the twenty tests presented in this series, it is evident that longer ledges
provide additional strength not captured by the STM provisions.
4.4.5
Summary of Series I: Ledge Length

Direct comparisons have been presented in this section to evaluate the influence
of the ledge length in strength, appearance of first diagonal crack, crack width
progression and performance of STM design provisions of TxDOT Project 5253.
Results have shown that increasing the ledge length increases strength, delays the
appearance of the first diagonal cracking, and increases conservatism of the strength
estimations using the STM design provisions of TxDOT Project 5253. Ledge length has
no significant effect on crack width progression.
STM design provisions of TxDOT Project 5253 have provided conservative
estimates of strength for all twenty specimens evaluated in this series.
4.5
SERIES II: LEDGE DEPTH

This series was designed to evaluate the effects of ledge depth on strength and
serviceability of inverted-T straddle bent caps. The results of Series II will be used to
develop design recommendations in regard to ledge depth.
4.5.1
Eighteen tests have been conducted to produce nine pairs of directly comparable
specimens in which every parameter was kept constant except the ledge depth. A
summary of the experimental results from the ledge depth series is provided in Table 4-3.
All variables are defined in Section 4.2, except for Vpred which is the predicted shear
capacity using the strut-and-tie modeling provision of TxDOT Project 0-5253. Note that
107
Vpred was evaluated using measured material properties and the procedure outlined in
Section 2.5.1.
Table 4-3: Series II experimental results
f 'c
Vtest
(psi) (kip)
451
0.13
20a SC1-42-1.85-03 (le) 4330
20b DC1-42-1.85-03
4303
517
0.15
16b SS1-42-1.85-03
5721
583
0.13
01a DS1-42-1.85-03
5258
712
0.17
06b SC3-42-1.85-03
5873
483
0.10
15a DC3-42-1.85-03
4568
395
0.11
04a SS3-42-1.85-03
5891
523
0.11
15b DS3-42-1.85-03
4568
454
0.13
11a SL3-42-1.85-03
5037
571
0.14
17b DL3-42-1.85-03 (f) 4202
629
0.19
18b SC1-42-2.50-03 (r) 4281
319
0.09
17a DC1-42-2.50-03
4035
365
0.11
16a SS1-42-2.50-03
5703
398
0.09
01b DS1-42-2.50-03
5389
406
0.10
18a SL1-42-2.50-03
4281
498
0.15
10b DL1-42-2.50-03
4929
510
0.13
04b SS3-42-2.50-03
5891
447
0.10
09a DS3-42-2.50-03
5687
430
0.10
(le) Horizontal ledge tie failure in cross section
Test
Vcrack
(kip)
Specimen
8.67
9.98
9.75
12.42
7.98
7.39
8.62
8.49
10.17
12.27
6.18
7.28
6.67
6.99
9.62
9.19
7.38
7.21
N/A
127
N/A
172
90
152
126
164
172
276
N/A
70
157
N/A
167
N/A
140
143
Vpred
(kip)
N/A
2.44
N/A
2.99
1.48
2.84
2.08
3.07
3.06
5.39
N/A
1.40
2.63
N/A
3.24
N/A
2.31
2.40
443.61
460
503
463
427
370
456
389
409
359
258
250
213
202
269
235
215
236
1.02
1.12
1.16
1.54
1.13
1.07
1.15
1.17
1.39
1.75
1.24
1.46
1.87
2.01
1.85
2.17
2.08
1.82
It is important to note that all specimens failed in shear, except for the following
three specimens: DL3-42-1.85-03 that failed in flexure, and SC1-42-1.85-03 and SC1-422.50-03 that experienced local ledge failures. The value reported for Vtest is the maximum
shear carried at the critical section at the onset of failure, regardless of the failure mode.
4.5.2
Strength Results
Direct comparison of strength results are provided in Figure 4-12 and Figure 4-13.
Each plot is a direct comparison of two specimens in which every parameter was kept
108
constant, except the ledge depth. As discussed in Section 4.2.1, in Figure 4-12 Vtest is
normalized by
, and in Figure 4-13 Vtest is normalized by
109
_C1-42-1.85-03
_S1-42-1.85-03
_C3-42-1.85-03
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.15
0.15
0.10
Cut-off ledge
One point load
42 in. web depth
0.05
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
0.10
Short ledge
_C1-42-1.85-03One point load
42 in. web depth
0.05
0.15
(le)
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.25
Deep
_S3-42-1.85-03
0.00
Shallow
0.25
Shallow
Deep
_L3-42-1.85-03
0.25
0.20
0.20
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.10
0.10
Short ledge
Three point loads
42 in. web depth
0.05
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
0.10
Long ledge
Three point loads
_S3-42-1.85-03
42 in. web depth
0.05
0.05
0.00
0.25
_S1-42-2.50-03
0.25
_L1-42-2.50-03
0.25
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.10
0.10
Long ledge
_S1-42-2.50-03One point load
42 in. web depth
0.05
Shallow
Deep
Short ledge
Three point loads
_L1-42-2.50-03
42 in. web depth
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
0.00
Shallow
Deep
Shallow
_C1-42-2.50-03
Deep
_S3-42-2.50-03
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
0.00
0.00
42 in. web depth

a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
Shallow
0.20
0.05
Cut-off ledge
(r)
_L3-42-1.85-03One point load
0.00
Deep
0.20
Short ledge
One point load
42 in. web depth
0.05
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
_C1-42-2.5-03
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
0.20
0.10
Deep
0.20
Shallow
Deep
_C3-42-1.85-03
(f)
0.00
Shallow
42 in. web depth

a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
0.00
Shallow
Cut-off ledge
Three point loads
_S1-42-1.85-03
Note:
(r) Shear friction
failure of the webto-ledge interface
(le) Horizontal ledge
_S3-42-2.50-03
tie failure in cross
section
Deep
Figure 4-12: Series II: Ledge Depth: comparisons of Vtest normalized by fc bw d
110
14
_C1-42-1.85-03
14.00
12
10
8
(le)
12.00
10.00
10.00
8.00
8.00
6.00
2
0
0.00
Shallow
Deep
_S3-42-1.85-03
14.00
12.00
10
10.00
8.00
6.00
Short ledge
Three point loads
4.00
42 in. web depth
2.00
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
4
2
0
0.00
Shallow
Deep
_S1-42-2.50-03
Deep
_L3-42-1.85-03
14.00
10.00
8.00
6.00
Long ledge
Three point loads
4.00
_S3-42-1.85-03
42 in. web depth
2.00
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
_L1-42-2.50-03
14.00
10.00
8.00
8.00
6.00
0.00
Deep
Cut-off ledge
42 in. web depth

a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
Shallow
10.00
Shallow
(r)
0.00
Deep
10
_C1-42-2.5-03
12.00
12.00
Deep
(f)
12.00
_C3-42-1.85-03
42 in. web depth

a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
Shallow
12
Short ledge
One point load
4.00
42 in. web depth
2.00
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
Cut-off ledge
Three point loads
_S1-42-1.85-03
0.00
Shallow
14.00
_C3-42-1.85-03
6.00
Short ledge
4.00
42 in. web depth
2.00
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
Shallow
12
14
14.00
12.00
Cut-off ledge
4.00
One point load
42 in. web depth
2.00
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
14
_S1-42-1.85-03
Deep
_S3-42-2.50-03
6.00
Long ledge
4.00
42 in. web depth
2.00
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
Short ledge
Three point loads
_L1-42-2.50-03
42 in. web depth
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
0.00
Shallow
Shallow
Deep
Deep
Figure 4-13: Series II: Ledge Depth: comparisons of Vtest normalized by
111
_C1-42-2.50-03
Note:
(r) Shear friction
_S3-42-2.50-03
section
Results shown in Figure 4-12 and Figure 4-13 indicate that the ledge depth has no
significant influence on the strength of the specimen. Only in two cases ( _S1-42-1.85-03
and _L3-42-1.85-03), specimens with deep ledges exhibited significantly higher strengths
than specimens with shallow ledges; considering the inherent variability in shear test
results, one can conclude that ledge depth has no significant effect in the strength of the
specimens.
4.5.3
First cracking loads for the ledge depth series are presented in Figure 4-14. Vcrack
is normalized by
since the first cracking is associated with the tensile strength
of the concrete. Eight tests are available to be compared in four groups of two directly
comparable specimens in which every parameter was kept constant except the ledge
depth. First cracking load could only be obtained for shear spans that were tested first in
each beam.
112
_C3-42-1.85-03
_S3-42-1.85-03
3
Cut-off ledge
Three point loads
42 in. web depth
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
1
0
Shallow
2
_C3-42-1.85-03
1
0
Deep
Shallow
(f)
0
Shallow
_S3-42-1.85-03
Deep
_S3-42-2.50-03
_L3-42-1.85-03
Short ledge
Three point loads
42 in. web depth
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
3
Long ledge
Three point loads
42 in. web depth
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
2
_L3-42-1.85-06
1
0
Deep
Shallow
Short ledge
Three point loads
42 in. web depth
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
_S3-42-2.50-03
Deep
Figure 4-14: Series II: Ledge Depth: comparisons of Vcrack normalized by

A trend can be observed in Figure 4-14, specimens with shallow ledges
experienced first diagonal cracking earlier than comparable specimens with deeper
ledges. In other words, increasing the depth of the ledge delays the appearance of the first
diagonal cracking.
Crack width progressions are presented in Figure 4-15. Eighteen specimens are
presented in nine groups of two directly comparable specimens in which every parameter
was kept constant except the ledge depth.
113
_S1-42-1.85-03
_S3-42-1.85-03

100
_S1-42-2.50-03
100
100
100
100
80
80
80
60
60
60
100
100
80
80
80
60
60
60
40
40
40
SS1-42-1.85-03
20
20
20
DS1-42-1.85-03
0
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
SS3-42-1.85-03
SS1-42-2.50-03
DS1-42-2.50-03
0
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
_S3-42-2.50-03
DS3-42-1.85-03
0
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
_C3-42-1.85-03
_C1-42-1.85-03
100
100
80
80
80
60
60
60
40
40
40
SS3-42-2.50-03
20
20
20
DS3-42-2.50-03
0
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
DC1-42-1.85-03
0
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
_L3-42-1.85-03
40
40
_C1-42-2.50-03
40
SL1-42-2.50-03
20
DL3-42-1.85-03 (f)
0
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
DC3-42-1.85-03
0
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
_L1-42-2.50-03
SL3-42-1.85-03
20
SC3-42-1.85-03
SC1-42-1.85-03 (le)
SC1-42-2.50-03 (r)
20
DL1-42-2.50-03
0
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
DC1-42-2.50-03
0
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
Figure 4-15: Series II: Ledge Depth: comparisons of crack width progression
114
Regarding crack width progressions, no clear trend can be distinguished in Figure

4-15. In some cases, specimens with deeper ledges showed a more accelerated crack
widening, whereas in other cases specimens with shallower ledges showed a more
accelerated crack widening. Ultimately, it can be concluded that ledge depth has no
significant effect on crack width progression.
4.5.4
TxDOT 5253 STM design provisions

Specimens of the experimental program were designed using the Strut-and-tie
modeling provisions of TxDOT Project 5253. Vtest/Vpred ratios from eighteen specimens
are shown in Figure 4-16 in nine groups of two directly comparable specimens.
115
2.50
_C1-42-1.85-03
2.00
1.50
2.50
_S1-42-1.85-03
2.50
2.00
2.00
1.50
1.50
1.00
1.00
Short ledge
42 in. web depth
0.50
_C3-42-1.85-03
(le)
1.00
Cut-off ledge
One point load
42 in. web depth
0.50
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
0.50
0.00
2.50
Deep
0.00
_S3-42-1.85-03
Shallow
2.50
Shallow
Deep
_L3-42-1.85-03
2.00
2.00
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.00
1.00
Short ledge
1.00
Long ledge
Three point loads

42 in. web depth
0.50
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
Three point loads

_S3-42-1.85-03
42 in. web depth
0.50
(f)
Shallow
_S1-42-2.50-03
_L1-42-2.50-03
2.50
2.50
2.00
2.00
2.00
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.00
1.00
Long ledge
0.50
42 in. web depth
Short ledge
One point load
42 in. web depth
0.50
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
0.50
Shallow
Deep
Short ledge
Three point loads
_L1-42-2.50-03
42 in. web depth
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
0.00
Shallow
Deep
Deep
_S3-42-2.50-03
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
0.00
0.00
Shallow
Deep
Figure 4-16: Series II: Ledge Depth: comparisons Vtest / Vpred
116
_C1-42-2.50-03
42 in. web depth

a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
Shallow
Deep
2.50
1.00
Cut-off ledge
0.00
Shallow
Deep
(r)
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
0.00
0.00
Deep
_C1-42-2.5-03
2.50
2.00
0.50
_C3-42-1.85-03
42 in. web depth

a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
0.00
Shallow
Cut-off ledge
Three point loads
_S1-42-1.85-03
Note:
(r) Shear friction
_S3-42-2.50-03
section
produced conservative strength estimates for the eighteen inverted-T specimens of the
ledge depth series. Similar conservatism for both shallow and deep ledges can be seen in
Figure 4-16. For 70% of the comparisons no significant difference was observed while
for the remaining 30% percent an increase in conservatism was observed for deep ledges.
The observations indicate that ledge depth has no significant influence in the
conservatism of the STM provisions of TxDOT Project 5253 applied to inverted-T
specimens.
4.5.5
Summary of Series II: Ledge Depth

of ledge depth in strength, appearance of first diagonal crack, crack width progression,
and performance of STM design provisions of TxDOT Project 5253.
Results have shown that the ledge depth has no significant effect on the strength,
crack width progression, or the conservatism of the STM provisions of TxDOT Project
5253. However, it was observed that increasing the ledge depth delays the appearance of
the first diagonal cracking.
STM design provisions of TxDOT Project 5253 provided conservative estimates
of strength for all eighteen specimens evaluated in this series.
4.6
SERIES IV: NUMBER OF POINT LOADS

