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Vohmteersfor laternationalTechnicalAssfstmce

3706 Rhode Island Avenue

Mt. Rainier,
14D X822
USA
.

HOWTOPERFORMAN AGRICUL!lTJRAL
EXPERIMENT

CL Stuart

Pettygrove

HOWTO PERFORMAN AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT

bY
G. Stuart

July

Pettygrove

1971

Volunteers
In Technical Assistance,
37r)6 Rhode Island Avenue
Mt. Painfer,
MD 2r)822 U.S.A.

Inc.

FOREWORD

Local
called

technicians

upon to test

national

level.

extension

Improved varieties,

before

being

by researchers

at the

new fertilizer

practices,

and improved harvest

innovations

procedures

which must be thoroughly

they are passed on to the farmer

by

methods.

Often,
sonnel,

level

are increasingly

measures developed

a few of the more important

at the local

countries

new feed mixtures,

pesticides,

are just
tested

innovative

or regional

irrigation,

in developing

local

research

but by extension

community development
distributors,

an understanding

agents,

agents,

and large

The purpose

out,

teachers

foreign

not by trained
and training

technicians,

research

center

per-

workers,

fertilizer

and seed

farmers.

of this

paper is to provide

of the basic

and measurement procedure

does not cover statistical
statisticians

is carried

are available

considerations

of an agricultural
analysis,
for

this

and it
purpose.

local

agriculturalists

in the design,
experiment.
is assumed that

with

execution,
This

paper

trained

CONTENTS

FOREWORD..........................

LIST OF FIGURES .....................

SECTION I.
I.
II.

iii

SOMEBASIC CONCEPTS
The Need for
Experiment

Local
versus

Research

..........

Demonstration

........

.......
Some Basic Concepts in Statistics
..........
A. The normal distribution
............
B. The null hypothesis
........
difference"
c. The "significant

III.

SECTION II.
I.
II.

III.

IV.

APPENDIX:

HOWTO PERFORM.AN AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT

Preliminary

Research

..............

Designing the Experiment ............

................
A. Replication
B. Randomization
1 1 1 1 ............
C. Selection
of tr~a&i&is'
...........
D. Selecting
the location
E. Plot size and shape ............
..........
Execution of the Experiment
A. How to lay out a right angle ........
8. Labelling
and mapping ...........
............
C. Unifonn application
......
Measuring and Recording the Results
A. When should measurements be taken? .....
B. What should be measured? ..........
C. Put all observations
in numerical terms
............
D. A report procedure.
A Table of Random Numbers ...........

;"4
16
17

. .

22
23

BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................

ii

..

LIST OF FIGURES

I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIIX.

NormalCurve................
Normal Curves with
Completely

and without

Randomized Design

Randomized Complete Block

Fertilizer.

. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .

Randomized Complete Block Suitable

for Demonstration

. . . . .

. .

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

How to Randomize the Latin

Split-plot
Plot

Design

Square Design

..-

-.-

IX-A.

Laying Out a Right Angle

. . . . . . . . . .

15

IX-B.

Laying Out a Right Angle . . . . . . . . . .

16

IX-C.

Lavino Out a Riaht

16

Anqle . . . . . . . . . I

iii

SECTION I
SOME BASIC CONCEPTS

The Need for Local

I.
Many countries

(1) it

that

of operation,

countries,
regional

research

schools,

has not been tested

it

have carried

responsibility

practices

so that

tion

untrained
to bring

community.

has

In many

at the national
are being

and
success-

they can have any effect

at the local

level

on

at

is the following:

affect

enterprise

the outcome of some

in our area,

to adopt a beneficial

extension

in testing

can become sufficiently

to the local

farmers

Local

because
those who

personnel

and evaluating
If great
expert

so, to

because it

practice

agents and all

must share the blame.

such mistakes.

and, if

practice

they adopt a harmful

local

they may avoid

many benefits

(3) it

of flux.

practices

experimenters

to become skilled

personnel

state

tested

practice

or if

tested,

out experiments

a great

cised,

local

fail

locally,

has besn improperly

to the market;

moving to a new, more efficient

but before

segment of agricultural
If farmers

has become less

and on farms.

problem facing

what extent?"

