The word psychology comes from the Greek words psyche, meaning life, and logos,

meaning explanation. Psychology is scientific study of human behavior and underlying

processes.
Psychology: Science and Practice
A. A science is an organized body of knowledge gained through application of scientific
methods. The scientific method is a method of acquiring knowledge by observing a
phenomenon, formulating hypotheses, further observing and experimenting, and refining and
re-testing hypotheses.

B. The Science of Psychology and Pseudoscience

1. Much of what one may encounter that is labeled as psychology may not be scientific at all.
2. Pseudoscience literally means false science a set of ideas presented as scientific when, in
fact, they are not.
3. One should always be on guard, asking just what the scientific evidence is for any claim one
hears.
4. Testimonials, even from so-called experts do not make assertions true.
5. One should be particularly cautious attending only to testimonials.
6. One should ask if the evidence being presented has been adequately reviewed by other
experts in the field.

C. The goal of many psychologists is to apply what is known to their work.

Most psychologists are scientists. We may say that psychology has four interrelated goals.

Observe and describe its subject matter clearly and objectively.

Understand and explain its subject matter, which implies knowing something of the
causes of affects, behaviors, and cognitions.

Predict behaviors and mental processes, based on ones understanding.

Influence or control mental processes and behaviors when appropriate to do so.

Contemporary Approaches to the Science of Psychology

There are over 500,000 psychologists in the world today. The American Psychological
Association has more than 155,000 members, and lists 55 divisions to which its members
belong. The American Psychological Society, formed in 1988, has about 18,000 members.

The Biological Approach emphasizes biochemistry to explain psychological functioning in

terms of genetics and the operation of the nervous system.

The Evolutionary Approach focuses on how behaviors and mental processes promote the
species survival and adaptation to the environment.

The Cognitive Approach focuses on how an organism processes information about itself
and the world in which it lives.

The Developmental Approach looks at the organism as it grows and develops throughout
the lifespan, usually with an emphasis on childhood.

The Cross-Cultural Approach appreciates that what an individual finds reinforcing or

motivating and how mental illness is defined, varies enormously from culture to culture.

Positive

Psychology

focuses

on

mental

health.

Martin

Seligman

and

Mihaly

Csikszentmihayi introduced this approach. Seligman says that there are three pillars to
positive psychology: the study of subjective well-being, positive individual traits, and
positive institutions.

All of science begins with observation. Before we can explain what organisms do, we must
observe what it is that they do.

Some experiments:
1. The First Psychological Experiment
The experiment, itself, was flawed, but the king deserves credit for his idea that thoughts and
language come from the mind and his ambition to test such an idea. While the experiment failed
to support the kings hypothesis, Morton Hunt (1993) suggests that it does illustrate perhaps the
first evidence in written history that as long as 2700 years ago there was at least one individual
who had the highly original notion that mental processes could be systematically investigated
and studied.
[source: Morton Hunt, The Story of Psychology, 1993, p.1]

2. Research Focus: Unconscious Preferences for the Letters of Our Own Name
A study reported in the Journal of Consumer Research (Brendl, Chattopadhyay, Pelham, &
Carvallo, 2005) [6] demonstrates the extent to which people can be unaware of the causes of
their own behavior. The research demonstrated that, at least under certain conditions (and
although they do not know it), people frequently prefer brand names that contain the letters of
their own name to brand names that do not contain the letters of their own name.

The research participants were recruited in pairs and were told that the research was a taste test
of different types of tea. For each pair of participants, the experimenter created two teas and
named them by adding the word stem oki to the first three letters of each participants first
name. For example, for Jonathan and Elisabeth, the names of the teas would have been Jonoki
and Elioki.

The participants were then shown 20 packets of tea that were supposedly being tested. Eighteen
packets were labeled with made-up Japanese names (e.g., Mataku or Somuta), and two
were labeled with the brand names constructed from the participants names. The experimenter
explained that each participant would taste only two teas and would be allowed to choose one
packet of these two to take home.