This series was designed to evaluate the differences in strength and serviceability
between specimens with single and multiple point loads. In this section applicability of
the STM provisions from TxDOT Project 5253 to specimens with multiple loading points
is verified.
Specimens with a single point load allowed for direct comparisons with
compression-chord loaded specimens from TxDOT Project 5253 (Series V), whereas
specimens with multiple point loads are more representative of field conditions.
Additionally, spreading the load in multiple points reduced the probability of local
117
failures in the ledges, thus allowing the use of shallower ledges (Series II) and ensuring
web shear failures. Another objective of the current series is to investigate the dominant
behavior in specimens which may be classified as non-deep beams by AASHTO (2012)
and the TxDOT Bridge Design Manual (2011), regardless of having concentrated loads
within a distance of 2d from the support (Figure 4-17). This topic covered in more depth
in Chapter 5.
P
d
a = 1.85 d
Load
Resultant = P
Slender beam
P/3
P/3
P/3
a = 1.85d
aresultant > 2 d
Figure 4-17: Deep and slender beams as classified per AASHTO Art. 5.6.3.1
4.6.1
Twelve tests have been conducted to produce six pairs of directly comparable
specimens in which every parameter was kept constant except the number of point loads.
A summary of the experimental results from the number of point loads series is provided
in Table 4-4. Note that Vpred was evaluated using measured material properties and the
procedure outlined in Section 2.5.1.
118
Table 4-4: Series IV experimental results

f 'c
(psi)
5721
16b SS1-42-1.85-03
04a SS3-42-1.85-03
5891
01a DS1-42-1.85-03
5258
15b DS3-42-1.85-03
4568
10a DL1-42-1.85-03
4929
17b DL3-42-1.85-03 (f) 4202
18b SC1-42-2.50-03 (r) 4281
06a SC3-42-2.50-03
5873
16a SS1-42-2.50-03
5703
04b SS3-42-2.50-03
5891
01b DS1-42-2.50-03
5389
09a DS3-42-2.50-03
5687
(r) Shear friction failure
Test
Specimen
Vtest
(kip)
583
523
712
454
626
629
319
329
398
447
406
430
Vcrack
(kip)
0.13
0.11
0.17
0.13
0.16
0.19
0.09
0.07
0.09
0.10
0.10
0.10
9.75
8.62
12.42
8.49
11.28
12.27
6.18
5.44
6.67
7.38
6.99
7.21
N/A
126
172
164
242
276
N/A
113
157
140
N/A
143
Vpred
(kip)
N/A
2.08
2.99
3.07
4.36
5.39
N/A
1.87
2.63
2.31
N/A
2.40
503
456
463
389
468
359
258
257
213
215
202
236
1.16
1.15
1.54
1.17
1.34
1.75
1.24
1.28
1.87
2.08
2.01
1.82
It is important to note that all specimens in this series failed in web shear except
DL3-42-1.85-03 and SC1-42-2.50-03, which failed in flexure and shear friction
respectively. The value reported for Vtest is the maximum shear carried at the critical
section at the onset of failure, regardless of the failure mode.
4.6.2
Strength Results
Comparison of strength results are provided in Figure 4-18 and Figure 4-19. For
completeness, in Figure 4-18 Vtest is normalized by

normalized by
, and in Figure 4-19 Vtest is
. In each sub-plot of Figure 4-18 and Figure 4-19, results are
compared for specimens in which every parameter was kept constant except the number
of point loads.
119
SS_-42-1.85-03
DS_-42-1.85-03
DL_-42-1.85-03
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.10
Shallow ledge
Short ledge
42 in. web depth
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
0.05
0.00
One
0.10
0.05
0.00
One
Three
SC_-42-2.5-03
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.20
0.15
(r)
0.05
0.00
Three
DS_-42-1.85-03
0.00
One
Deep ledge
Long ledge
42 in. web depth
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
DL_-42-1.85-03
Three
DS_-42-2.50-03
0.25
Shallow ledge
Short ledge
42 in. web depth
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
0.20
0.15
Deep ledge
Short ledge
42 in. web depth
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
0.10
SC_-42-2.50-03
0.05
0.00
One
0.05
Three
0.10
0.05
0.10
SS_-42-2.50-03
0.25
Shallow ledge
Cut-off ledge
42 in. web depth
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
SS_-42-1.85-03
Deep ledge
Short ledge
42 in. web depth
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
(f)
SS_-42-2.50-03
DS_-42-2.50-03
0.00
One
Three
One
Note:
120
Three
SS_-42-1.85-03
DS_-42-1.85-03
DL_-42-1.85-03
15
15.00
15.00
12
12.00
12.00
9.00
9.00
Shallow ledge
Short ledge
42 in. web depth
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
3
0
One
6.00
3.00
12
9
9.00
3.00
One
Three
DS_-42-1.85-03
0.00
One
Deep ledge
Long ledge
42 in. web depth
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
DL_-42-1.85-03
Three
DS_-42-2.50-03
15.00
Shallow ledge
Short ledge
42 in. web depth
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
12.00
9.00
Deep ledge
Short ledge
42 in. web depth
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
6.00
SC_-42-2.50-03
3.00
0.00
3.00
Three
6.00
6.00
SS_-42-2.50-03
12.00
(r)
Deep ledge
Short ledge
42 in. web depth
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
One
15.00
Shallow ledge
Cut-off ledge
42 in. web depth
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
SS_-42-1.85-03
0.00
Three
SC_-42-2.5-03
15
(f)
SS_-42-2.50-03
DS_-42-2.50-03
0.00
One
Three
One
Note:
121
Three
As it can be observed in Figure 4-18 and Figure 4-19, in only two comparisons
(DS_-42-1.85-03 and DL_-42-1.85-03) a significant difference between the strength of
the two directly comparable specimens is observed. These two comparisons however
show contradictory trends. The rest of the comparisons showed similar strengths for
specimens with one and three point loads. Results indicate that the number of point loads
has no significant effect in the strength of the inverted-T specimens within the range of
parameters studied.
4.6.3
First cracking loads for the number of point loads series are presented in Figure
4-20. Vcrack is normalized by
since the first cracking is associated with the
tensile strength of the concrete. Six tests are available in three pairs of comparable
specimens in which every parameter was kept constant except the number of loading
points. First cracking load could only be obtained for shear spans that were tested first in
each beam.
122
DS_-42-1.85-03
DL_-42-1.85-03
(f)
3
Deep ledge
Short ledge
42 in. web depth
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
1
0
One
DS_-42-1.85-03
0
One
Three
Deep ledge
Long ledge
42 in. web depth
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
DL_-42-1.85-03
Three
SS_-42-2.50-03
6
5
Shallow ledge
Short ledge
42 in. web depth
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
SS_-42-2.50-03
Note:
0
One
Three
Figure 4-20: Series IV: Number of Point Loads: comparisons of Vcrack

normalized by
Results shown in Figure 4-20 do not indicate a clear trend. Two comparisons
show similar cracking load for specimens with one and three loading points, whereas one
comparison shows an increase in the cracking load for the specimen with multiple
loading points. More data would be necessary to reveal a trend, if one exists.
Crack width progressions are presented in Figure 4-21. Twelve specimens are
presented in six pairs of directly comparable specimens in which every parameter was
kept constant except the number of loading points.
123
SS_-42-1.85-03
100
DS_-42-1.85-03
100
100
100
80
80
60
60
100
80
80
60
60
40
40
SS1-42-1.85-03
DS1-42-1.85-03
20
20
SS3-42-1.85-03
0
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
DS3-42-1.85-03
0
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
SC_-42-2.50-03
DL_-42-1.85-03
100
80
80
60
60
40
40
SC1-42-2.50-03
DL1-42-1.85-03
20
20
SC3-42-2.50-03
0
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
DL3-42-1.85-03
0
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
DS_-42-2.50-03
SS_-42-2.50-03
40
40
DS1-42-2.50-03
SS1-42-2.50-03
20
20
DS3-42-2.50-03
0
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
SS3-42-2.50-03
0
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
Figure 4-21: Series IV: Number of Point Loads: comparisons of

crack width progression
Regarding crack width progressions, similar crack width progressions are
observed in Figure 4-21 for both cases. Results show that the number of point loads has
no significant effect in the crack width progression.
124
4.6.4
TxDOT 5253 STM design provisions

Specimens of the experimental program were designed using the Strut-and-tie
modeling provisions of TxDOT Project 5253. Vtest/Vpred ratios from twelve specimens are
shown in Figure 4-22 in six pairs of directly comparable specimens.
125
SS_-42-1.85-03
DS_-42-1.85-03
DL_-42-1.85-03
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.00
2.00
2.00
1.50
1.50
1.50
(f)
1.00
Shallow ledge
Short ledge
42 in. web depth
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
0.50
0.00
One
1.00
0.50
SS_-42-1.85-03
0.00
Deep ledge
Short ledge
42 in. web depth
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
One
Three
SC_-42-2.5-03
1.00
0.50
0.00
Three
One
Deep ledge
Long ledge
42 in. web depth
a/d = 1.85
rv = rh = 0.3%
DL_-42-1.85-03
Three
DS_-42-2.50-03
SS_-42-2.50-03
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.00
2.00
2.00
1.50
1.50
1.50
DS_-42-1.85-03
(r)
1.00
Shallow ledge
Cut-off ledge
42 in. web depth
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
0.50
0.00
One
Three
1.00
0.50
SC_-42-2.50-03
0.00
Shallow ledge
Short ledge
42 in. web depth
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
One
Three
1.00
SS_-42-2.50-03
0.50
0.00
One
Note:
Figure 4-22: Series IV: Number of Point Loads: comparisons Vtest / Vpred
126
Deep ledge
Short ledge
42 in. web depth
a/d = 2.50
rv = rh = 0.3%
Three
DS_-42-2.50-03
produced conservative strength estimates for the twelve inverted-T specimens of the
number of point loads series. No clear trend can be observed in the results presented in
Figure 4-22; contradictory results can be observed in some cases, whereas in others
similar conservatism is observed for comparable specimens with one and three loading
points. Ultimately, it can be concluded that the number of loading points has no
significant effect in the conservatism of the STM provisions of TxDOT Project 5253
applied to inverted-T specimens. Thus STM provisions are equally conservative and
applicable to one- and three-point loaded beams regardless of whether beams are defined
as deep or not by any definition of shear span.
4.6.5
Summary of Series IV: Number of Point Loads

of number of point loads in strength, appearance of first diagonal crack, crack width
progression, and performance of STM design provisions of TxDOT Project 5253.
Results have shown that the number of point loads has no significant effect on the
strength, crack width progression, or the conservatism of the STM provisions of TxDOT
Project 5253. Regarding the appearance of the first diagonal cracking, no trend was
observed, but only three pairs of comparable specimens were available for this task. More
data is necessary to substantiate that conclusion.
of strength for the twelve specimens evaluated in this series. Additionally, it can be
concluded that the STM provisions of TxDOT Project 5253 adequately capture the
behavior of specimens with single or multiple point loads, regardless of ledge geometry
or reinforcement conditions present in the specimens.
4.7
SUMMARY
Experimental results of specimens tested within TxDOT Project 0-6416 were
presented. General information regarding the evaluation of strength and serviceability
127
criteria was presented with discussions on the normalization of strength results, the
evaluation of the applied shear force on a specimen, the extraction of the shear force at
first inclined cracking, and the assumptions on load spread under the applied ledge loads.
Effects of ledge length, ledge depth, and number of point loads on strength and
serviceability of the experimental specimens were presented in detail. The accuracy of
the STM design provisions of TxDOT Project 5253 was evaluated with respect to
capturing the effects of ledge geometry and number of point loads on the strength of
inverted-T specimens.
Strain gauge measurements indicated that the 45-degree load spread assumption is
reasonable and conservative. Similar strain distributions were observed in most
specimens; these findings are consistent with those reported by Garber (2011). It is
therefore recommended to calculate the hanger tie widths assuming a 45-degree load
spread from the loading plates.
Results showed that increasing the ledge length increased web-shear strength,
delayed the appearance of the first diagonal cracking, and increased conservatism of the
strength estimations using the STM design provisions of TxDOT Project 5253. Ledge
length had no significant effect on crack width progression.
Ledge depth had no significant effect on the strength, crack width progression, or
the conservatism of the STM provisions of TxDOT Project 5253. However, it was
observed that increasing the ledge depth delayed the appearance of the first diagonal
cracking.
Results showed that the number of point loads had no significant effect on
strength, crack width progression, or the conservatism of the STM provisions of TxDOT
Project 5253; which adequately captured the behavior of specimens with single or
multiple point loads, regardless of ledge geometry or reinforcement conditions present in
the specimens. Regarding the appearance of the first diagonal cracking, no trend was
observed with respect to number of point loads, but only three pairs of comparable
specimens were available for this task. More data are necessary to substantiate that
conclusion.
128

of strength for all thirty one specimens of the experimental program.
129
CHAPTER 5
Analysis of Results
5.1
OVERVIEW
In this section results from the experimental program are used to evaluate the
accuracy of the following design provisions:
Sectional shear and special provisions for beam ledges of AASHTO

LRFD bridge design specifications 2012
Sectional shear and special provisions for beam ledges of TxDOT bridge
design manual LRFD 2011
STM provisions of TxDOT project 5253 as implemented in this work for

inverted-T beams (Section 2.5.1)
The application of STM for inverted-T specimens is discussed in light of test

results. Design recommendations for strength and serviceability are made. An empirical
equation is proposed to limit shear stresses in the bent caps under service loads and
reduce the probability of diagonal cracking. Web reinforcement ratios are evaluated for
crack control under service loads.
5.2
EVALUATION OF DESIGN PROVISIONS

A summary of the Vtest / Vpred results for the three design methods is provided in
Table 5-1. Highlighted in the table are values of Vtest / Vpred that are lower than 1.2. Table
5-1 also summarizes the observed failure modes and predicted failure modes for all
specimens. From test observations it was difficult to distinguish between node and strut
crushing. Both failure modes are termed as direct-strut crushing. Since TxDOT bridge
design manual LRFD (2011) provisions follow closely those of AASHTO (2012), both
documents produced the same estimates for all tests. Specimens were designed using the
STM provisions of TxDOT project 5253.
130
Table 5-1: Vtest / Vpred results for STM 5253 and AASHTO/TxDOT LRFD provisions
STM TxDOT 5253
Test
01a
01b
02a
02b
03a
03b
04a
04b
05b
06a
06b
07a
08b
09a
10a
10b
11a
12a
14a
15a
15b
16a
16b
17a
17b
18a
18b
19a
19b
20a
20b
Specimen
DS1-42-1.85-03
DS1-42-2.50-03
DS1-42-1.85-06
DS1-42-2.50-06
DL1-42-1.85-06
DL1-42-2.50-06
SS3-42-1.85-03
SS3-42-2.50-03
SS3-42-2.50-06
SC3-42-2.50-03
SC3-42-1.85-03
SS1-75-1.85-03
SS1-75-2.50-06
DS3-42-2.50-03
DL1-42-1.85-03
DL1-42-2.50-03
SL3-42-1.85-03
SL3-42-1.85-06
SS1-75-1.85-03b
DC3-42-1.85-03
DS3-42-1.85-03
SS1-42-2.50-03
SS1-42-1.85-03
DC1-42-2.50-03
DL3-42-1.85-03
SL1-42-2.50-03
SC1-42-2.50-03
DS1-42-1.85-06/03
DS1-42-2.50-06/03
SC1-42-1.85-03
DC1-42-1.85-03
5.2.1
Vtest
kips
712
406
621
503
741
622
523
447
516
329
483
913
688
430
626
510
571
744
745
395
454
398
583
365
629
498
319
539
739
451
517
Observed
Failure Mode
Direct-Strut Crushing
Sectional Shear
Sectional Shear
Sectional Shear
Sectional Shear
Flexure Failure
Sectional Shear
Punching Shear
Punching Shear
Sectional Shear
Sectional Shear
Sectional Shear
Sectional Shear
Flexure Failure
Sectional Shear
Shear Friction
Sectional Shear
Ledge Tie
Vpred
Vtest /
Vpred
kips
463
202
479
338
464
353
456
215
415
257
427
628
474
236
468
235
409
424
361
370
389
213
503
250
359
269
258
361
417
444
460
ratio
1.54
2.01
1.30
1.49
1.60
1.76
1.15
2.08
1.24
1.28
1.13
1.45
1.45
1.82
1.34
2.17
1.39
1.76
2.06
1.07
1.17
1.87
1.16
1.46
1.75
1.85
1.24
1.49
1.77
1.02
1.12
Design
Controlling
Element
STNI at support
Intermediate tie
STNI at support
Intermediate tie
STNI at support
Intermediate tie
STNI at support
Intermediate tie
Intermediate tie
Intermediate tie
STNI at support
Hanger tie
Hanger tie
Intermediate tie
STNI at support
Intermediate tie
STNI at support
STNI at support
STNI at support
STNI at support
STNI at support
Intermediate tie
STNI at support
Intermediate tie
STNI at support
Intermediate tie
Intermediate tie
STNI at support
Intermediate tie
STNI at comp chord
STNI at comp chord
AASHTO/TxDOT LRFD
Vpred
Vtest /
Design
Vpred Controlling Element
kips
238
240
362
363
359
316
255
255
377
249
249
387
293
248
237
197
240
381
358
231
231
252
252
220
223
229
229
319
422
236
231
ratio
2.99
1.69
1.71
1.39
2.07
1.97
2.05
1.75
1.37
1.33
1.94
2.36
2.35
1.74
2.64
2.59
2.38
1.95
2.08
1.71
1.96
1.58
2.32
1.66
2.82
2.18
1.40
1.69
1.75
1.91
2.24
Shear Stirrups
Shear Stirrups
Shear Stirrups
Shear Stirrups
Shear Stirrups
Shear Friction Steel
Shear Stirrups
Shear Stirrups
Shear Stirrups
Shear Stirrups
Shear Stirrups
Shear Stirrups
Shear Stirrups
Shear Stirrups
Shear Stirrups
Punching Shear
Shear Stirrups
Shear Stirrups
Shear Stirrups
Shear Stirrups
Shear Stirrups
Shear Stirrups
Shear Stirrups
Shear Stirrups
Shear Stirrups
Shear Stirrups
Shear Stirrups
Shear Stirrups
Failure Modes
Web-shear failure was observed in all tests except six in which flexure, punching
shear, or ledge tie failures were observed (tests 05b, 07a, 08b, 17b, 18b, and 20a).
For test 05b, a flexural mode of failure was observed. STM and both LRFD
provisions predicted web shear failures. However, STM only estimated flexural capacity
to be 6% higher than web shear while the LRFD methods estimated flexural capacity to
be 13% higher than web shear capacity (from Tables 3-8 to 3-10 in Chapter 3).
131
Test 07a was originally designed to fail in web-shear based on specified material
strengths. However, after updating the design with the measured material strengths
hanger reinforcement governed the design, with an over strength in web-shear strength of
10%. Punching shear failure was observed for this specimen. A shear friction failure was
predicted by sectional shear provisions, with a 20% over strength for web-shear.
Punching shear failure of the ledge was observed in test 08b. Beam capacity
according to STM was governed by two critical elements with approximately the same
strength: web-shear and hanger reinforcement. According to sectional shear provisions
shear friction failure of the ledge was anticipated, with over strengths of 14% and 19%
for web-shear and punching shear respectively.
Test 17b failed in flexure. STM design was controlled by web-shear strength with
an over strength of 38% for flexure. Sectional shear design was controlled by web-shear
as well, with an over strength of 28% for flexure. It is important to note that the specimen
maximum strength was well above the estimated strengths with Vtest/Vpred ratios of 1.75
for the STM provisions and 2.82 for the sectional shear provisions.
Shear friction failure of the ledge was observed in test 18b. STM design was
controlled by web shear, with over strengths of 83% and 135% for the ledge tie and strut
respectively. No indication of local failure was anticipated in the design phase. It is
important to mentions that this specimen had a shallow, cut-off ledge and a single loading
point. However, the Vtest/Vpred ratio was still 24% conservative for the STM provisions.
Sectional shear design predicted a web-shear failure as well, with the next critical
element being punching shear with an over strength of 21%.
Test 20a sustained a local failure in the ledge. This specimen also had a shallow,
cut-off ledge and a single loading point. STM design was governed by web shear;
however, ledge strut and ledge tie were just 10% stronger than the weakest failure mode.
Hanger reinforcement had an over strength of 20%. Sectional shear design was controlled
by web-shear with no indications of any other failure mode being close to governing
specimen strength.
132
All observed web shear failures were correctly predicted by the STM provisions
of TxDOT project 5253. AASHTO (2012) and TxDOT Bridge Manual (2011) correctly
predicted web-shear failures for most tests that failed by web-shear, except for tests 03b,
10b, and 14a for which the predicted failure modes were shear friction, shear friction, and
punching shear respectively. For those tests however, the estimated web-shear capacity
according to LRFD methods was only slightly larger than that of the estimated weakest
failure mode. In fact, web-shear was estimated at only 14%, 20% and 7% higher than the
weakest failure modes for tests 03b, 10b, and 14a respectively (from Tables 3-9 and 3-10
in Chapter 3).
In all cases where local ledge failure was observed ledges were shallow and either
short or cut-off. The observation indicates that all design methods may not be as
conservative when estimating the strength of shallow ledges that are short or cut-off, as
they are when estimating other element strengths. The observation also supports findings
presented in Chapter 4 that showed a reduction in STM design conservatism as the ledge
length diminishes.
In conclusion, the STM provisions, as well as the LRFD provisions, estimated the
observed failure modes reasonably well. The STM provisions, however, were able to
predict the correct mode of failure for 25 out of the 31 tests as opposed to only 22 out of
31 for the LRFD provisions. For both STM and LRFD, when the observed failure mode
was not correctly predicted, the observed failure mode was usually the second weakest
predicted mode of failure with an over-strength of less than 20% over the weakest
predicted failure mode.
5.2.2
Maximum Strength
Ratios of Vtest / Vpred for the 31 tests of the experimental program are compared in
Figure 5-1 for the STM and LRFD design procedures. As can be seen in Figure 5-1, all
ratio values fall above 1.0 for all methods, indicating that the three design methods
yielded conservative estimations of strength. However, the STM provisions provided
more accurate strength estimates than the LRFD methods (Figure 5-1 and Table 5-2). As
summarized in Table 5-2, the mean strength-ratio of all tests for the STM provisions is
133
1.52 as opposed to 1.99 for the LRFD provisions (more than a 30% difference). The
standard deviation of the ratios for STM is 0.33 compared to 0.43 for the LRFD methods;
which indicates less scatter in the STM strength estimates.
AASHTO/TxDOT LRFD
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Conservative
No. of Tests
No. of Tests
STM - TxDOT 5253