(2) it

and innovative

the use of a new or different

particular

"agricultural

for agriculture:

been established

they must be thoroughly

stations,

The basic
"Will

facilities.have

at these facilities,

farm production,

things

is in a continuous

New varieties

level.

tested

is not simply

but it

research

means three

and more oriented

it

is,

what is called

more complex;

to home consumption

become dynamic,

fu!ly

this

has become technically

oriented

level

today are experiencitig

Basically,

development".

Research

have
new

care is exerin experimenta-

and hence the entire

II.

Experiment

versus Demonstration

What is an experiment?
An experiment
an unbiased
results

is a test

No assumptions

manner.

we still

must accept

In an experiment,

are arranged

in test

An observation
but is a device

that

them, but we should

carried

are replicated,

or units

in a procedure

out in

the outcome;
the results

perform

treatments

plots
trial

are made regarding

If we suspect

must always be accepted.

typical,
again.

of more than one treatment

if

are not

the experiment

or repeated,

and they

of randomization.

is not used to draw any experimental

that may be used to determine

the

a practice

conclusions,
is worth

testing.
A result

trial

on a farm is the testing

practice

which has been proven elsewhere,

is still

unproven.

or demonstration

of a single

but which in the farmer's

mind

What is a demonstration?
A demonstration
an experiment.

shows a response which has already

It is not conducted

an experiment,

and therefore

does not demonstrate

up, and it

it

The statistical

for

cannot be used to draw conclusions.

the expected

results,

it

is ignored,

perhaps

If it
plowed

Some Basic Concepts in Statistics

analysis

of results

but we must have an understanding

able to interpret

hypothesis,

to the specifications

may be run again.

III.

concepts

according

been proven in

briefly

the statistician's
described

is beyond the scope of this

of some basic
analysis

concepts

and the significant

difference.

if we want to be

of our experiment.

here are the normal distribution,

paper,

The three

the null

3
A.

The normal distribution

If a very large
and then harvested
each of these

acreage of wheat is grown under uniform

in plots

plots

will

but more of the plots

away from this
find

giving

the yields

vary from a very low figure

will

yield

close to a middle

median to either

successively

of plots

of 100 square feet,

a higher

a particular

yield,

figure,

is plotted

the familiar

recorded

for

to a very high figure;

or lower yield

If the yield

fewer plots.

conditions

and as we mcve
figure,

we will

against

the number

bell-shaped

narmal curve

is obtained.
no. of plots

FIGURE I.

NORMALCURVE

If the same crop is grown under identical

addition
yields
shifted

of a fertilizer
for

the 100 square feet

there

plots,

will

still

with

the

be a wide range of

but the entire

curve will

have

somewhat to the right.

FIGURE II.
Note that
with

treatment,

conditions

and without

the fertilized

NORMALCURVESWITH AND WITHOUT FERTILIZER

the two curves

fertilizer
plots

overlap

will

yield

had been measured,

in the crosshatched
the same.
it

area;

If only

is possible

that

a small
just

some plots
number of
by chance

4
alone the plots

selected

would have been those

could not know from our measurements whether

increased

determine

of proper

whether

or whether

begins

had no effect,

Next,

shifted

us to

the normal curve,

us to the next concept.

the observed

the observed

any effect

quality

processes

effect

of the treatment

will

This may also be indicated

at the 5% level".

to be due to chance,

the null

was significant

the null

the validity

hypothesis,

was probably

which

indicates

and probably

hypothesis

and conclude

not
that

due to chance.

be found in the results

by an asterisk

These all

indicate

is only a 5% chance that

If the results

a double asterisk

of the treatment

difference"

The term significant

indicates

due to

If we flip

the data to determine

of the treatment

or he may not reject

The "significant

hypothesis.

the

of the coin.

He may reject

effect

in fact,

observed was simply

heads in a row, we assume this

hypothesis.

due to chance,

by assuming that,

is known as the null

the statistician

of the null

this

is to allow

This brings

his analysis

and that

This assumption

and not some special

chance.

had really

is sld ply due to chance and the treatment

the normal curve.

coin and get four

there

We

hypothesis

treatments

that

design

have actually

we observe

The statistician

that

experimental

the treatments

the effect

has not shifted

chance.

the fertilizer

area.

the yield.