One of the two participants was asked to draw slips of paper to select the two brands that would
be tasted at this session. However, the drawing was rigged so that the two brands containing the
participants name stems were always chosen for tasting. Then, while the teas were being
brewed, the participants completed a task designed to heighten their needs for self-esteem, and
that was expected to increase their desire to

3. Common sense, intuition and science

For centuries, people rode horses. And for centuries when they got off their horses they sat
around and argued about whether all four of a horses feet ever leave the ground at the same
time. Some said yes, some said no, and some said they really wished they could talk about

something else. In 1877, Eadweard Muybridge invented a technique for taking photographs in
rapid succession, and his photos showed that when horses gallop, all four feet leave the ground.
And that was that. Never again did two riders have the pleasure of a flying horse debate because
Muybridge had settled the matter, once and for all time.

As frames 2 and 3 of Eadweard Muybridges historic photo show, horses can indeed fly,
albeit briefly and only in coach.

Research Methods: Acquiring Knowledge in Psychology

Source of knowledge

Intuition: relying on common sense as a means of knowing about the world

Deduction: using logical reasoning and current knowledge as a means of knowing about
the world

Authority: relying on a knowledgeable person or group as a means of knowing about the

world

Observation: relying on what one observes as a means of knowing about the world

Assumption of science

Empiricism: gaining knowledge through systematic observation of the world

Determinism: the assumption that phenomena have identifiable causes

Parsimony: the assumption that the simplest explanation of a phenomenon is most

likely to be correct

Testability: the assumption that explanations of behavior can be tested and falsified
through observation

Methods
1. Naturalistic observation involves carefully and systematically watching behaviors as
they occur naturally, with a minimum of involvement by the observer.
It is important that observed organisms do not realize they are being
observed.
One must overcome the observer bias of having ones expectations, motives,
experiences, etc. interfere with ones observations.
Naturalistic observation often takes great patience because the behaviors of interest
may not occur very often.
Surveys amount to systematically asking a large number of persons the same question or
questions.
A sample is a subset of a larger population that has been chosen for study.
To be useful ones sample for a survey needs to be relatively large and representative
of the population of interest.
In a case history approach, a single person, or a small group of persons, is studied in
considerable depth.
The method is retrospective, reviewing what has happened in the past.
It was the method most often used by Sigmund Freud.

Research Methods: Looking For Relationships

Correlational research is a process in which variables are not manipulated, but relationships
between two or more variables are measured and investigated.
In experimental research, one or more variables are manipulated, and scientists look for a
relationship between manipulation and changes in behavior.

2. Correlational Research
Correlational research involves measuring two or more variables and looking for a
relationship or association between them.

No variables are manipulated.

If it is not proper or possible to manipulate a variable of interest, then this method is
warranted.
D. Any research involving the age of a person as a variable is correlational, because persons
age is fixed, although it may be associated with many other variables.
3. Experimental Research
A. An experiment is a series of operations used to investigate relationships between
manipulated events and measured events, while other events are controlled or eliminated.
Experiments are designed to discover cause-and-effect relationships among variables.
An independent variable is the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter, and its
value is determined by the experimenter.
A dependent variable provides the measure of a participants behavior, and its value
depends on what the participant does.
The experimental group receives a nonzero level of the independent variable.
The control group receives a zero level of the independent variable and provides a baseline
of behavior to which performance of subjects in the experimental group is compared.
A placebo is something given to research participants that has no identifiable effect on
performance.
An extraneous variable is any factorother than the independent variablethat might
affect the value of the dependent variable.
These variables need to be controlled or eliminated.
2. The quality or value of an experiment is often a reflection of the extent to which
extraneous variables have been successfully controlled.
B. Field experiments are conducted in the real world.

Differences in methods
Lab Experiment

This type of experiment is conducted in a

well-controlled environment not
necessarily a laboratory and therefore
accurate and objective measurements are
possible.
The researcher decides where the
experiment will take place, at what time,
with which participants, in what
circumstances and using a standardized
procedure.

Case Study

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a

single person, group, event or community.

Case studies are widely used in psychology

and amongst the best-known ones carried
out were by Sigmund Freud. He conducted
very detailed investigations into the private
lives of his patients in an attempt to both
understand and help them overcome their
illnesses.

Case studies provide rich qualitative data

and have high levels of ecological validity.

Interviews

Unstructured (informal) interviews are

like a casual conversation. There are no set
questions and the participant is given the
opportunity to raise whatever topics he/she
feels are relevant and ask them in their own
way. In this kind of interview much

Field Experiment

These are conducted in the everyday (i.e.

natural) environment of the participants but
the situations are still artificially set up.

The experimenter still manipulates the IV,

but in a real-life setting (so cannot really
control extraneous variables).