18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Conservative
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Vtest / Vpred
Vtest / Vpred
Figure 5-1: Range of experimental / calculated strengths from the experimental

program
Table 5-2: Overall accuracy of inverted-T provisions
Vtest / Vpred
n = 31
STM TxDOT 5253
AASHTO / TxDOT
LRFD
Min
1.02
1.33
Max
2.17
2.99
Mean
1.52
1.99
Unconservative*
0%
0%
Std deviation
0.33
0.43
**
COV
0.22
0.21
n = number of tests under analysis
* Unconservative = percentage of tests for which
Experimental / Predicted < 1.0
** COV = Coefficient of Variation = Standard Deviation / Mean
134
5.2.2.1 Effects of Number of Point Loads

Designs using the AASHTO and TxDOT LRFD codes were calculated using the
sectional shear approach as specified in AASHTO Art. 5.8.3.4.1. AASHTO requires
specimens in which the distance between the centers of applied load and the supporting
reaction is less than about twice the member thickness to be designed using the STM
provisions (AASHTO Art. 5.6.3.1). This shear span definition could be interpreted as the
distance between the center of the reaction and the resultant of the load; therefore,
specimens with a single loading point and a/d ratio of 1.85 (as defined in this
dissertation) should be designed for web shear using STM provisions, and specimens
with three loading points using the sectional shear approach, since for both a/d = 1.85 and
2.5, the center of the applied load coincides with that of the center load (Figure 5-2). For
these specimens, even though 33% of the load is concentrated within a distance of 2d
from the support, sectional shear design could be considered as recommended by
AASHTO. If we consider the typical configuration of the inverted-T bent caps in the
field, most if not all have multiple loading points, and consequently allowed to be
designed using the sectional shear approach by the AASHTO code.
Figure 5-2: AASHTO a/d limit for sectional shear design
135
Recall that the definition of a/d within the context of this dissertation is taken
similarly to that of ACI 318-011 as the ratio of the distance from the center of the support
to the center of the nearest loading point (a) with respect to the effective depth of the
specimen (d) measured from the centroid of web longitudinal tension steel to the extreme
compression fiber of the web. ACI 318-11 (Art. 11.7.1) requires deep beam provisions to
be applied for members with ln not exceeding 4h or regions of beams with concentrated
loads within a distance 2h from the support that are loaded on one face and supported on
the opposite face so that compression struts can develop between the loads and supports.
Typically, sectional shear design will produce web shear capacities that are
smaller or similar to those produced by STM. The AASHTO definition of shear span
allows more beams to be designed using sectional shear than the ACI 318-11 definition
and should therefore inherently produce overall more conservative shear strength
estimates. The validity of both shear span definitions is explored based on test results
from this experimental program.
Specimens with a/d ratio of 2.50 were designed to fail at the intermediate ties
(yielding of the transverse reinforcement in the shear span). For that failure mode, the
shear strengths estimated by both STM and LRFD methods are directly dependent on the
amount and strength of transverse steel within the shear span. Hence, STM and LRFD are
expected to produce similar shear strength results. Most specimens with an a/d ratio of
2.50 failed by yielding of the web transverse reinforcement. Thus it is not surprising that
both STM and LRFD methods produced similar shear strength estimates, as can be seen
in Figure 5-3 and Table 5-3.
136
AASHTO/TxDOT LRFD
STM - TxDOT 5253

10
10
Conservative
Conservative
8
No. of Tests
No. of Tests
8
6
4
6
4
2
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Vtest / Vpred
Vtest / Vpred
Figure 5-3: Test specimens with a/d ratios of 2.50

Table 5-3: Test specimens with a/d ratios of 2.50
Vtest / Vpred
STM TxDOT 5253
AASHTO / TxDOT
LRFD
Min
Max
Mean
1.24
2.17
1.68
1.33
2.59
1.77
Unconservative*
Std deviation
0%
0.32
0%
0.38
n = 14
COV**
0.19
0.22
On the other hand, most specimens with a/d ratios of 1.85 failed by crushing of
the direct strut or STNI (strut-to-node-interface) of this strut. Since sectional design does
not account for that failure mode and estimates web shear-strength based on the weaker
tie-yielding mode, it was not surprising to find that LRFD sectional design produced very
conservative estimates while STM produced more accurate estimates for specimens with
a/d = 1.85 (Figure 5-4 and Table 5-4).
137
STM - TxDOT 5253
AASHTO/TxDOT LRFD
14
14
Conservative
10
12
No. of Tests
No. of Tests
12
8
6
4
Conservative
10
8
6
4
2
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Vtest / Vpred
Vtest / Vpred
Figure 5-4: Test specimens with a/d ratio of 1.85

Table 5-4: Test specimens with a/d ratio of 1.85
n = 17
Min
Max
Mean
Unconservative*
Std deviation
Vtest / Vpred
AASHTO / TxDOT
STM TxDOT 5253
LRFD
1.02
1.69
2.06
2.99
1.38
2.17
0%
0.29
0%
0.38
COV**
0.21
0.18
Specimens with an a/d ratio of 1.85 (as defined in this project) and three loading
points are defined as non-deep by AASHTO and TxDOT LRFD provisions but as deep
by ACI 318-11. Therefore sectional design is required by the LRFD methods while STM
is required by ACI 318-11 for those specimens. Vtest / Vpred ratios for specimens with an
a/d ratio of 1.85 and three loading points are presented in Figure 5-5 and summarized in
Table 5-5. As can be seen in the figure and table, STM provisions are significantly more
138
accurate than sectional shear provisions, with mean values of Vtest / Vpred of 1.34 and 2.12
respectively.
AASHTO/TxDOT LRFD
STM - TxDOT 5253

10
10
Conservative
Conservative
8
No. of Tests
No. of Tests
8
6
4
6
4
2
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Vtest / Vpred
Vtest / Vpred
Figure 5-5: Test specimens with a/d ratio of 1.85 and multiple loading points
Table 5-5: Test specimens with a/d ratio of 1.85 and multiple loading points
Vtest / Vpred
n=7
STM TxDOT 5253
AASHTO / TxDOT
LRFD
Min
1.07
1.71
Max
1.76
2.82
Mean
1.34
2.12
*
Unconservative
0%
0%
Std deviation
0.30
0.37
**
COV
0.22
0.17
Thus sectional shear provisions, as mandated per AASHTO/TxDOT LRFD, result

in over conservative designs for specimens with three point loads and an a/d ratio of 1.85
(as defined in this project). Deep beam provisions (or STM) may therefore be more
139
appropriate for specimens in which at least 33% of the total load is concentrated within a
distance of twice the depth of the member from the center of the support (Figure 5-2).
The experimental program however only included specimens with one and three
concentrated loads. As the number of point loads increases, the percentage of load that is
applied within a distance of 2.0d from the support diminishes. It is probable that a smaller
percentage of the total load (e.g. 25%, 20%) applied within a distance of 2.0d from the
support will be enough to result in deep beam behavior (Figure 5-6). However, further
research is required to identify the minimum amount of concentrated load that needs to be
applied within a distance of 2.0 d from the support for deep beam behavior to dominate.
It is important to note here that the AASHTO and TxDOT LRFD definition of
shear span results in conservative web-shear estimates, albeit perhaps too conservative
for shorter beams with few point loads. However, since STM is applicable for both
sectional-shear and deep-beam cases, defining the shear span according to ACI 318-11
should result in more accurate yet still conservative estimates of shear strength for
inverted-T beams.
140
Figure 5-6: Deep beam-sectional shear limit
141
5.2.2.2 Effects of Ledge Geometry

Strength ratios (Vtest / Vpred ) using the STM and LRFD provisions are presented in
Figure 5-7, grouping the thirty one tests of the experimental program according to their
ledge lengths. As can be observed in the figure, the general averages for the entire
experimental program confirm the trend presented in Chapter 4 for directly comparable
specimens, in which an increase in conservatism was observed as the ledge length
increased. General strength averages for cut-off, short, and long ledges were 1.19, 1.57,
1.70 for STM provisions and 1.74, 1.92, 2.32 for LRFD provisions. The same trend is
observed with both set of provisions, but with different degrees of conservatism;
conservatism observed in long ledges was 43% higher than that of cut-off ledges for STM
provisions, and 33% higher considering the LRFD provisions. It is not surprising to
observe that the highest strength ratio (2.17) was found for a long ledge specimen,
whereas the lowest (1.02) corresponded to a cut-off ledge specimen; based on STM
provisions.
3.50
Shallow STM
Deep STM
Shallow LRFD
Deep LRFD
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
Average = 1.19 STM
Average = 1.74 LRFD
0.00
Cut-off
ledges
n=7
Average = 1.57 STM

Average = 1.92 LRFD
Short
ledges
n=16
Average = 1.70 STM

Average = 2.32 LRFD
Long
ledges
n=8
Figure 5-7: STM and LRFD strength predictions for different ledge lengths
Strength ratios of the thirty one tests of the experimental program are grouped
according to their ledge depth in Figure 5-8. General averages for deep and shallow
ledges are very similar (5% difference using STM and 6% using LRFD), confirming the
142
trend observed in the direct comparisons of Chapter 4; ledge depth has no significant
effect on the conservatism of the STM provisions to estimate web-shear strengths.
3.50
Cut-off - STM
Cut-off - LRFD
Short - STM
Short - LRFD
Long - STM
Long LRFD
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
Average = 1.48 STM

Average = 1.93 LRFD
Average = 1.55 STM

Average = 2.04 LRFD
0.00
Shallow
ledges
n=15
Deep
ledges
n=16
Figure 5-8: STM and LRFD strength predictions for different ledge depths
Results in this section indicate that using cut-off ledges reduces significantly the
conservatism of the STM provisions. Although all the strength ratios were conservative,
it may be preferable to avoid cut-off ledges in practice, since many uncertainties in the
field may further diminish the shear strength of the members and potentially render
unsafe conditions. While short and long ledges are suitably treated by STM provisions, it
is recommended to use long ledges whenever possible.
Effects of ledge depth on web-shear strength are adequately captured by the strutand-tie model presented in Chapter 2. It is important to mention that most of the designs
of the specimens in the experimental program were controlled by web-shear as ledge
failures were not within the scope of this study. Therefore, no data is available to evaluate
the effects of further reductions of ledge depth. However, STM provisions mandate a
minimum angle of 25 degrees between a strut and a tie; a minimum ledge depth is
implicit in this provision. Therefore, no further recommendations are made regarding
ledge depths.
143
5.2.3
Summary
A summary of the comparisons of Vtest / Vpred is provided in Table 5-6. It can be
observed from the table that all methods yielded conservative results in all cases.
However in every comparison, the most accurate method for estimating web shearstrength is STM; especially for shear span-to-depth ratios of 1.85 (deep beam behavior).
Additionally, STM was found to offer a more rational approach to designing inverted-T
deep beams, which inherently considers all failure modes for the ledges, web, and bearing
points, and can be used for deep and non-deep beams.
Table 5-6: Range of experimental / predicted shear strength results
n = 14
Specimens with
a/d = 2.50
n = 31
All specimens
STM
TxDOT
5253
AASHTO/
TxDOT
LRFD
STM
TxDOT
5253
AASHTO/
TxDOT
LRFD
n = 17
Specimens with
a/d = 1.85
STM
TxDOT
5253
Min
1.02
1.33
1.24
1.33
1.02
Max
2.17
2.99
2.17
2.59
2.06
Mean
1.52
1.99
1.68
1.77
1.38
Unconservative*
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
Std deviation
0.33
0.43
0.32
0.38
0.29
COV**
0.22
0.21
0.19
0.22
0.21
* Unconservative = percentage of tests for which Experimental / Predicted < 1.0
n = 7 Specimens
with a/d = 1.85, and
multiple loads
AASHTO/
TxDOT
LRFD
STM
TxDOT
5253
AASHTO/
TxDOT
LRFD
1.69
2.99
2.17
0%
0.38
0.18
1.07
1.76
1.34
0%
0.30
0.22
1.71
2.82
2.12
0%
0.37
0.17
Regarding ledge geometry, cut-off ledges are not recommended in practice due to
the low conservatism observed in strength estimates of specimens with cut-off ledges.
The shear strength of specimens with short and long ledge are adequately estimated by all
design methods, however long ledges are recommended to be used whenever possible for
the higher conservatism in their strength estimations. Additionally, ledge depth must be
such that the angle between the horizontal tie and the diagonal strut in the cross sectional
STM is not less than 25 degrees.
5.3
SERVICEABILITY EVALUATION
Serviceability criteria for inverted-T bent caps are evaluated in this section. An
empirical equation to estimate the load at first diagonal cracking is evaluated, and
144
reinforcement requirements to adequately control crack widths and distribution are

discussed.
5.3.1
First Diagonal Cracking under Service Loads

For durability considerations, it is important to limit diagonal cracking under
service loads in reinforced concrete members. In this section, trends between the shear
force at first diagonal cracking and pertinent variables are investigated. An empirical
equation proposed by TxDOT Project 5253 relating first cracking to the a/d ratio and
concrete strength is investigated for applicability to inverted-T beams.
Since cracking is expected in reinforced concrete structures for reinforcing steel
to be engaged, provisions to completely eliminate cracking under service loads are
impractical. However, to extend the lifespan of reinforced concrete structures, it is
important to reduce the probability of cracking and minimize crack widths to tolerable
levels at service loads.
The main types of cracks in inverted-T beams are depicted in Figure 5-9. The
focus of this project is on web-shear cracks and flexure-shear cracks. No difference has
been made in this study between these two types of cracks. Flexural and punching shear
cracks are not considered in the following discussions.
Web-shear
crack
Flexure-shear
crack
Punching-shear
crack
Flexural crack
Figure 5-9: Types of cracks in inverted-T deep beams