The purpose

The null

in the hatched

(**)
that

that

(*)

or by the phrase

the statistician

the observed

are found "highly

is only a 1% probability

was due to chance.

"significant

has determined

difference

significant",

or by the phrase "significant

there

of many experiments.

also

was due to
indicated

by

at the 1% level",
that

the observed

effect

5
This discussion

indicates

carefully

designed

treatment

has a significant

repeating

experiments.

that

and executed,

a single

experiment,

cannot conclusively
This points

effect.

no matter

"prove"

that

to one reason

how
a

for

SECTION iI
HOWTO PERFORMAN AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT
Preliminary

I.
A thorough

job at this

of the available
save a great

laid

The preliminary

(1)

should
tion

research

and irrigation

a search

persons,

should

on the life

Economic factors

crop?

Has this

clear,

experiments,

cycle

treatments

in the final

informa-

be obtained.

especially
affect

been performed

already?

has been carried

and do they bear on the planned

The preliminary

soil

if

a new crop

the market for

What is the cost of treatments?

experiment

similar

points:

experiments,

be studied,

Will

has been

Also in

the local

of the pest should

should

experiment

a similar

be made.

will

not be afraid

cover the following

For pest control

be studied.

this

should

of the crop should

is being introduced.

included

of experienced

The experimenter

later.

study

fertilizer

(3)

including

now; help may be of no use once the experiment

A careful

(2)

and interviews

deal of trouble
help

out.

stage of the experiment,

literature

to ask for

Research

experiments
research
report.

been carried
should

out.

so that

likely,

Were the results

experiment?

out in other

be recorded,

Quite

Have

districts?
it

may be

6
II.
In any experiment,
control

there

variation

soil

variability,

in moisture

(when experiments

marily

proper

competition

within

of harvested

plants,

by careful

variability,

variations

and the size

and shape

can be reduced,

of treatments,

selection

which

and between plots,

climate

but it

and randomization

beyond the

pri-

by the correct

of the location,

and by the

of plots.

Replication
Replication

is the repetition

a mean value or yield.

is planned to contain
block.

Replication

trial

In field
one plot

several

experiments , a single

is accomplished

times

replicate

in a rather

by repeating

to obtain

blocks.

generally

compact

. -.

A non-replicated

is not an experiment.

desired

depends upon the degree of precision

and the degree of soil

for field

plots.

than annual
used.

heterogeneity.

The American Society

is not enough.

often

of a treatment

of each treatment

The number of replications

8.

plant

cannot be eliminated,

of treatments,
design

by factors

are run for more than one year),

by the replication

selection

introduced

heterogeneity,

plant

content

This error

of plots.

the Experiment

is error

of the experimenter:

is due to genetic

A.

Designing

The smaller

results

of Agronomy suggests

number will

suffice

plots,

two replicati

ons

3-6 replicati

ons

where average

For corn yields,

are desired.

For small nursery

Generally,

rather

4-6 replications

are

5-10 are recommended.

Randomization
Randomization
a random fashion
randomization
assigned

simply

means that

or are randomized

is the elimination

treatments

to plots

treatments
within

are assigned

a block.

to plots

The reason

of any bias which might occur

in either

a haphazard

or a regular
.

in

for
if we
fashion.

7
The randomization
be accomplished
a specially
appendix

prepared
of this

trials

slips

of randomized

quite

determined

plants.

Treatments

from a deck,

and may
or by using

such as the one found ir. 'she

design.

design

consists

on animals,

with

of random numbers,

types

randomized

to a previously

cards

objective

paper.

This design

treatments

table

are four

The completely

should be completely

a co-in, drawing

by flipping

Following
1.

procedl:re

simply

It

number of plots.

but it
Its

of the assignment

may be assigned

is useful

is not the most efficient

main advantage
to plots

of paper from a container,

is its

by drawing

or by using

of treatments
for

some types

design

simplicity

for

field

and flexibility.

cards from a deck,

the table

drawing

of random numbers in

the appendix.
A, B, and C represent

Example:

tested
Plot

on wheat.

no..

Treatment

FIGURE III.
2.

The randomized
In this
and the blocks
possible,
with

levels

4 reps X 3 treatments

910

P.

