A Few Notes on Complex Numbers

Purpose: The complex number system provides a means of mathematically expressing the the even roots of negative numbers. For example, while there is no problem

with taking the cube-root of (-8) since 3 8 = 2, what is to be done, for example,

with 4 or 4 81? The answer lies in defining an imaginary number j (math

books often denote it as i, but for us i is current so well use j) as
j=

Some Definitions: Imaginary numbers consist of the set of all real multiples of j.
That is, imaginary numbers take the form jb where b belongs to the real numbers.
The set of Complex numbers consists of numbers of the form
z = a + jb

(1)

where a and b are both real numbers. Thus, since any real number a may be written
as a + j0, the real numbers are a subset of the complex numbers. Also, any imaginary
number may be written as 0 + jb so the imaginary numbers are also a subset of the
complex numbers.
Rectangular Representation: When a complex number z is written as in equation (1) we say it is given in rectangular form and it may be represented on a set
of perpendicular axes where the horizontal axis is the real axis and the vertical axis
is the imaginary axis as shown:
Im
z = a + jb

b
c

Re

We write a = Re(z) and b = Im(z).

Polar Representation: Considering the above diagram, the complex number z
can also clearly be specied by its magnitude (|z| = c) and the angle the line joining
the origin to the point z in the complex plane makes with the real axis. That is
z = |z| = c

(2)

The magnitude of z will always be

|z| = c =

a2 + b2

(3)

and the angle will be

b
.
(4)
a
However, EXTREME CARE must be taken with the angle since b < 0 and a > 0 gives
= tan1

the same ratio as when b > 0 and a < 0. Likewise, a and b are both positive OR both
negative, the ratio is again the same. Thus, a single tan1 (a/b) may be associated
with two dierent angles depending on the sign of the numbers represented by a and
b. Examples:
If z = 3 + j4, a and b are each positive (i.e.
1

z is in the rst quadrant) and

= tan (4/3) = 53.1 .

If z = 3 j4, a and b are each positive (i.e. z is in the third quadrant) and
= tan1 (4/ 3) = 53.1 + 180 = 233.1 but unless your calculator is smart it
will think the answer is 53.1 . Remember, in general, tan = tan(180 + ).
Practice: What are the magnitude and phase of z1 = 4 j3 and of z2 = 4 + j3?
That is nd the polar form of these complex numbers. Note that z1 and z2 are in
dierent quadrants.

From the diagram, if z is given in polar form, it is easily seen that the rectangular
form is from the fact that
a = |z| cos = c cos and b = |z| sin = c sin
Thus,
z = a + jb = c = c cos + jc sin .

(5)

Exponential Representation: Since from Eulers identity, ej = cos + j sin ,

it must be the case that
cej = c(cos + j sin ) = c cos + jc sin ,
and from equation (5), z may be written in exponential form as
z = c cos + jc sin = cej .

(6)

To summarize the three forms,

z = a + jb = c = cej
where a = c cos , b = c sin , and c =

(7)

a2 + b2 = |z|.

Practice: Find (a) the exponential form of z1 = 4 j3; (b) the rectangular and
exponential forms of z2 = 12 60 ; (c) the rectangular and polar forms of z3 =

10ej30 ; (d) the rectangular and polar forms of z4 = 10ej/2 .

Mathematical Operations
In the following we consider two complex numbers z1 = a1 + jb1 = c1  1 = c1 ej1 and
z2 = a2 + jb2 = c2  2 = c2 ej2 :
(1) Addition and Subtraction:
z1 + z2 = (a1 + a2 ) + j(b1 + b2 )

(8)

z1 z2 = (a1 a2 ) + j(b1 b2 ) .

(9)

and

Its convenient to use the rectangular forms for addition and subtraction.
(2) Multiplication and Division: In rectangular form, multiplication proceeds
using the usual rules of algebra as
z1 z2 = (a1 + jb1 )(a2 + jb2 ) = (a1 a2 b1 b2 ) + j(a1 b2 + a2 b1 ) .

(10)

More conveniently, in exponential form and polar form, we have

z1 z2 = c1 ej1 c2 ej2 = c1 c2 ej(1 +2 ) = c1  1 c2  2 = c1 c2  (1 + 2 )

(11)

Polar and exponential forms also lend themselves to easily carrying out divisions:
z1
c1 ej1
c1 j(1 2 ) c1  1
c1
=
=
e
=
=  (1 2 )
j
2

z2
c2 e
c2
c2 2
c2

(12)

These forms may then be converted to rectangular form if desired by using equation
(5) in reverse. If division is carried out using the rectangular form initially, then
it will be required to rationalize the denominator by multiplying denominator and
numerator by the conjugate of the former if the nal result is to be given in standard
rectangular form (i.e. in the a + jb form):
z1
(a1 a2 + b1 b2 )
(a2 b1 a1 b2 )
(a1 + jb1 ) (a2 jb2 )

=
+j
=
2
2
z2
(a2 + jb2 ) (a2 jb2 )
(a2 + b2 )
(a22 + b22 )

(13)

(3) Complex Conjugation: For a complex number z = a + jb, the complex conjugate of z, symbolized as z , is given using our earlier possible representations by
z = a jb = c = cej

(14)

b
b
= tan1 . It is easy to show that the
a
a
conjugate of a sum is the sum of conjugates, the conjugate of a product is the product

where c =

a2 + b2 and = tan1

of conjugates and the conjugate of a quotient is the quotient of the conjugates; i.e.
(z1 + z2 ) = z1 + z2 ; (z1 z2 ) = z1 z2 ; (z1 /z2 ) = z1 /z2
PRACTICE PROBLEMS