ACI-ASCE Committee 326 report (1962) identified the major variables that affect
the diagonal cracking load of reinforced concrete beams. These variables are: (1) section
size (bwd), (2) tensile strength of concrete that is related to
145
, (3) longitudinal
reinforcement ratio (l), and (4) moment to shear ratio at the critical section (M/V). Since
M/V is constant in the main shear span of beams loaded with concentrated loads, the
shear span-to-depth ratio (a/d) can be used in lieu of M/V. Trends between the load at
first diagonal cracking (Vcr) and the variables listed above are investigated for tests in the
evaluation database and specimens of the experimental program for which cracking
information was available; as listed in Table 5-7 and shown in Figure 5-10 to Figure
5-13.
Table 5-7: Specimens in first diagonal cracking evaluation
Test
Specimen
Vcrack
a/d
ratio
01a
DS1-42-1.85-03
172
0.3% 0.3% 1.85
02a
DS1-42-1.85-06
188
0.6% 0.6% 1.85
03a
DL1-42-1.85-06
168
0.6% 0.6% 1.85
04a
SS3-42-1.85-03
126
0.3% 0.3% 1.85
04b
SS3-42-1.85-06 (f)
151
0.6% 0.6% 1.85
5b
SS3-42-2.50-06 (f)
115
0.6% 0.6% 2.50
6a
SC3-42-1.85-03
113
0.3% 0.3% 1.85
6b
SC3-42-2.50-03
90
0.3% 0.3% 2.50
7a
SS1-75-1.20-06 (p)
264
0.6% 0.6% 1.20
8b
SS1-75-2.50-06 (p)
232
0.6% 0.6% 2.50
9a
DS3-42-1.85-03
282
0.3% 0.3% 1.85
10a
DL1-42-1.85-03
242
0.3% 0.3% 1.85
11a
SS3-42-2.50-03
109
0.3% 0.3% 2.50
12a
DC1-42-1.85-06
107
0.6% 0.6% 1.85
14a
SS1-75-1.85-03b
346
0.3% 0.3% 1.85
15a
DC3-42-1.85-03
152
0.3% 0.3% 1.85
15b
DS3-42-1.85-03
164
0.3% 0.3% 1.85
16a
SS1-42-1.85-03
157
0.3% 0.3% 1.85
17a
DC1-42-2.50-03
70
0.6% 0.6% 1.85
18a
SL1-42-2.50-03
167
0.3% 0.3% 2.50
19a
DS1-42-1.85-6/3
64
0.6% 0.3% 1.85
20a
SC1-42-1.85-03 (lt)
127
0.3% 0.3% 1.85
(f) Flexure failure

(p) Punching shear failure
(lt) Ledge tie failure
146
TxDOT 6416
400
n = 22
350
300
Vcr (kip)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
1,600
Figure 5-10: Effect of section size on diagonal cracking load of inverted-T beams
As expected, there is an increase in cracking load as the size of a beam section
increases, as seen in Figure 5-10. There is however a lot of variability in cracking loads
for specimens of a given section size. The scatter could be attributed to other variables.
TxDOT 6416
10.0
n = 22
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
Figure 5-11: Effect of concrete tensile strength on diagonal cracking load

of inverted-T beams
In Figure 5-11, the square root of the concrete compressive strength is used as a
proxy for the tensile strength of concrete. No clear trend can be observed in Figure 5-11;
a larger amount of data would be required to reveal any trend since most of the specimens
shown in the figure had very similar concrete strengths. In order to isolate the effect of
147
the rest of the variables, the cracking load Vcr is normalized in the following figures by
bwd and the square root of the concrete compressive strength.
TxDOT 6416
10.0
n= 22
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Shear Span to Depth Ratio (a/d)
2.5
3.0
Figure 5-12: Effect of a/d ratio on diagonal cracking load of inverted-T beams
A large scatter is observed in Figure 5-12 for specimens with same a/d ratios. No
clear trend is observed in the figure but a trend may be obscured by the effects of other
variables. A wider range of a/d ratios may also help to reveal trends.
TxDOT 6416
10.0
9.0
n = 22
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0.0237
0.0237
0.0238
0.0238
0.0239
0.0239
0.0240
0.0240
Figure 5-13: Effect of longitudinal reinforcement on diagonal cracking

load of inverted-T beams with similar cross-section size
Only two different values of the reinforcement ratio are available in Figure 5-13,
leaving not enough data to properly evaluate the effects of this variable.
148
A key observation form the figures above is that there is significant variability in
the results. One constant in the results however is that in all cases
for
inverted-T beams, a value that is half of that typically observed in slender rectangular
beams
. This reduction in cracking strength seems reasonable considering
the tension field induced in the web by the loading conditions. Concrete tensile strength
and section size are the variables with more effects on the diagonal cracking load. Shear
span-to-depth ratio and longitudinal reinforcement ratio were also found to have an effect
on the diagonal cracking load.
An empirical equation incorporating all of these variables except the longitudinal
reinforcement ratio was proposed by TxDOT project 5253 to provide a lower bound on
the diagonal cracking load of rectangular beams. The equation allows for a serviceability
check for which the estimated service loads must remain below the estimated cracking
load. The equation was based on data from 59 tests of rectangular deep beams compiled
in the aforementioned project.
but not greater than
(5-1)
nor less than
where:
Vcr
diagonal cracking load (kip)
shear span (in.)
effective depth of the member (in.)
f c
compressive strength of concrete (psi)
bw
web width of the member (in.)
The cracking load estimated by equation 5-1 is compared with the cracking loads
of the 59 rectangular beam tests in Figure 5-14. It can be observed in the figure that the
simple equation provides a reasonably conservative estimate on cracking loads for
rectangular deep beams.
149
TxDOT 5253
Other Studies
10.0
n = 57
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
Conservative
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Figure 5-14: Diagonal cracking strength results and prediction for rectangular deep
beams (adapted from Bircher, et al 2008).
Cut-off-Shallow
Cut-off-Deep
10.0
Short-Shallow
Short-Deep
Long-Shallow
Long-Deep
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
n = 22
9.0
8.0
7.0
Conservative
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0.0
0.5
3.0
Figure 5-15: Measured diagonal cracking forces for different ledge configurations
from the experimental program
The cracking loads of the inverted-T deep beams compiled in this study are
shown in Figure 5-15 along with the estimated cracking load using equation 5-1. One
should note that the a/d ratios shown in the figure above were calculated, as defined in
this document, considering the distance between center of the support and the first
concentrated load.
150
Equation 5-1, which was calibrated using rectangular beams, yields reasonably
conservative estimates of diagonal cracking loads for inverted-T specimens. However,
cracking loads of five specimens, with cut-off and short ledges, fall below their estimated
cracking loads.
Ratios of measured diagonal cracking load (Vcrtest) to predicted diagonal cracking
load (Vcrpred) are plotted versus ledge length and ledge depth in Figure 5-16 and Figure
5-17. Values above 1.0 denote conservative estimations of the diagonal cracking load
using equation 5-1.
Shallow
2.50
Deep
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
Average
=1.02
0.00
Cut-off
ledges
n=6
Average =1.29
Short
ledges
n=17
Average
=1.56
Long
ledges
n=6
Figure 5-16: Ledge length effect on diagonal cracking load

Six specimens with cut-off ledges are shown in Figure 5-16 with 50% percent of
them cracking below their predicted cracking load. The average Vcrtest/Vcrpred ratio for
the cut-off ledges was 1.02. Seventeen specimens with short ledges are shown in the
figure, only four of them (24%) had a cracking ratio below 1.0; most of these had shallow
ledges. The average Vcrtest/Vcrpred ratio for the specimens with short ledges was 1.29. Six
specimens with long ledges are shown in Figure 5-16, all of which cracked after reaching
their predicted cracking load. The average Vcrtest/Vcrpred ratio for long ledged specimens
was 1.56.
151
2.50
Cut-off
Short
Long
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
Average =1.20
0.00
Average =1.42
Shallow
ledges
n=17
Deep
ledges
n=12
Figure 5-17: Ledge depth effect on diagonal cracking load

Seventeen specimens with shallow ledges are shown in Figure 5-17 with 29%
percent of them cracking below their predicted cracking load. The average Vcrtest/Vcrpred
ratio for the shallow ledges was 1.20. Twelve specimens with deep ledges are shown in
the figure; only two of them (17%) fell below 1.0. The average Vcrtest/Vcrpred ratio for the
deep ledges was 1.42.
It is important to note that the estimates provided by equation 5-1 represent a
lower bound on the load at which a beam will crack. Limiting the service demands using
equation 5-1 may still result in some bent caps cracking under full service load. At
service loads, designers must ensure adequate detailing to maintain the width of the
cracks within tolerable limits. Minimum steel requirements for crack width control will
be evaluated in the following section.
5.3.2
Crack Width Control

Research on diagonal crack widths is scarce. A detailed study of the available
research on the matter was presented by Bircher et al. 2008. In that study, the main factor
affecting the widths of diagonal cracks in deep beams was found to be the amount of web
reinforcement. The study concluded that a minimum of 0.3% vertical and horizontal web
reinforcement ratios should be provided to ensure enough force and crack redistribution
152
in the concrete. Birrcher et al. 2008 also found that providing web steel above 0.3% has
diminishing returns in regards to controlling diagonal crack widths. Additionally, the
study determined that longitudinal steel, shear span-to-depth ratio, and cover within a
range of 0.2 to 2 in. do not have a significant impact on diagonal crack widths.
The effects of ledge length, ledge depth, and number of point loads on crack
width progression were presented in Sections 4.4.3, 4.5.3 and 4.6.3. Neither ledge
geometry nor number of point loads were found to affect crack width progression in the
specimens tested.
In order to characterize the cracking performance of test specimens at service load
levels, a benchmark crack width of 0.016 in. was selected. Maximum crack widths
recorded below that threshold were deemed acceptable for long-term serviceability
considerations. The selected value is consistent with the tolerable service crack widths
listed in ACI 224R-01 and fib-1999 for dry exposure, as well as with TxDOT Project 05253. ACI 224R-01 reports that crack width limits are expected to be exceeded by a
significant portion of the cracks thus the values are only meant as general guidelines to be
used in conjunction with sound engineering judgment. Thus even though bent caps may
be exposed to wet and dry cycles, the dry exposure crack limit was deemed acceptable for
the evaluation of test specimens for which the actual maximum crack widths were
recorded at every loading increment.
Along with the limit on maximum crack width, a service load level corresponding
to 33% of the maximum applied load was selected as an approximate service load level
for test specimens. This value is consistent with the value used in TxDOT Project 0-5253.
Assumptions leading to the 33% value are detailed in Figure 5-18. Maximum diagonal
crack width progressions of four typical tests are presented in Figure 5-19 in conjunction
with the load and crack width serviceability criteria. In that figure, specimens with crack
progression outside of the bottom right quadrant drawn by the selected limits are deemed
to have acceptable detailing to limit crack widths at service loads.
153
Nominal Capacity Service Load
Assumptions:
2/3
Service Load
Nominal Capacity
1). Load Case: 1.25DL + 1.75LL

2). DL = 75% of Service Load
LL = 25% of Service Load
3). Nominal = 2/3 Experimental
0.70
1.4
= 0.33
= 1.4
Service Loads
Experimental Capacity
= strength reduction factor, 0.70

= load factor
DL = dead load
LL = live load
Figure 5-18: Service load level estimation (Birrcher, et al., 2008)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
33%
a/d = 1.85 = 0.003
30
a/d = 1.85 = 0.006
20
a/d = 2.50 = 0.003
10
0
0.000
a/d = 2.50 = 0.006
0.016
0.020
0.040
0.060
Figure 5-19: Typical crack width progression plot

Crack width progressions from thirty one tests conducted in the experimental
program of the current study are evaluated in this section. Details of these specimens are
summarized in Table 5-8. Eighteen specimens were tested had an a/d ratio of 1.85
154
(Figure 5-20) and thirteen specimens had an a/d ratio of 2.50 (Figure 5-21). All the
specimen crack width progressions grouped according to their reinforcement ratios are
shown in Figure 5-22 along with the serviceability criteria.
155
Table 5-8: Crack width evaluation specimens

Test Specimen
b
in.
h
in.
d
in.
Ledge
Depth
Ledge
Length
Point
Loads
01a
DS1-42-1.85-03
21
42
37.6
h/2
Short
16 x 20
26 x 9
0.3% 1.85
01b
DS1-42-2.50-03
21
42
37.6
h/2
Short
16 x 20
26 x 9
0.3% 2.50
02a
DS1-42-1.85-06
21
42
37.6
h/2
Short
16 x 20
26 x 9
0.6% 1.85
02b
DS1-42-2.50-06
21
42
37.6
h/2
Short
16 x 20
26 x 9
0.6% 2.50
03a
DL1-42-1.85-06
21
42
37.6
h/2
Long
16 x 20
26 x 9
0.6% 1.85
03b
DL1-42-2.50-06
21
42
37.6
h/2
Long
16 x 20
26 x 9
0.6% 2.50
04a
SS3-42-1.85-03
21
42
37.6
h/3
Short
16 x 20
18 x 9
0.3% 1.85
04b
SS3-42-2.50-03
21
42
37.6
h/3
Short
16 x 20
18 x 9
0.3% 2.50
5b
SS3-42-2.50-06 (f)
21
42
37.6
h/3
Short
16 x 20
18 x 9
0.6% 2.50
6a
SC3-42-1.85-03
21
42
37.6
h/3
Cut-off
16 x 20
18 x 9
0.3% 1.85
6b
SC3-42-2.50-03
21
42
37.6
h/3
Cut-off
16 x 20
18 x 9
0.3% 2.50
7a
SS1-75-1.85-03 (p)
21
75
68.2
h/3
Short
16 x 20
30 x 10 0.3% 1.85
8b
SS1-75-2.50-06 (p)
21
75
68.2
h/3
Short
16 x 20
30 x 10 0.6% 2.50
9a
DS3-42-2.50-03
21
42
37.6
h/2
Short
16 x 20
18 x 9
0.3% 2.50
10a
DL1-42-1.85-03
21
42
37.6
h/2
Long
16 x 20
26 x 9
0.3% 1.85
10b
DL1-42-2.50-03
21
42
37.6
h/2
Long
16 x 20
26 x 9
0.3% 2.50
11a
SL3-42-1.85-03
21
42
37.6
h/3
Long
16 x 20
18 x 9
0.3% 1.85
12a
SL3-42-1.85-06
21
42
37.6
h/3
Long
16 x 20
18 x 9
0.6% 1.85
14a
SS1-75-1.85-03b
21
75
68.2
h/3
Short
16 x 20
30 x 10 0.3% 1.85
15a
DC3-42-1.85-03
21
42
37.6
h/2
Cut-off
16 x 20
18 x 9
0.3% 1.85
15b
DS3-42-1.85-03
21
42
37.6
h/2
Short
16 x 20
18 x 9
0.3% 1.85
16a
SS1-42-1.85-03
21
42
37.6
h/3
Short
16 x 20
26 x 9
0.3% 1.85
16b
SS1-42-2.50-03
21
42
37.6
h/3
Short
16 x 20
26 x 9
0.3% 2.50
17a
DC1-42-2.50-03
21
42
37.6
h/2
Cut-off
16 x 20
26 x 9
0.6% 1.85
17b
DL3-42-1.85-03 (f)
21
42
37.6
h/2
Long
16 x 20
18 x 9
0.3% 1.85
18a
SL1-42-2.50-03
21
42
37.6
h/3
Long
16 x 20
26 x 9
0.3% 2.50
18b
SC1-42-2.50-03 (r)
21
42
37.6
h/3
Cut-off
16 x 20
26 x 9
0.3% 2.50
19a
DS1-42-1.85-6/3
21
42
37.6
h/2
Short
16 x 20
26 x 9
0.6% 1.85
19b
DS1-42-2.50-6/3
21
42
37.6
h/2
Short
16 x 20
26 x 9
0.6% 2.50
20a
SC1-42-1.85-03 (le)
21
42
37.6
h/3
Cut-off
30 x 21
18 x 9
0.3% 1.85
20b
DC1-42-1.85-03
21
42
37.6
h/2
Cut-off
30 x 21
18 x 9
0.3% 1.85
(f) Flexure failure
(r) Shear friction failure
(p) Punching shear failure
(le) Ledge tie failure
156
Support
Load
Plate in. Plate in.
a/d
ratio
v/h (%) =
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.3/0.3
0.6/0.3
0.6/0.6
a/d = 1.85
n = 18 tests
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
Maximum diagonal crack width, in.
Figure 5-20: Crack width data for specimens with a/d=1.85