Ill

12

of nitrogen

= 12 plots.

Row direction
B

block

treatments

are replicated.

are assigned
The blocks

and the number of treatments

the objectives

different

COMPLETELYRANDOMIZEDDESIGN

complete
design,

three

of the trial.

at random within
should

of

a block,

be kept as compact as

kept as low as possible

consistent

The main advantage of the randomized

high reliability
demonstration

of the data obtained

(as seen in Ffgure

Example:

fertilizer

each treatment

6 treatments
Block

from it

block

and its

design

is the

hiqh suitability

for

V.).

A-F are 6 different

Note that

complete

treatments

occurs

X 5 replications

on sugar beets.

once in each block.

= 30 plots.

I
II

Row direction

III
IV
V
RANDOMIZEDCOMPLETE

FIGURE IV.

. --

-.-

FIGURE V. RANDOMIZEDCOMPLETEBLOCK
SUITABLE FOR DEMONSTRATION

The Latin

square design

In this

design,

treatments

each row, and treatments

are randomized

square removes variability

block removes it

in both directions.

in two directions

in only one direction.

equals the number of treatments

than the randomized
than eight

occur once in each column and once in

complete

the randomized

complete

The number of replications

always

in a Latin
block,

but it

while

Thus, the Latin

square design.

It

is more precise

becomes very cumbersome for more

treatments.
i
-_

Columns
514

Rows

Step 1.

HOWTO RANDOMIZE
THELATIN SQUAREDESIGN

FIGURE VI.

In the above figure,

and treatments
rotating

Step 3.

Step 2.

columns and rows are first

are assigned

the order

to the plots

one place

have the S~IW square after

that

in regular

alphabetical

the columns have been rearranged

square,

treatments

simply

square,

we

by randomizing

the

In Step 3 on the right,

the rows by the same method, and the procedure

in the right-hand

order,

In the middle

in each row or column.

nunBers at the heads of the columns.

randomized

numbered from 1 to 5,

we have now

is completed.

Note

appear only once in each row and

column.

4. The splft-plot

desiqn

This design

is used to test

most precise

design

operations.

For example,

conveniently

applied

If different

dates of harvest

easier

to harvest

a few feet

for

this

some field

to relatively

in strips

this

design.

The basic

strips

through

through

designs

person should
design

involves

rows for
which

being

tested,

area rather

another

be contacted

for

are more

the experimental

small

vary in precision.

assigning

physical

such as irrigation,

the experimental

across

is not the

used to facilitate

are one of the factors

of row and then skip

an experienced

treatments,
large

It

in combination.

purpose but is often

There are many split-plot

possible,

hJo factors

advice

one factor

it

area.
may be

than harvest

harvest

area.

If at all
before

one uses

to main plots

10
which are arranged

in randomized

Assign to the main plots

sacrifice

those treatments

The treatments

precision.

random to sub-plots

within

Planting

Example:

complete

blocks

square.

for which you are willing

of the second factor

to

are assigned

at

each main plot.

dates and fertilizer

3 planting

or in a Latin

dates

(sub-plots)

treatments

(main plots)

X 3 replications

ClAiCl

'B i' D '1

on tomatoes.

X 4 fertilizer

treatments

= 36 plots

B 1' D -' 1 C 1' A

Block

Block

II

Block III

FIGURE VII.

C.

Selection

of treatments

Many factors
an experiment
spraying

which influence

as contrasting

and dusting

preparation,

mixtures,

vs. furrow

vs. cultivation,

and crop rotations

In selecting
which differ

fertilizer

by equal

per acre.

intervals,

the farmer's

practices.

treatments,

surface

by herbicides

nitrogen

SPLIT-PLOT DESIGN

fall

can be applied

Rate of seeding,
vs. spring

application
fertilizer

profit

plowing,

of irrigation
treatments,

date of planting,
method of seed-bed
water,

pasture

rates,

it

is desirable

weed control

grass-legume

are only a few of the more important

treatment

in

ones.

to use rates

such as 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 pounds of

We may have an idea of what rate

would be inadequate

11

I and what rate

would be well

including

range,

untreated

two or three

control

understood

plot

that

a control

In a factorial

in a fertilizer

which represents

experiment,

3 levels

try

many factors
Selecting

the effect

to keep the experiment

is a highly

The most important

to grow

will

the local

be enhanced

practice.