Correlation

Correlation means association - more

precisely it is a measure of the extent to
which two variables are related.

If an increase in one variable tends to be

associated with an increase in the other
then this is known as a positive correlation.

If an increase in one variable tends to be

associated with a decrease in the other then
this is known as a negative correlation.

A zero correlation occurs when there is no

relationship between variables.

Questionnaire

Questionnaires can be thought of as a kind

of written interview. They can be carried
out face to face, by telephone or post.

The questions asked can be open ended,

allowing flexibility in the respondent's
answers, or they can be more tightly

qualitative data is likely to be collected.

Structured (formal) interviews are like a

job interview. There is a fixed,
predetermined set of questions that are put
to every participant in the same order and in
the same way. The interviewer stays within
their role and maintains social distance
from the interviewee.

Observations

Covert observations are when the

researcher pretends to be an ordinary
member of the group and observes in
secret. There could be ethical problems
or deception and consent with this
particular method of observation.
Overt observations are when the
researcher tells the group he or she is
conducting research (i.e. they know they
are being observed).

structured requiring short answers or a

choice of answers from given alternatives.

The choice of questions is important

because of the need to avoid bias or
ambiguity in the questions, leading the
respondent, or causing offence.

Observations

Natural: Here spontaneous behavior is

recorded in a natural setting.

Controlled: behavior is observed under

controlled laboratory conditions (e.g.
Bandura Bobo doll).

Participant: Here the observer has direct

contact with the group of people they are
observing.

Non-participant(aka "fly on the wall): The

researcher does not have direct contact
with the people being observed.

Ethics in Psychological Research

A. Psychologists have long been concerned with the ethical implications of their work.
B. Psychologists need to be concerned not only with the application of their research but also
with the gathering of information.
A. The APA ethical guidelines specifies ethical treatment of human and animal subjects
used in psychological research.
B. Participants confidentially must be guaranteed.
C. Participation in research must be voluntary.
D. Persons should be included in experiments only after they have given their consent.
E. All participants should be debriefed after the experiment has been completed.
F. There are additional guidelines if children or other specialized populations are used.

History

Philosophy

Physiology

Psychology

Philosophy: Rene Descartes, John Locke, Immanuel Kant

Physiology: Hippocrates, Philippe Pinel, Franz Gall, Charles Darwin
Timeline:
387 BC Plato suggested that the brain is the mechanism of mental processes.
335 BC Aristotle suggested that the heart is the mechanism of mental processes.
1774 AD Franz Mesmer detailed his cure for some mental illness, originally called
mesmerism and now known as hypnosis.
1808Franz Gall wrote about phrenology (the idea that a person's skull shape and
placement of bumps on the head can reveal personality traits.
1879
Wilhelm Wundt founded the first formal laboratory of Psychology at the University of
Leipzig, marking the formal beginning of the study of human emotions, behaviors, and
cognitions.
1898Edward Thorndike developed the 'Law of Effect,' arguing that "a stimulus-response
chain is strengthened if the outcome of that chain is positive."

 1900Sigmund Freud published 'Interpretation of Dreams' marking the beginning

of Psychoanalytic Thought.
1905Alfred Binet's Intelligence Test was published in France.
1906Ivan Pavlov published the first studies on Classical Conditioning.
1913John E. Watson published 'Psychology as a Behaviorist Views It' marking the
beginnings

ofBehavioral

Psychology.1913Carl

G.

Jung departed

from Freudian

views and developed his own theories citing Freud's inability to acknowledge religion
and spirituality. His new school of thought became known asAnalytical Psychology.
1942Carl Rogers published 'Counseling and Psychotherapy' suggesting that respect and a
non-judgmental approach to therapy is the foundation for effective treatment of mental
health issues.
1942Jean

Piaget published

'Psychology

of

Intelligence' discussing

his

theories

of cognitive development.
1954Abraham Maslow helped to found Humanistic Psychology and later developed his
famousHierarchy of Needs.
1961John Berry introduced the importance of cross-cultural research bringing diversity
into the forefront of psychological research and application.
1963Alfred Bandura introduced the idea of Observational Learning on the development
of personality.1963Lawrence Kolberg introduced his ideas for the sequencing of morality
development.
1997Deep Blue, the supercomputer at the time, beats the World's best chess player,
Kasparov, marking a milestone in the development of artificial intelligence.