A strong correlation between the transverse reinforcement ratio and maximum
diagonal crack widths can be seen in Figure 5-20. As expected, specimens with more
reinforcement showed narrower cracks at a given load. Specimens with 0.6% vertical
reinforcement ratio and 0.3% in the horizontal direction exhibited intermediate crack
width progressions between those of specimens with 0.6% and 0.3% reinforcement ratios
in both directions. Similar trends were observed for specimens with an a/d ratio of 2.50,
as shown in Figure 5-21.
157
v/h (%) =
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.3/0.3
0.6/0.3
0.6/0.6
a/d = 2.50
n = 13 tests
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
Figure 5-21: Crack width data for specimens with a/d=2.50
158
0.1
a/d = 1.85
v/h (%)
100
0.3/0.3
0.6/0.3
a/d = 2.50
0.6/0.6
0.3/0.3
0.6/0.3
0.6/0.6
90
80
70
60
50
40
33%
30
0.016in.
20
10
0
0
n = 31 tests
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
Figure 5-22: Crack width data for all specimens with serviceability criteria
Results shown in Figure 5-22 indicate that providing a minimum web transverse
reinforcement ratio of 0.3% distributed evenly in each direction adequately restrains the
maximum diagonal crack widths below 0.016 in. up to the assumed service load level.
This limit is consistent with the findings of TxDOT project 0-5253 for rectangular deep
beams. This limit was recently adopted in the TxDOT bridge design manual (2011) for
inverted-T beams.
5.3.3
Summary
Confirming the trends noted in Chapter 4, reducing ledge length and height has a
detrimental effect on web shear-cracking as evident by the reduction in the shear force at
first diagonal cracking. Since specimens with cut-off ledges showed the worst
performance, it is not recommended to use cut-off ledges in the designs of inverted-T
beams.
159
The lower bound equation of first diagonal cracking proposed by project 5253
provides a reasonable lower bound on that cracking load for most inverted-T beams; with
the exception of beams with shallow and cut-off ledges. It is therefore not recommended
to use the cracking equation for such beams.
Minimum transverse reinforcement ratios of 0.3% evenly distributed in each
direction were proven to adequately restrain the maximum diagonal cracks widths below
0.016 in. at service load levels.
5.4
STM APPLICATION FOR INVERTED-T BEAMS

Inverted-T beams are typically under complex states of stress along most of their
spans. The disturbed stress regions are induced by changes in the cross section as well as
the application of concentrated loads and reactions. Sectional design is not applicable for
disturbed regions; however, strut-and-tie modeling is applicable and offers a rational
design approach. The application of STM design to inverted-T beams is discussed next in
light of the experimental results.
5.4.1
Geometric Layout of Strut-and-Tie Models for Inverted-T Beams

The first step in building a strut-and-tie model is to define the layout of the struts
and ties. For inverted-T beams, some assumptions on load spread need to be made to
define the geometry of key elements: hanger ties, compression-block struts, intermediate
ties in the shear span (if they are present), and ledge tension tie.
When evaluating the strength of test specimens, the widths of the hanger ties were
obtained by assuming a 45-degree load-spread angle below the loading plates. The
assumption was shown to work reasonably well based on strain measurements in hanger
reinforcements (Section 4.3).
The depth of the compression block, as obtained from flexural sectional analysis,
was used as the depth of the prismatic compression strut comprising the top- or
compression-chord. The contribution of the flexural compression steel to the strength of
the strut and nodal interfaces was considered in specimen design. The full yield strength
of the compression steel was used (Section 2.4.3, Equation 2-27). Strength estimates were
160
also performed at the design phase ignoring the effects of the compression steel. In the
later strength calculations the compression strut was found to govern beam strength in
several cases. However, the observed failure modes for those cases were not of top-chord
compression strut failure but matched more closely failure modes predicted by including
the strength benefits of the compression steel. Test results therefore indicate that
including the strength contribution of compression steel in struts using Equation 2-27 is
appropriate.
STM provisions of TxDOT project 5253 implicitly check the strength of the struts
by calculating their capacity at the strut-to-node-interface (STNI); considering this point
the weakest of a bottle-shape strut. In inverted-T specimens with long ledges, the
diagonal struts are bounded by the web width on the upper portion of the web but not in
the lower portion of the web where stresses can spread the width of the ledge near the
support node (Figure 5-23). In such a case, the weakest point of the strut may shift from
the STNI to the location where the thickness of the strut changes from the ledge width to
the web width. Therefore, thickness of the STNI at the support may be considered as the
smallest of the bearing width and the web thickness.
161
Figure 5-23: Width variation in bottle-shape struts

The width of the intermediate tie in the shear spans of specimens with a/d ratios
of 2.50 was assumed to be bound by the nearest hanger tie and the intersection of the top
surface of the beam and a line extending from the center of the support at a 25-degree
angle from the vertical; consistent with the technique proposed by Wight & ParraMontesinos (2003) as illustrated in Figure 5-24.
Typical strain readings in hanger and transverse steel are presented in Figure 5-24
and Figure 5-25. An abrupt increase in the strains coinciding with the centroid of the
162
intermediate tie can be observed in Figure 5-24; which validates the assumptions made
about the location and width of intermediate ties. A significant difference is observed
between strains of the hanger and those of the intermediate tie. The difference can at least
partly be attributed to the change in bar size and spacing within the two ties. The hanger
tie is comprised of No. 6 bars spaced at 3 in. center-to-center, whereas the intermediate
tie is comprised of No. 4 bars spaced at 6.5 in. center-to-center. The observed strains are
consistent with the predicted capacities of the STM design in which the controlling
element was the intermediate tie while the hanger tie had an estimated capacity/demand
ratio of 3.08. Strains at service-load level, estimated as 33% of the maximum applied
load, are roughly three times larger at the intermediate tie than at the hanger tie. Strain
measurements shown in Figure 5-25 also confirm the hanger and intermediate tie widths
assumptions.
163
Hanger
Intermediate
tie
2
Strains at 100% of Maxumum load
1.8
1.6
Be
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Figure 5-24: Hanger and intermediate tie strains at various loading stages
for specimen 16a: SS1-42-2.50-03
164
Hanger
Intermediate
tie
25
4.5
Beam
19 Test 1
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
Figure 5-25: Hanger and intermediate tie strains at various loading stages
for specimen 19a: DS1-42-2.50-06/03
Tension reinforcement engaged in the flexural bending of the cantilevered ledge
is assumed to be effective within a width of (W + 5af) around the loading plate; as
illustrated in Figure 5-26. This assumption was suggested by Ma (1971), adopted in
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (2012), and used in this dissertation to
design test specimens. Measured strains in the tension reinforcement of the ledge in
specimens of the current study corroborate the suggested effective width as seen in
Figure 5-26. For cut-off ledges the recommended effective width of the ledge tension
reinforcements is 2c around the loading plate; c is the distance from the center of the
plate to the edge of the ledge (Figure 5-27). Strain measurements also corroborate the
suggested effective length in cut-off ledges as seen in Figure 5-27. However, it is still
recommended to avoid using cut-off ledges in inverted-T beams due to their poor
performance in tests.
165
W + 5af
af
W
1.5
1.25
Beam 16 Test 1
LEDGE

1
0.75
0.5
0.25
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Figure 5-26: Horizontal ledge-tie strains at various loading stages

for specimen 16a: SS1-42-2.50-03
166
2c
W + 5af
W + 5af
af
1.2
Beam 15 Test
LEDGE

1

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Longitudinal Position (in.)
140
160
180
Figure 5-27: Horizontal ledge-tie strains at various loading stages

for specimen 15a: DC3-42-1.85-03
5.4.2
Ledge Depth and Cantilever Projection

No limits are directly specified by STM design procedures for ledge depth or
cantilever projection of the ledge in the transverse direction. However, as with any STM,
the angle between a strut and a tie entering the same node must not be less than 25
degrees to prevent excessive strain in the reinforcement and excessive widening of
cracks. Deep ledge specimens from the current study as well as the 75-in deep specimens
were designed with the angle between the diagonal strut of the ledge and the hanger tie to
be close to 25 degrees (Figure 5-28). Given that ledges with the shallow strut-to-tie
angles performed adequately in tests, one can conclude that designing with angles larger
than 25 degrees between strut-and-tie is valid in ledge design.
167
Figure 5-28: Typical cross-sectional models for 42-in. specimens with deep ledges and
75-in. specimens with shallow ledges
5.4.3
STM Conservatism for Long Ledges

Results of the experimental program revealed an increase in strength for longer
ledges not captured by the strut-and-tie model. The state of stresses observed at the
support of a long-ledge specimen is a more complex problem than that of a short-ledge
specimen. Long ledges can provide tri-axial confinement to nodes and struts at the
support increasing strength at the support region. This effect is considered in TxDOT
5253 STM provisions using the m factor as defined in Equation 2-28 (Figure 5-29).
Frustum Area A2
12
Bearing Area A1
Figure 5-29: Application of frustum area to calculate the confinement factor
168
However, the confinement provided by long ledges was not considered in the
strut-and-tie models of the experimental program since the ledges did not extended past
the support plates due to limitations of the test setup, which required the ledges to be
discontinued near the center of the reaction plates, as shown in Figure 5-30.
Figure 5-30: Perspective view of test setup with a long-ledge specimen

Designs of five of the eight long-ledged specimens in the experimental program
were controlled by the capacity of the strut-to-node interface at the support (the five
specimens had a/d = 1.85). The observed increase in conservatism of the strength
estimates for these specimens may therefore be attributed in part to the partial
confinement of the support region by the ledges; an effect that was neglected in the
design due to the discontinuity of the ledges within the nodal region. Strength estimations
assuming full confinement at the support region by the ledges are shown in Table 5-9.
169
Table 5-9: Strength estimations considering the effects of ledge confinement

Unconfined support
Test
03a
03b
10a
10b
11a
12a
17b
18a
Specimen
DL1-42-1.85-06
DL1-42-2.50-06
DL1-42-1.85-03
DL1-42-2.50-03
SL3-42-1.85-03
SL3-42-1.85-06
DL3-42-1.85-03
SL1-42-2.50-03
Observed
Failure Mode
Vtest
kips
741
622
626
510
571
744
629
498
Sectional Shear
Sectional Shear
Flexure Failure
Sectional Shear
Vpred
Vtest /
Vpred
kips
464
353
468
235
409
424
359
269
ratio
1.60
1.76
1.34
2.17
1.39
1.76
1.75
1.85
Design
Controlling
Element
STNI at support
Intermediate tie
STNI at support
Intermediate tie
STNI at support
STNI at support
STNI at support
Intermediate tie
Confined support
Vpred
Vtest /
Vpred
kips
710
353
555
235
558
528
495
269
ratio
1.04
1.76
1.13
2.17
1.02
1.41
1.27
1.85
Design
Controlling
Element
Tension chord
Intermediate tie
Hanger tie
Intermediate tie
Tension chord
Tension chord
Tension chord
Intermediate tie
As can be seen in Table 5-9, conservatism for the five long-ledged specimens
originally controlled by the STNI at the support (a/d = 1.85) reduced significantly when
full confinement of the supports was assumed. The controlling element for specimen 17b
coincided with the observed failure mode when confinement was accounted for. It may
therefore be acceptable to utilize the benefits of ledges confinement on the struts crossing
the ledges. Designs of the remaining three long-ledged specimens (a/d = 2.50) were
controlled by the intermediate tie; for these specimens the conservatism remained
constant. These specimens observed higher strength and conservatism in strength
estimates than those observed in comparable specimens with shorter ledges.
5.5
DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on findings presented in this dissertation as part of the TxDOT project 0-
6416, recommendations for the design of inverted-T beams are presented.

5.5.1
Ledge Geometry
It is recommended to extend beam ledges beyond the edge of loading plates in the
longitudinal direction for a distance at least equal to the ledge depth. Cut-off ledges are
not recommended in inverted-T bent caps since they were found to reduce the shear
170
strength, the diagonal cracking load, and the conservatism of design provisions for the
specimens tested.
It is recommended to use long ledges whenever possible. Long ledges increase the
strength of the specimens, delay the appearance of diagonal cracking, and increase the
conservatism of strength design provisions.
5.5.2
Strength Design
Strut-and-tie modeling as proposed by TxDOT project 5253 and implemented in
this work is recommended for the design of all inverted-T bent caps. STM provisions
were found to produce more accurate strength estimates (over 30% more accurate
overall) than the sectional shear design methods coupled with special ledge design
procedures. STM procedures produced much higher accuracy for deep beams and
performed on par with sectional design methods for non-deep beams. The proposed STM
procedures inherently account for all the different failure modes of interest in inverted-T
beams. Thus the procedures provide a single rational and simple design approach for the
design of inverted-T beams.
It is recommended to evaluate the shear span of inverted-T beams as the distance
between centers of support and the nearest concentrated load; consistent with the
definition provided in ACI 318-11 (Art. 11.7.1). Since STM procedures were
demonstrated to be equally valid for deep and non-deep beams (by any definition of shear
span), such a definition change will improve the accuracy in the design of a portion of the
beams that are defined differently by the two competing shear span definitions, while
producing comparable accuracy to the sectional design methods for the other portion.
One should note that if STM is used for all inverted-T-beam designs, the
definition of shear span becomes a moot point for the differentiation between deep and
non-deep beams.
171
5.5.3
Serviceability
It is recommend to limit shear forces in inverted-T beams to the limits evaluated
using Equation 5-1 under un-factored service loads. It is left to the designer to determine
what percentage of the live load to include in the service load calculations.
Minimum transverse reinforcement ratios of 0.3% distributed evenly in each
direction of the web must be provided to adequately restrain the width of diagonal cracks
at service load levels. The minimum transverse reinforcement ratios will also allow for
sufficient force redistributions for the struts to reach their full capacity.
5.6
SUMMARY
Data from the experimental program were used to compare the accuracy of the
sectional AASHTO and TxDOT design provisions for inverted-T bent caps with that of
STM provisions of the TxDOT project 5253 as implemented in this dissertation for
inverted-T beams. Strut-and-tie modeling is recommended for the design of all inverted-T
beams after producing improved accuracy and reduced unnecessary conservatism
compared with sectional shear design methods; especially for deep beams. Additionally,
shear span definitions of AASHTO LRFD (2012) and ACI 318-11 were compared,
showing that ACI definition results in more accurate strength estimations for inverted-T
beams with up to three point loads.
Ledge geometry recommendations were made for inverted-T beam design. Cutoff ledges are not recommended due to reduced conservatism in strength design
compared with longer ledges and reduced first-cracking load. Deep and long ledges are
recommended whenever possible, due to strength and serviceability benefits observed in
the experimental results.
Data from the literature and evaluation database were used to evaluate the main
variables influencing the diagonal cracking load. Shear span-to-depth ratio, concrete
tensile strength, and section size were shown to be the main variables affecting the
diagonal cracking load of inverted-T deep beams. An empirical equation proposed by
TxDOT project 5253 was shown to give reasonably conservative estimates of cracking
loads for inverted-T beams. It is recommended to introduce a serviceability check in the
172
design of inverted-T beams to limit shear stresses under service loads to below the
estimated diagonal cracking load using the proposed equation. The provision should
reduce but not eliminate the probability of inclined cracking under service loads.
Minimum transverse steel ratios of 0.3% evenly distributed in each direction of the web
are recommended to adequately restrain the diagonal crack widths under service load and
to allow for enough force redistribution for struts to reach their full capacity. Finally, the
application of STM for inverted-T specimens was discussed in light of test results.
173
CHAPTER 6
Summary and Conclusions
6.1
SUMMARY
Diagonal web cracking of recently built inverted-T straddle bent caps has been
reported with increasing frequency in Texas, triggering concerns about current design
procedures for such elements. To address the concerns, the Texas Department of
Transportation (TxDOT) funded project 0-6416 with objectives of obtaining a better
understanding of the behavior of inverted-T beams and developing strength and
serviceability design criteria that will minimize such cracking in the future.
In order to accomplish the objectives mentioned above, the following tasks are
addressed in TxDOT project 0-6416. Highlighted are the tasks accomplished within the
scope of this dissertation:
1. Literature review
2. Inverted-T database (Section 2.6)
3. Examination of bent caps in the field
4. Experimental research on strength and serviceability of inverted-T beams
i.
Ledge length (Section 4.4)
ii.
Ledge depth (Section 4.5)
iii.
Web reinforcement ratio
iv.
Number of point loads (Section 4.6)
v.
Loaded chord
vi.
Web depth
5. Development of design recommendations (Section 5.4)