of more than one factor

simple

is

of 4 levels

and not try

is

of nitrogen

critical

in the area,
as possible

step in the performance

consideration

many different

misconception.

combinations.

to study

too

believed

soil

The soil
but within
with

in selecting
that

"the

a location

is soil

experimental

field

types to be representative."

should

be representative

the experimental

respect

of an experiment.

to topography,

This

of that

should
is a

generally

area the land should

fertility,

hetero-

the subsoil,

found

be as uniform
and previous

management.
The causes of soil
(I)

and

'

It was formerly

geneity.

of fertilizer

An

at once.

the location

This

the entire

where it

This would give 3X4 or 12 treatment

of phosphorus.

You should

plot

value of any experiment

For example, we may study the effects

studied.

contain

plot

test

between the minimum and maximum.

is not necessary

the demonstration

if we designate

D.

levels

the crop needs some minimum level

However,

well.

We should

in excess of optimum.

heterogeneity
hillsides

topography:

down of nutrients;
the subsoil
(2)

moisture

(3)

variability

(4)

wide variation

will

content

are the following:

will

result

in gullies

low spots or variation

cause plant
variation

in the texture

variation.
from foot

in the penetration
in available

and washing

to foot.

of irrigation
soil

nutrients.

water.

of

12
(5)

competition

(6)

past use of the soil,

trials,

and shading

from trees
inc :Iuding

and hedgerows.

previous

appl ications

and previous

varietal

of organic

and cultural

matter,

fertilizer,

and crop refuse.

What steps
(1)

can we take to reduce the soil

Select

land with

of draws,
(2)

lowlands,

Where previous

as uniformly

(4)

Select

(5)

All

iize

1.

Plot

size

information

This will

before

field

soil

experimenting.

a small

grain--grown

to "smooth out"

the past history

others

plots.

from trees,

be recorded

assist

experiment

to take into

multiple

sugar beets,

necessary

trials"

affect

of land.

hedgerows,
and present

and included

and roads.
condi-

in the final

in interpreting

the results.

and shape

stations

is a matter

or schools

where land

of convenience;

is limited,

but there

are con-

account.
plot

short

to the use of standard

corn,

20-30 yards

of the land should

There are two basic

with

pieces

angle to previous

cone erning

size and shape of the plot

often

irregularly-shaped

over the entire

at a right

land at least

In most local

siderations

Avoid the use

Place new plots

Plot

slope.

crop--preferably

as possible

variations.

report.

uniform

have been run which might

is a single

(3)

E.

and other

trials

A blank trial

tion

(l-2%),

grow one or more "blank

uniformity,

soil

a slight

heterogeneity?

sizes:

(a) nursery

rows IO-22 feet

farm machinery.

and hay rather

where many varieties

long,

small

cared for by hand,

and (b) field

Commonly, larger

than for

or strains

plots,

plots,

plots

grains.

are being tested,

adapted

are used for

Small plots

may be

where the amount

13
of seed of a new variety
be agreement

among researchers

an increase
decrease

in plot

in error

border
2.

Plot

size will
is less

in harvest

effects

up to about

reduce the error,

l/40

or errors

in measurement,

(100 square meters),

but that

than would be provided

are more variable

acre

There seems to

above that

by an increase

size,

the

in the number

due to (a) fewer plants,

and (c) competition

and

are greater.

shape
Plot

shape generally

long narrow
soil

plots

variation

with

makes no difference,
the long dimension

overcome soil

render

should

plot

not important

sizes

by E. L. Leclerg,

considerations

wide to allow

when not rer;oved.

shape.

removal of border
Second, field

and shapes for jrarious

rows (2-3 ft.

strips

plots

or to

should

be

crops

(from

Field

Plot Technique
J

3-4 rows X IO-20 feet

l-4

First,

farm lnachinery.

3-4 rows X IO-12 hills;

Soybeans:

for

in plot

et al)

Small grain:
Corn:

PLOT SHAPE

practical

of shape and size to accomodate

Suggested

of the greatest

be sufficiently

borders

in the direction

relatively

FIGURE VIII.

plots

that

sandy
subsoil-

Wrong

There are two other

except

heterogeneity.