6. Proof testing of the proposed design recommendations
Assembly of the inverted-T database, which includes 128 tests from the literature,
is presented. Most of the compiled tests were found not to be applicable to the inclined
cracking focus of this project or were conducted on beams drastically smaller than the
174
bent caps in service in Texas. Moreover, very limited serviceability information

regarding diagonal crack widths was available in the literature. It was therefore deemed
necessary to conduct a comprehensive experimental program of full-scale inverted-T
beam specimens to achieve project goals.
Thirty one full-scale tests were conducted with some of the specimens measuring
among the largest reinforced concrete deep beams ever tested to determine shear
capacity. Strength and serviceability effects of ledge geometry and number of point loads
were presented in Sections 4.4, 4.5, and 4.6. Comparisons between the accuracy of STM
and sectional LRFD design methods are provided in Section 5.2. Serviceability
evaluations pertaining to detailing that controls service load cracking are presented in
Section 5.3. Finally, design recommendations for strength and serviceability of invertedT beams were presented in Section 5.5.
The main focus of the current study was on the shear strength and serviceability
of the inverted-T specimens. Torsional effects were not included in the current study,
since the cracking patterns observed in the distressed bent caps in service are all
consistent with shear issues and no indication of torsional deficiencies were observed in
the field inspections.
6.2
CONCLUSIONS
Conclusions of the current study were based on results from the experimental
program.
6.2.1
Applicability of 45-Degree Load Spread Under Ledge Loads

The purpose of this task was to validate the 45-degree load spread assumed under
the loading plates to calculate the width of the hanger ties. Strain gauge measurements
indicated that the 45-degree load spread assumption is reasonable and conservative. It is
therefore recommended to calculate the hanger tie widths by assuming a 45-degree
spreading of the applied load as shown in Figure 4-4.
175
6.2.2
Ledge Length Effects

Results have shown that increasing the ledge length increases strength, delays the
appearance of the first diagonal cracking, and increases conservatism of the strength
estimations. Ledge length has no significant effect on crack width progression.
6.2.3
Ledge Depth Effects

Results have shown that the ledge depth has no significant effect on the strength,
crack width progression, or strength-estimate conservatism. However, it was observed

that increasing the ledge depth delays the appearance of the first diagonal cracking.
Additionally, shallower ledges were more susceptible to local failures.
6.2.4
Number of Point Loads Effects

Results have shown that the number of point loads has no significant effect on the
strength, crack width progression, or strength conservatism. Regarding the appearance of

the first diagonal cracking, no trend was observed, but only three pairs of comparable
specimens were available for this task. More data are necessary to substantiate that
conclusion.
6.2.5
Comparison Sectional Shear Provisions vs. STM provisions

Both methods yielded conservative results. However, the most accurate method
for estimating web shear-strength is STM; especially for shear span-to-depth ratios of
1.85 (deep beam behavior). Additionally, STM offers a rational approach to designing
inverted-T deep beams, which inherently considers all failure modes for the ledges, web,
and bearing points, and can be used for deep and non-deep beams. Moreover, it must be
mentioned that the application of sectional design for deep beams is fundamentally
flawed, since the general assumptions of beam theory do not apply in disturbed regions.
6.3
6.3.1
DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS
Strength Design
176
Strut-and-tie modeling as proposed by TxDOT project 5253 and implemented in

this work is recommended for the design of all inverted-T bent caps. STM provisions
were found to produce more accurate strength estimates than sectional methods.
It is recommended to evaluate the shear span of inverted-T beams as the distance
between centers of support and the nearest concentrated load; consistent with the
definition provided in ACI 318-11 (Art. 11.7.1).
6.3.2
Serviceability
It is recommend to limit shear forces in inverted-T beams to the limits evaluated

using Equation 5-1 under un-factored service loads. It is left to the designer to determine
what percentage of the live load to include in the service load calculations.
Minimum transverse reinforcement ratios of 0.3% distributed evenly in each
direction of the web must be provided to adequately restrain the width of diagonal cracks
at service load levels.
6.3.3
Detailing
It is recommended to extend beam ledges beyond the edge of loading plates in the
longitudinal direction for a distance at least equal to the ledge depth. Cut-off ledges are
not recommended in inverted-T bent caps since they were found to reduce the shear
strength, the diagonal cracking load, and the conservatism of design provisions for the
specimens tested.
It is recommended to use long ledges whenever possible. Long ledges increase the
strength of the specimens, delay the appearance of diagonal cracking, and increase the
conservatism of strength design provisions.
177
APPENDIX A
Collection Database References
Cussens, A. R., & Besser, I. I. (1985, September). Shear strength of reinforced concrete
wall-beams under combined top and bottom loads. The Structural Engineer,
63B(3), 50-56.
Fereig, S. M., & Smith, K. N. (1977, May 1). Indirect Loading on Beams with Short
Shear Spans. ACI Journal, 74(5), 220-222.
Ferguson, P. M. (1956, August 1). Some Implications of Recent Diagonal Tension Tests.
ACI, 53(8), 157-172.
Fernandez-Gomez, E., Larson, N., Garber, D., Bayrak, O., & Ghannoum, W. (2012).
TxDOT Project 0-6416: Strength and Serviceability Design of Reinforced
Concrete Inverted-T Straddle Bent Caps. The University of Texas at Austin:
Center for Transportation Research.
Furlong, R. W., & Mirza, S. A. (1974). 153-1F - Strength and Serviceability of Inverted
T-Beam Bent Caps Subject to Combined Flexure, Shear, and Torsion. Austin:
Center for Highway Research, University of Texas at Austin.
Furlong, R. W., Ferguson, P. M., & Ma, J. S. (1971). 113-4 - Shear and anchorage study
of reinforcement in inverted-T beam bent cap girders. Austin TX: Center for
highway research at The University of Texas at Austin.
Galal, K., & Sekar, M. (2007, June 1). Rehabilitation of RC inverted-T girders using
anchored CFRP sheets. (S. Direct, Ed.) Composites: Part B - Engineering, 39(4),
604-617.
Graf, O. , Brenner, E., & Bay, H. (1943). Versuche mit einem wandartigen Trager aus
Stahlbeton. Deutscher Ausschuss fur Stahlbeton, 99, 41-54.
Leonhardt, F., & Walther, R. (1966). Wandartige Trger. Deutscher Ausschuss
furStahlbeton, 178.
178
Schtt, H. (1956, October). ber das Tragvermgen wandartiger Stahlbetontrger. Beton

und Stahlbetonbau, 10, 220-224.
Smith, K. N., & Fereig, S. M. (1974, January 1). Effect Of Loading And Supporting
Condidtions On The Shear Strength Of Deep Beams. ACI, SP 42, 441-460.
Tan, K. H., Kong, F. K., & Weng, L. W. (1997, June 3). High strength concrete deep
beams subjected to combined top-and bottom-loading. The Structural Engineer,
75(11), 191-197.
Taylor, R. (1960, November). Some shear tests on reinforced concrete beams without
shear reinforcement. Magazine of Concrete Research, 12(36), pp. 145-154.
Zhu, R. R.-H., Dhonde, H., & Hsu, T. T. (2003). TxDOT Project 0-1854: Crack Control
for Ledges in Inverted "T" Bent Caps. University of Houston.
179
APPENDIX B
Experimental Specimens Details
B.1 OVERVIEW
Construction details of all the specimens fabricated in the current project are
presented in this Appendix.
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
APPENDIX C
Design Example
C.1 OVERVIEW
A detailed example of the design of one specimens of the experimental program is
provided in this appendix using the following provisions:
1. STM PROVISIONS OF TXDOT PROJECT 5253
2. TXDOT BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL LRFD (2011)
3. ASHTO BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS (2012)
201
Beam 01a: DS1-42-1.85-03 - TxDOT 0-5253 STM Design
29
42
29
L1
Gross Properties
L 255.25in
28
L2
L3
Material Properties
f'c 5.26ksi
Length of the beam between supports
L1 99.625in
Support A to load 1
fy_11 69.23929ksi A11 1.56in
L2 82in
Distance Between Loads
fy_6 63.71ksi
A6 0.44in
L3 73.625in
Support I to load 2
fy_5 62.996ksi
A5 0.31in
b 21in
h l 21in
Web width
Ledge Height
fy_4 63.135ksi
A4 0.20in
wl 9in
ll 26in
Load plate width
STM Factors
Load plate length
1.0
ws 20in
ls 16in
Support plate width
CCC_b 0.85
d l h l 1.5in 0.5d 5 19.188in
lsp ll 2 d l 64.375in
Top of ledge to comp reinf
Support plate length
Load spread
CCT_b 0.7
TTC 0.65
202
CCT_stn
d 11 1.41in
d 6 0.75in
d 5 0.625in
d 4 0.5in
0.85
0.65 if 0.85
0.45 if
0.85
f'c
20ksi
0.45 0.587
20ksi
f'c
0.65
20ksi
f'c
otherwise
Geometric Properties
Including Ledge Reinforcement:
A's 6 A11 9.36 in
Compression Steel
2
As 12A11 18.72 in
wflex 2 4.365 in 8.73 in
a
As fy_11 A's fy_11

0.85 b f'c
d 42in
h d
ad2
a
2
L3
d
wflex
2
Flexure Steel
Flexure Tie Width
a2
Top of beam to center of flex

Moment arm
ad1
L1 L2
L
0.85 b f'c
d 2 42in
34.184 in
lfe lsp 1
As2 fy_11 A's fy_11
6.902 in
37.635 in
1.956
As2 16 A11 24.96 in

wflex2 2 3.98125 in 7.963 in
L1
d
wflex2
2
11.504 in
38.019 in
a2
h 2 d 2
32.267 in
2
2
A1 ws ls 320 in
2.647
18.568 in
Shear span-to-depth ratio
L1 L2
45.807 in
L
lfh lsp
A2
A1
1.05
lh 0.5lfh lfe 0.5lsp 9.284 in
le lfh 0.5lfe 0.5lsp 22.903 in
3 h
A atan
0.514
L1 L2
180
A A
29.45
Angle between Strut AB and Tie AC
3 h
C atan
0.514
L1 L2
0.737
E atan
L L
2
1
l e
3
h
0.488
H atan
L3 l h
180
C C
29.45
Angle between Strut CD and Tie CE
180
E E
42.246
Angle between Strut EG and Tie EF
180
H H
27.981
203
A2 ws 1.05 ls 1.05 352.8 in
Angle between Strut FH and Tie GH
Member Capacities
Node
A
RA CCT_b f'c m ws ls 1237.152 kip
ABA CCT_stn m ws ls sin A wflex cos A f'c 1002.988 kip

Node F
DF F CCT_stn b a f'c A's fy_11 1095.636 kip
a
EFF CCT_stn b lfe a tan E sin E
f' 478.149 kip
cos E c
FH F CCT_stn b lfh sin H a cos H f'c 1788.759 kip
Node H
FH H CCT_stn m ws ls sin H wflex cos H f'c 986.633 kip

RH CCT_b m f'c ws ls 1237.152 kip
Load
PL 2 CCT_b f'c wl ll 1723.176 kip
Member Forces
L
650.56 kip
P FH H sin H
L1 L2
Node H
L1 L2
FRH
P 462.913 kip
L
P 651 kip
RH
FRH
2.673
204
Design Beam to Fail at Strut-to-Node Interface at Node H
FRH
FFH
986.633 kip
sin H
FH H
Node
A
FRA
FFH
L3
P 187.65 kip
L
FH F
FFH
RA
FRA
FRA
FAB
381.658 kip
sin A
ABA
FAB
Node B
DF F
FBD FAB cos A 332.341 kip
FBD
1.813
FGH FFH cos H 871.296 kip
6.593
2.628
FAC FAB cos A 332.341 kip
3.297
FBC FAB sin A 187.65 kip
Node C
FBC
FCD
381.658 kip
sin C
Node D
FCE FCD cos C FAC 664.681 kip
FDF FCD cos C FBD 664.681 kip
DF F
FDF
1.648
FDE FCD sin C 187.65 kip
1.713
FEG FEF cos E FCE 871.296 kip
Node E
FDE
FEF
279.109 kip
sin E
Node F
EFF
FEF
FFG FEF sin E FFH sin H 650.563 kip

Checks
FRH FRA P 0 kip
FEG FGH 0 kip
FDF FEF cos E FFH cos H 0 kip
205
Tie Requirements
Flexural Reinforcement- #11 bars
Fflex max FAC FCE FEG FGH 871.296 kip

Hanger Bars- #6 stirrups
TFG
TFG 38 A6 fy_6 1065.231 kip
FFG
Cross Section Model
TBC
FBC
2.571
l4 1.5
in
l1 l4 1in 0.5wl 7.375 in
l3 h l 0.5wflex l5 14.322 in
l5
ln lsp wflex
l3
hl
l2
TDE
TDE 20A6 fy_6 560.648 kip
FDE
2.988
Truss Geometry
l4
l1
1.488
Tie DE- #6 hangers
TBC 16A4 fy_4 10A6 fy_6 482.356 kip
Fflex
1.637
Tie BC- #4 stirrups and #6 hangers
Tflex
Tflex As fy_11 1296.16 kip
l3
atan 1.095
l1
l1
206
l2 b 2ll4 17.25 in
5
l5 2
in 2.313 in
16
af 5.5in
lledge ll 5 af 53.5 in

180
62.755
Truss Capacities
Node b
abb CCT_stn lsp wflex cos( ) 2l4 sin( ) f'c 1457.057 kip
Node a
Ra CCT_b f'c wl ll 861.588 kip
bcb CCT_stn ln wflex f'c 1499.907 kip
aba CCT_stn ll wl sin( ) 2l5 cos( ) f'c 812.32 kip

Truss Forces
TRa
Tab
P
2
325.282 kip
TRa
sin( )
365.873 kip
Tbc Tab cos( ) 167.495 kip
Ra
TRa
abba
Tab
bcb
Tbc
2.649
2.22
3.982
Tdc Tab 365.873 kip
8.955
Tad Tab cos( ) 167.495 kip
Tbf Tab sin( ) 325.282 kip
Tce 0.5FFG 325.282 kip
Tie Requirements
Tie ad- #5 bars
Tiead 15 A5 fy_5 292.931 kip
Tiead
Tad
1.749
Bars in ledge spread length
Tie bf- #6 bars

Checked in elevation STM
207
Tbf Tce kip
TxDOT Bridge Design Manual - LRFD

Hanger Reinforcement:
sbar_S 3.5in
n legs 2
av 5.5in
Distance between Load and Face of web
fy fy_6 63.71 ksi

b v b 21 in
c 35.125in
Distance between Load and end of ledge
W ll 26 in
S L2 82 in
Distance between Loads
Ahr A6 n legs 0.88 in
Ahr_min 0.0316
kip
0.5
f'c
in
b v sbar_S
fy
0.084 in
Minhr_SteelCheck
"OK" if Ahr_min Ahr

"NG" otherwise
Service Limit State
AASHTO LRFD 5.13.2.5.5
Minhr_SteelCheck "OK"
Interior Beams
Vall_1
Vall_2
2
Ahr fy
3
sbar_S
W 3a 454 kip
Exterior Beams
Vall_3
2
Ahr fy
3
sbar_S
( S) 876 kip
Vall_4
Vnint_serv min Vall_1 Vall_2 454 kip
2
Ahr fy
3
W 3av c 602 kip

sbar_S
2
2
Ahr fy
3
S c 813 kip
sbar_S 2
Vnext_serv min Vall_3 Vall_4 602 kip
Vnhr_serv min Vnint_serv Vnext_serv 454 kip

Vnhr_serv 454 kip
208
Strength Limit State

b f 42in
Exterior Beams
Flange width
d f d l 19.188 in
Ahr fy S
Vn_3
c 1219 kip
sbar_S 2
0.5
Ahr fy W 2d f
kip
Vn_4 0.063
f'c b f d f
c
in
2
sbar_S
Interior Beams
Ahr fy
Vn_1
S 1314 kip
sbar_S
kip
Vn_2 0.063
Ahr fy
f'c b f d f
W 2d f 1148 kip
sbar_S
0.5
in
Vnint_strength min Vn_1 Vn_2 1148 kip
Vn_4 1194.686 kip

Vnext_strength min Vn_1 Vn_2 Vn_3 Vn_4 1148 kip
Vnhr_stre min Vnint_strength Vnext_strength 1148 kip

Vnhr_stre 1148 kip
Stirrups: Nominal Shear Resistance:

AASHTO LRFD 5.8.3.3
Find dv:
2
As 12A11 18.72 in
A's 6 A11 9.36 in
H 42in
d H 4.365in 37.635 in
d' 2.955in top cover + 1/2 bar
2
Astirrup 0.2in
45deg
As per AASHTO 5.8.3.4.1 - Simpliefied procedure for

Nonprestressed Sections
90deg
Angle of stirrups to long axis
fyv fy_4 63.135 ksi
0.85 if f'c 4ksi
0.787
0.65 if f'c 8 ksi
Legs 2
0.85
sstirrup 6.5in
209
0.05
ksi
f'c 4ksi
otherwise
Av Astirrup Legs 0.4 in

a
As fy_11 A's fy_11

0.85 f'c b
Av_min1 0.0316
6.902 in
AvMinCheck1
dv1
As fy_11
34.432 in
dv2 0.9d 33.872 in

dv3 0.72H 30.24 in
Vs
kip
0.5
in
f'c
in
b v sstirrup
fy
f'c b v d v 104.807 kip
Av fyv d v ( cot( ) cot( ) ) sin( )

sstirrup
AvMinCheck1 "OK"
AvminCheck2
"OK" if
133.776 kip
Vn1 Vc Vs 238.583 kip

Vn2 0.25f'c b v d v 950.836 kip
Vnstirrup min( Vn1 Vn2 ) 239 kip
210
Av
b sstirrup
"NG" otherwise
0.155 in
"OK" if Av_min1 Av
AvminCheck_2 "OK"
d v max( dv1 dv2 dv3 ) 34.432 in
Vc 0.0316
0.5
"NG" otherwise
a
Mn A's fy_11 ( d d') 0.85 f'c b a d 3719.101 kip ft
2
Mn
kip
0.003
Maximum Spacing of Transverse

Reinforcement: AASHTO LRFD 5.8.2.7
Skin Reinforcement: AASHTO LRFD 5.7.3.4

2
Abar_T Astirrup 0.2 in
Shear Stress
v u
Vnstirrup
bv dv
NoTBarsStem 4
0.33 ksi
in
in
Ask_Req1 0.012 ( d 30in) 0.092
ft
ft
v lim 0.125 f'c 0.657 ksi

sstirrup_Max1
min 0.4d v 12in

min 0.8d v 24in
if v u v lim
2
As
in
d
Ask_max
2.984
4
ft
2
24 in
in
Ask_Req min Ask_Req1 Ask_max 0.092
ft
if v u v lim
sstirrup_Max min sstirrup_Max1 12in 12 in

sstirrup_Check
Number of Bars per face
Ask_prov
"NG" if sstirrup_Max sstirrup
Abar_T NoTBarsStem
Ask_provCheck
"OK" if sstirrup_Max sstirrup
0.255
in
ft
"OK" if Ask_prov Ask_Req

"NG" if Ask_prov Ask_Req
sstirrup_Check "OK"
Ask_provCheck "OK"
211
Check Punching Shear: AASHTO LRFD 5.13.2.5.4

with modifications from the TxDOT LRFD Bridge Design Manual
Determine if the Shear Cones Intersect
Check Shear Friction (Concrete):

d e 18.6875in
Distance from bottom of ledge to

tension reinforcement
Longidutinal:
Overlapl_Check
Distribution Width for Shear:
"OK" if S 2d f wl
"NG - Cones Overlap" otherwise
Exterior Beams:
Overlapl_Check "OK"
b s min ll 4av S 2c 48 in
2
Acv d e b s 897 in
Transversal:
Overlapt_Check
"OK" if 0.5 b av d f 0.5ll
Vnc_vf min 0.2f'c Acv 0.8ksi Acv 718 kip
"NG - Cones Overlap" otherwise
Vnc_vf 718 kip
Overlapt_Check "NG - Cones Overlap"

---> Need to check combined surface areas
.5
VPC_Int 0.125ksi f'c ll b
Bearing at loading points:
2d f b f 2 810 kip
ll
.5
VPC_Ext1 0.125ksi f'c c b
2
AASHTO LRFD 5.7.5
2d f b f 616 kip
VPC_Ext VPC_Int
VPC_Ext 810 kip
212
Al wl ll 234 in
Vnb 0.85 f'c Al 1046 kip
Ledge Reinforcement:
Shear Friction:
sle 3.5in Spacing ledge

2
Asle 0.31in
Area of ledge bars
af 7.375in Distance from load to hanger
Distribution Width for Shear:
AASHTO LRFD 5.8.4.1
1.4
Friction coefficient AASHTO LRFD 5.8.4.3
c1 0ksi
Cohesion coefficient for corbels and ledges
Pc 0kip
Axial compression
fy_ledge fy_5 63 ksi
fy_le min fy_ledge 60ksi 60 ksi
Interior Beams:
b s_Int min ll 4av S 48 in
b s_Ext min ll 4av S 2c 48 in
Distribution Width for Bending and

Axial Loads: AASHTO LRFD 5.13.2.5.3
Avf_Ext
avf_min
b s_Ext
Asle 4.251 in
sle
0.05ksi d e
fy_le
Avf_Ext
avf
b s_Ext
1.063
in
ft
0.187
in
ft
2
Exterior Beams:
AASHTO LRFD 5.8.4.4-1
Exterior Beams:
Exterior Beams:
Minimum reiforcement:
b m_Ext min ll 5af S 2c 62.875 in
Avf_min avf_min b s_Ext 0.748 in

Avf_minCheck
"OK" if Avf_Ext Avf_min

"NG" otherwise
Avf_minCheck "OK"
Acv_Ext d e b s_Ext 897 in
Vnvf_Ext c1 Acv_Ext Avf_Ext fy_le Pc
213
Vnvf_Ext 357 kip
Ledge Flexure/Axial Reinforcement:

Vule 661kip
AASHTO LRFD 5.13.2.4.1, 5.13.2.4.2
(Per side)
Nule 0.2Vule 132.2 kip

Mule Vule av Nule h l 1in d e 4073 kip in
an_Min 0.04
f'c
fy_ledge
d e 0.749
in
ft
Nule
2
An_req
2.099 in
fy_ledge
b m_Ext
2
Ale
Asle 5.569 in
sle
an
ale
Asf Ale An_req 3.47 in

cle
Asf fy_ledge
0.85 f'c 1 b m_Ext
asf
An_req
b m_Ext
Asle
0.401
sle
Asf
b m_Ext
in
AleCheck1
ft
2
0.662
ft
Mnle
Mule
"OK" if ale an_Min
"OK"
"NG" otherwise
in
AleCheck2
0.988 in
"OK" if ale an asf
"OK"
"NG" otherwise
AleCheck3
ale
Mnle Asf fy_ledge d e

4076 kip in
2
AleCheck
ft
1.063
aledge cle 1 0.778 in
Vnle 2 Vule 1322 kip
in
"OK" if ale
2avf
"OK"
3
"NG" otherwise
AleCheck4
"OK" if an 0.5 ale an

"NG" otherwise
"OK" if AleCheck1 = "OK" AleCheck2 = "OK" AleCheck3 = "OK" AleCheck4 = "OK"

"NG" otherwise
AleCheck "OK"
214
"OK"
"OK"
Flexural Reinforcement
b stem b 21 in
width of stem
b ledge 10.5in
width of ledge
d stem H h l 21 in
depth of stem
depth of ledge
b f 42 in
width of bottom flange
d ledge h l 21 in
h cap H 42 in
d s_pos h cap 4.365in 37.635 in

2
f 0.9
height of cap
d s_neg h cap 2.25in 0.5d 11 39.045 in

2
As 12A11 18.72 in
A's 6 A11 9.36 in
d' h cap d s_neg 2.955 in

a
As fy_11 A's fy_11

0.85 f'c b stem
a
M n A's fy_11 ( d d') 0.85 f'c b stem a d 3719 kip ft
2
6.902 in
Mn
L
Pflx
L1 L2 L L1 L2
12
Ag
17.5 in
b f d ledge ybar 0.5d ledge
fr 0.24 f'c ksi 0.55 ksi

M cr Smod fr 334 kip ft
Mrcheck
d ledge b f 0.5d ledge d stem b stem d ledge 0.5d stem
ybar
Ig
M r f M n 3347 kip ft
Pflx 852 kip
Ag d ledge b f d stem b stem 1323 in

b f d ledge
b stem d stem
12
modulus of rupture
M cr1 1.2M cr 401 kip ft
"OK" if M r M f
b stem d stem ybar d ledge 0.5d stem 178274.25 in
y t h cap ybar 24.5 in
Ig
3
Smod
7276.5 in
yt
M cr2 1.33 M n 4946 kip ft
M f min M cr1 M cr2 401 kip ft
Mrcheck "OK"
"NG" otherwise
215
Pmin 335kip
Vuxx Summary:
Vnhr_serv
Ratios:
Vnhr_serv 453.858 kip
P1
Vnhr_stre 1147.632 kip
P2 Vnhr_stre 1148 kip
Hanger strength
Vnstirrup 238.583 kip
L
335 kip
P3 Vnstirrup
L1 L2
Transverse reinforcement
Vnvf_Ext 357.12 kip
P4 Vnvf_Ext 2 714 kip
Shear friction, ledge reinf
VPC_Ext 809.984 kip
P5 VPC_Ext 810 kip
Punching shear
Vnb 1046.214 kip
P6 Vnb 2 2092 kip
Bearing at load pts
Vnc_vf 717.6 kip
P7 Vnc_vf 2 1435 kip
Shear friction, ledge concrete
Vnle 1322 kip
P8 Vnle 1322 kip
Ledge reinf; flexure, axial
0.33
1375 kip
Hanger service
P1
Pmin
P2
Pmin
P3
Pmin
P4
Pmin
P5
Pmin
P6
Pmin
P7
Pmin
P8
Pmin
P9 Pflx 852 kip
Flexure
Pmin
Controling element: Stirrups in Shear span
Pu min P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 335 kip
P9
L1 L2
239 kip
L
Vu Pu
216
Pu 335 kip
4.11
3.43
1.00
2.13
2.42
6.25
4.28
3.95
2.54
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications

Same design as per TxDOT Specifications, except for the following:
Hanger Reinforcement:
Service Limit State
Stirrup Reinforcement:
Maximum Spacing of Transverse
Reinforcement: AASHTO LRFD 5.8.2.7
Interior Beams
Shear Stress
Vall_1
Vall_2
Ahr ( 0.5fy)
sbar_S
W 3av 340 kip
v u
Ahr ( 0.5fy)
bv dv
0.33 ksi
v lim 0.125 f'c 0.657 ksi
( S) 657 kip
sbar_S
Vnint_serv min Vall_1 Vall_2 340 kip
Vnstirrup
sstirrup_Max
Exterior Beams
Vall_3
Vall_4
Ahr ( 0.5fy)
sbar_S
Ahr ( 0.5fy)
sbar_S
W 3av
if v u v lim
24 in
if v u v lim
sstirrup_Max 24 in
c 452 kip
2
S
min 0.4d v 12in

min 0.8d v 24in
sstirrup_Check
"NG" if sstirrup_Max sstirrup

"OK" if sstirrup_Max sstirrup
c 610 kip
sstirrup_Check "OK"
Vnext_serv min Vall_3 Vall_4 452 kip
Vnhr_serv min Vnint_serv Vnext_serv 340 kip

Vnhr_serv 340 kip
217
Check Punching Shear:
Same result, since pyramids overla and conbined

surface areas are being considered.
Pmin 335kip
Vuxx Summary:
Vnhr_serv
Ratios:
Vnhr_serv 340.393 kip
P1
Vnhr_stre 1147.632 kip
P2 Vnhr_stre 1148 kip
Hanger strength
Vnstirrup 238.583 kip
L
335 kip
P3 Vnstirrup
L1 L2
Transverse reinforcement
Vnvf_Ext 357.12 kip
P4 Vnvf_Ext 2 714 kip
Shear friction, ledge reinf
VPC_Ext 809.984 kip
P5 VPC_Ext 810 kip
Punching shear
Vnb 1046.214 kip
P6 Vnb 2 2092 kip
Bearing at load pts
Vnc_vf 717.6 kip
P7 Vnc_vf 2 1435 kip
Shear friction, ledge concrete
Vnle 1322 kip
P8 Vnle 1322 kip
Ledge reinf; flexure, axial
0.33
1031 kip
Hanger service
P1
Pmin
P2
Pmin
P3
Pmin
P4
Pmin
P5
Pmin
P6
Pmin
P7
Pmin
P8
Pmin
P9 Pflx 852 kip
Flexure
Pmin
Controling element: Stirrups in Shear span
Pu min P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 335 kip
P9
L1 L2
239 kip
L
Vu Pu
218
Pu 335 kip
3.08
3.43
1.00
2.13
2.42
6.25
4.28
3.95
2.54
APPENDIX D
Tests summary
D.1 OVERVIEW
A brief summary of each test is presented in this appendix. Basic information
provided includes: force deformation plot, crack width progression, photograph after
testing, and key notes.
219
D.2 SPECIMEN 01A: DS1-42-1.85-03

Specimen 01a failed in web shear. Crushing of the direct strut occurred after
applying a total load of 954 kips; which resulted in a shear load of 712 kips at the critical
section including self-weight of the specimen and test setup. The specimen after failure is
shown in Figure D-1. The load-deflection relation at the loading point and the maximum
diagonal crack width progression are presented in Figure D-2.
Figure D-1: Specimen after failure

% of maxumum aplied load
1200
Total Load (kips)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
0.5
Deflection (in.)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
Maximum Diagonal Crack Width (in.)
Figure D-2: Load-deflection at loading point (left), crack width progression (right)
220
D.3 SPECIMEN 01B: DS1-42-2.50-03

Specimen 01b failed in web shear. S-shape cracking consistent with sectional
shear was observed at failure after applying a total load of 633 kips; which resulted in a
shear load of 406 kips at the critical section including self-weight of the specimen and
test setup. The specimen after failure is shown in Figure D-3. The load-deflection relation
at the loading point and the maximum diagonal crack width progression are presented in
Figure D-4.
Applied Load (kips)
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
0.5
1
Deflection (in.)
1.5
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
221
D.4 SPECIMEN 02A: DS1-42-1.85-06

900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Applied Load (kips)
0.2
0.4
0.6
Deflection (in.)
0.8
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
222
D.5 SPECIMEN 02B: DS1-42-2.50-06

test setup. The specimen after failure is shown in Figure D-7. The load-deflection relation
at the loading point and the maximum diagonal crack width progression are presented in
Figure D-8.
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Applied Load (kips)
0.5
1
1.5
Deflection (in.)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
223
D.6 SPECIMEN 03A: DL1-42-1.85-06


1200
Applied Load (kips)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
0.5
Deflection (in.)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
224
D.7 SPECIMEN 03B: DL1-42-2.50-06

Specimen 03b failed in web shear. Diagonal tension cracks, consistent with
sectional shear, were observed at failure after applying a total load of 943 kips; which
resulted in a shear load of 622 kips at the critical section including self-weight of the
specimen and test setup. The specimen after failure is shown in Figure D-11. The loaddeflection relation at the loading point and the maximum diagonal crack width
progression are presented in Figure D-12.
Applied Load (kips)
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
1
Deflection (in.)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
225
D.8 SPECIMEN 04A: SS3-42-1.85-03

shown in Figure D-13. The load-deflection relation at the loading point nearest to the
critical section and the maximum diagonal crack width progression are presented in
Figure D-14.
Applied Load (kips)
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
0.5
Deflection (in.)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
Figure D-14: Load-deflection at the loading point nearest to the critical section (left),
crack width progression (right)
226
D.9 SPECIMEN 04B: SS3-42-2.50-03

test setup. The specimen after failure is shown in Figure D-15. The load-deflection
relation at the loading point nearest to the critical section and the maximum diagonal
crack width progression are presented in Figure D-16.

Applied Load (kips)
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
0.5
1
1.5
Deflection (in.)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
227
D.10 SPECIMEN 05B: SS3-42-2.50-06

Specimen 05b failed in flexure. Crushing at the compression chord was observed
at failure after applying a total load of 1084 kips; which resulted in a shear load of 516
kips at the critical section including self-weight of the specimen and test setup. The
specimen after failure is shown in Figure D-17. The load-deflection relation at the center
point load location and the maximum diagonal crack width progression are presented in
Figure D-18.
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Applied Load (kips)
1
2
Deflection (in.)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
Figure D-18: Load-deflection at center point load (left), crack width progression (right)
228
D.11 SPECIMEN 06A: SC3-42-2.50-03

Specimen 06a failed in web shear. S-shape cracking consistent with sectional
relation at the loading point nearest to the critical section and the maximum diagonal
crack width progression are presented in Figure D-20.

800
Applied Load (kips)
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Deflection (in.)
0.8
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
229
D.12 SPECIMEN 06B: SC3-42-1.85-03

Specimen 06b failed in web shear. Crushing of the direct strut occurred after
Figure D-22.
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Applied Load (kips)
0.5
Deflection (in.)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
230
D.13 SPECIMEN 07A: SS1-75-1.85-03

Specimen 07a failed in punching shear of the ledge after applying a total load of
1776 kips; which resulted in a shear load of 913 kips at the critical section including selfweight of the specimen and test setup. The specimen after failure is shown in Figure
D-23. The load-deflection relation at the loading point and the maximum diagonal crack
width progression are presented in Figure D-24.
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Applied Load (kips)
0.5
1
Deflection (in.)
1.5
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
231
D.14 SPECIMEN 08B: SS1-75-2.50-06

Specimen 07a failed in punching shear of the ledge after applying a total load of
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Applied Load (kips)
0.2
0.4
Deflection (in.)
0.6
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
232
D.15 SPECIMEN 09A: DS3-42-2.50-03

shear load of 430 kips at the critical section including self-weight of the specimen and the
relation at the center point load location and the maximum diagonal crack width
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Applied Load (kips)
0.5
1
Deflection (in.)
1.5
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
Figure D-28: Load-deflection at center point load (left), crack width progression (right)
233
D.16 SPECIMEN 10A: DL1-42-1.85-03


900
Applied Load (kips)
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
0.5
Deflection (in.)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
234
D.17 SPECIMEN 10B: DL1-42-2.50-03

Specimen 10b failed in web shear, diagonal tension cracks consistent with
sectional shear were observed at failure after applying a total load of 769 kips; which

900
Applied Load (kips)
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
1
2
Deflection (in.)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
235
D.18 SPECIMEN 11A: SL3-42-1.85-03

applying a total load of 1011 kips; which resulted in a shear load of 571 kips at the
critical section including self-weight of the specimen and test setup. The specimen after
failure is shown in Figure D-33. The load-deflection relation at the loading point nearest
to the critical section and the maximum diagonal crack width progression are presented in
Figure D-34.

Applied Load (kips)
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
0.5
1
Deflection (in.)
1.5
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
236
D.19 SPECIMEN 12A: SL3-42-1.85-06

critical section including self-weight of the specimen and test setup. Yielding of the
longitudinal steel was observed before the shear failure occurred. The specimen after
failure is shown in Figure D-35. The load-deflection relation at the loading point nearest
to the critical section and the maximum diagonal crack width progression are presented in
Figure D-36.

1600
Applied Load (kips)
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
1
2
Deflection (in.)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
237
D.20 SPECIMEN 14A: SS1-75-1.85-03B

critical section including self-weight of the specimen and test setup. The specimen after
failure is shown in Figure D-37. The load-deflection relation at the loading point and the
maximum diagonal crack width progression are presented in Figure D-38.

1600
Applied Load (kips)
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
0.5
1
Deflection (in.)
1.5
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
238
D.21 SPECIMEN 15A: DC3-42-1.85-03

Figure D-40.

900
Applied Load (kips)
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Deflection (in.)
0.8
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
239
D.22 SPECIMEN 15B: DS3-42-1.85-03

Figure D-42.
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Applied Load (kips)
0.2
0.4
Deflection (in.)
0.6
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
240
D.23 SPECIMEN 16A: SS1-42-2.50-03

Specimen 16a failed in web shear. Diagonal tension cracks, consistent with

700
Applied Load (kips)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
0.5
1
Deflection (in.)
1.5
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
241
D.24 SPECIMEN 16B: SS1-42-1.85-03


900
Applied Load (kips)
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
0.5
1
Deflection (in.)
1.5
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
242
D.25 SPECIMEN 17A: DC1-42-2.50-03

Specimen 17a failed in web shear, diagonal tension cracks consistent with
sectional shear were observed at failure after applying a total load of 544 kips; which

Applied Load (kips)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
0.5
Deflection (in.)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
North face
South face
Average
0
0.05
0.1
243
D.26 SPECIMEN 17B: DL3-42-1.85-03

Specimen 17b failed in flexure, crushing of the compression chord at the loading
point on the opposite end of the beam occurred after applying a total load of 1129 kips;
which resulted in a shear load of 629 kips at the critical section including self-weight of
the specimen and test setup. Large deformations were observed due to yielding of the
longitudinal steel before the failure occurred. The specimen after failure is shown in
Figure D-49. The load-deflection relation at the loading point nearest to the critical
section and the maximum diagonal crack width progression are presented in Figure D-50;
deformations were not recorded beyond 1.75 inches since they exceeded the capacity of
the instrumentation at this location.

Applied Load (kips)
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0.5
1
1.5
Deflection (in.)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
North face
South face
Average
0
0.05
0.1
244
D.27 SPECIMEN 18A: SL1-42-2.50-03

Specimen 18a failed in web shear. Diagonal tension cracks, consistent with

800
Applied Load (kips)
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
0.5
1
Deflection (in.)
1.5
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
245
D.28 SPECIMEN 18B: SC1-42-2.50-03

Specimen 18b failed in shear friction of the ledge after applying a total load of
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Applied Load (kips)
0.2
0.4
0.6
Deflection (in.)
0.8
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
246
D.29 SPECIMEN 19A: DS1-42-2.50-06/03

relation at the loading point and the maximum diagonal crack width progression are
presented in Figure D-56.
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Applied Load (kips)
1
2
Deflection (in.)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
247
D.30 SPECIMEN 19B: DS1-42-1.85-06/03


Applied Load (kips)
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
0.5
1
Deflection (in.)
1.5
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
248
D.31 SPECIMEN 20A: SC1-42-1.85-03

Specimen 20a observed local failure of the ledge. The horizontal tie in the crosssectional STM model yielded before the failure occurred after applying a total load of

700
Applied Load (kips)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Deflection (in.)
0.8
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
249
D.32 SPECIMEN 20B: DC1-42-1.85-03


800
Applied Load (kips)
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
0.5
Deflection (in.)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.000
North face
South face
Average
0.050
0.100
250
REFERENCES
AASHTO. (2012). LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.
ACI 224R-01/08. (2008). Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures. Farmington Hills,
MI: American Concrete Institute.
ACI-ASCE Committee 326. (1962). Shear and Diagonal Tension. ACI Journal, 59(1).
Birrcher, D., Tuchscherer, R., Huizinga, M., Bayrak, O., Wood, S., & Jirsa, J. (2009).
Strength and Serviceability Design of Reinforced Concrete Deep Beams. Austin,
TX: Center for Transportation Research, The University of Texas at Austin.
Cussens, A. R., & Besser, I. I. (1985, September). Shear strength of reinforced concrete
wall-beams under combined top and bottom loads. The Structural Engineer,
63B(3), 50-56.
Fereig, S. M., & Smith, K. N. (1977, May 1). Indirect Loading on Beams with Short
Shear Spans. ACI Journal, 74(5), 220-222.
Ferguson, P. M. (1956). Some Implications of Recent Diagonal Tension Tests. Journal of
the American Concrete Institute, 53(8), 157-172.
Fernndez-Gmez, E., Larson, N., Garber, D., Ghannoum, W., & Bayrak, O. (2011).
Strength and Serviceability of Reinforced Concrete Inverted-T Straddle Bent
Caps. PCI/NBC Proceedings.
Furlong, R. W., & Mirza, S. A. (1974). 153-1F - Strength and Serviceability of Inverted
T-Beam Bent Caps Subject to Combined Flexure, Shear, and Torsion. Austin:
Center for Highway Research, University of Texas at Austin.
Furlong, R. W., Ferguson, P. M., & Ma, J. S. (1971). 113-4 - Shear and anchorage study
of reinforcement in inverted-T beam bent cap girders. Austin TX: Center for
highway research at The University of Texas at Austin.
Galal, K., & Sekar, M. (2007, June 1). Rehabilitation of RC inverted-T girders using
anchored CFRP sheets. (S. Direct, Ed.) Composites: Part B - Engineering, 39(4),
604-617.
Garber, D. B. (2011). Shear Cracking in Inverted-T Straddle Bents. Austin: University of
Texas at Austin.
Graf, O., Brenner, E., & Bay, H. (1943). Versuche mit einem wandartigen Trager aus
Stahlbeton. Deutscher Ausschuss fur Stahlbeton, 99, 41-54.
Huizinga, M. R. (2007). Strength and Serviceability Performance of Large-Scale Deep
Beams: Effect of Transverse Reinforcement. Austin, TX: The University of Texas
at Austin.
Leonhardt, F., & Walther, R. (1966). Wandartige Trger. Deutscher Ausschuss
furStahlbeton, 178.
Ma, J. S. (1971). PhD Dissertation: Behavior of reinforced concrete inverted T-beams.
Austin, TX: University of Texas at Austin.
Schtt, H. (1956, October). ber das Tragvermgen wandartiger Stahlbetontrger. Beton
und Stahlbetonbau, 10, 220-224.
251
Smith, K. N., & Fereig, S. M. (1974, January 1). Effect Of Loading And Supporting
Condidtions On The Shear Strength Of Deep Beams. ACI, SP 42, 441-460.
Tan, K. H., Kong, F. K., & Weng, L. W. (1997, June 3). High strength concrete deep
beams subjected to combined top-and bottom-loading. The Structural Engineer,
75(11), 191-197.
Taylor, R. (1960, November). Some shear tests on reinforced concrete beams without
shear reinforcement. Magazine of Concrete Research, 12(36), pp. 145-154.
TxDOT. (2011). Bridge Design Manual - LRFD.
Wight, J. K., & Parra-Montesinos, G. J. (2003, May). Strut-and-Tie Model for Deep
Beam Design: A Practical Excersice Using Appendix A of the 2002 ACI Building
Code. Concrete International, 25(5), 63-70.
Williams, C. S. (2011). Masters Thesis: Strut-and-Tie Model Design Examples for
Bridges. Austin, TX: The University of Texas at Austin.
Zhu, R. R.-H., Dhonde, H., & Hsu, T. T. (2003). TxDOT Project 0-1854: Crack Control
for Ledges in Inverted "T" Bent Caps. University of Houston.
252
Vita
Eulalio Fernndez Gmez was born in Chihuahua, Chih, Mexico on April 2,

1981. He graduated from the Universidad Autnoma de Chihuahua with the degree of
Bachelor of Civil Engineering in June, 2004. During the following years he was
employed as a Structural Engineer in a consulting firm in the city of Chihuahua. In
August, 2007, he entered the Graduate School at The University of Texas at Austin where
he received a Marsters of Science in Engineering in 2009. Eulalio completed his Ph.D.
in August, 2012.
Permanent address: efernandez@utexas.edu

This dissertation was typed by the author.
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Design Criteria for Strength and Serviceability of Inverted-T

Wassim M. Ghannoum, Co-Supervisor

Design Criteria for Strength and Serviceability of Inverted-T

The University of Texas at Austin

Design Criteria for Strength and Serviceability of Inverted-T

Supervisors: Wassim M. Ghannoum, Oguzhan Bayrak

Project Scope ..................................................................................................2

CHAPTER 2 BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON DESIGN AND BEHAVIOR OF

Field Problems ................................................................................................5

Background on Inverted-T Bent Caps ............................................................8

Inverted-T Design Provisions .......................................................................16

Strut-and-Tie Modeling of Inverted-T Beams According to TxDOT Project

Inverted-T deep beam database ....................................................................36

CHAPTER 3 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM ............................................................41

Testing Program ............................................................................................41

Shear span-to-depth ratio ................................................49

Series I: Ledge Length ....................................................50

Series II: Ledge Depth.....................................................55

Series III: Web Reinforcement Ratio ..............................59

Series IV: Number of Point Loads ..................................61

Series V: Loaded Chord ..................................................62

Series VI: Web Depth .....................................................63

Specimen Design ..........................................................................................64

Fabrication of Specimens ..............................................................................71

Tests Procedure .............................................................................................83

CHAPTER 4 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ..............................................................86

Summary of Experimental Results ...............................................................86

Applicability of 45-Degree Load Spread ......................................................93

Series I: Ledge Length ..................................................................................96

Series II: Ledge Depth ................................................................................107

Series IV: Number of Point Loads ..............................................................117

CHAPTER 5 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS .................................................................130

Evaluation of Design Provisions .................................................................130

Effects of Number of Point Loads.................................135

Effects of Ledge Geometry ...........................................142

5.2.3 Summary ............................................................................................144

Serviceability Evaluation ............................................................................144

STM Application for Inverted-T Beams .....................................................160

Design Recommendations ..........................................................................170

CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS .....................................................174

6.2.3 Ledge Depth Effects ..........................................................................176

Design Recommendations ..........................................................................176

APPENDIX A COLLECTION DATABASE REFERENCES ....................................178

Table 5-7: Specimens in first diagonal cracking evaluation ........................................... 146

Figure 2-23: Node efficiency factors (Williams, 2011) .................................................... 28

h = 0.006, (b) #4 @ 6.5 on center at each face with v = h = 0.003 .................. 60

Figure 4-9: Series I: Ledge Length: comparisons of Vcrack normalized by

Figure 4-14: Series II: Ledge Depth: comparisons of Vcrack normalized by

addressed in TxDOT project 0-6416:

Web reinforcement ratio

Number of point loads

5. Development of design recommendations

distressed bent caps in service is presented. Second, some background information on

caps suggest structural deficiencies that must be investigated. It is therefore important to

Table 2-1: Crack width summary of bent caps in service

Austin IH-35 / TX-290

Austin IH-35 / TX-290

Austin IH-35 / TX-290

San Antonio IH-35 S

El Paso IH-10 / Geronimo

El Paso IH-10 / Geronimo