3.

or where funds are short.

that

Small plots

of replications.
(b) losses

is limited,

(center

rows harvested)

2 rows X 10 hills
apart)

X I6 feet

14
Sorghum:

2-4 rows X 30 feet

Alfalfa:

7 feet

X 60 feet

(center
(center

rows harvested
5 ft.

5-8 drilled

rows 7" apart

3-5 drilled

rows 12" apart

in 3 and 4 row plots)

harvested

with

with

12-14" alley

with

18" alley

mower)
between border

and entire

rows

plot

harvested
4 rows (20-24"

Sugarbeets:

apart)

12" apart
4.

X 30-60 feet

(plants

thinned

to

in row)

Border rows and quard areas

When there
eties,

is competition

especially

introduced.
small
reason,

where they differ

In semi-arid

grain

yields

single

row plots

spaced 7" apart,

are widened

itself

may allow

inside

rows.
Fertilizer

competition

border

border

by plant

serious

areas"

is a serious

requires

l-2

feet

error

may be

compete for water,

competition,

for yield.

rows should

often

vari-

and for

In many crops 3-5 row plots

this
are grown

Where alfalfa
factor.

still

rows are

If alleys

between

be removed because the alley

than the plants

the use of machinery,

may not be precisely

"guard

habits,

rows to grow more vigorously

application

flow of such fertilizer

rows of different

areas where plants

rows are not harvested

to 14",

Therefore

affected

are not used.

interplot

plots

in growth

or sub-humid

are greatly

and the two outside

field.

between adjacent

controlled

on the

and the

on the ends of the

wide at the ends of the plot

are

thrown out.

III.
A.

How to lay out a right

If the corners
plots

will

Execution

of the Experiment

angle

of the plots

cover a different

are not laid

out at exactly

area than we imagine

they do.

90 degrees,
The following

..

15

procedure

is based on the fact

forms a perfect
Equi pmnt

right

that

a triangle

with

sides

in a 3:4:5

ratio

angle.

needed:

50 ft.

cloth

tape measure or heavy string

or wire marked at 30, 40,

and 50 ft.

Stakes
String
Procedure:
(1)

Lay out a baseline

with

lonq as the desired

(A and A')
(2)

total

should

Place a third

stake

40

FIGURE IX-A.
(3)

Have a co-worker
while

(4)

plot

width,

corner

the two stakes

exactly

40 ft.

from

stakes.

A'

LAYING OUT A RIGHT ANGLE

hold the end of the tape on corner

ape*

You should

across

the approximate

with

swing the extended

Have the co-worker

a radius

is,

be as

posts.

(8) next to the strinq

you draw an arc in the dirt

following

that

This should

and strinq.

be two corner

one of the original

30
T

stakes

place the side

radius

tape to draw this

boundary will

as in step

(3),

on the
arc

pass.

hold the end of the tape at stake

the same procedure

of 50 feet.

a 30 ft.

stake A

B; and

draw an arc with

Where the two arcs cross,

place

a stake

(C).

16

1A

FIGURE IX-B.
Tie a string

(5)

A'

LAYING OUT A KIGHT ANGLE

from stake A to stake C.

ang le at A, and you can now repeat

FIGURE IX-C.
B.

Labeling

the process

at A'.

LAYING OUT A KIGHT ANGLE

and mapping

Accurate
look it
pulls

This forms a right

mapping and labeling

may mean losing

the entire

up your marker stakes

before

is a simple

procedure;

experiment,

if,

the experiment

. --

but to over-

for example,

someone

is completed,

_-

and you

have made no map for your records.

You must draw a map because field
weather

or tractor

to locate
labels

building

treatment

exactly,

are removed from the field.

be listed

received
Field

washed off
label

standpipes,

each separate

ments should
plot

The map should

drivers.

such as fence posts,

plots;

treatments

markers

and described;

are often

refer

to permanent

corners,

all

by

structures,

You should

etc.

even if

Also at this

obliterated

stakes,

stage,

be able

strings,

the planned

and the map should

indicate

and

treatwhich

which treatment.

markers

should

be written

in the rain

or by irrigation

cardboard

tags are often

are applied,

and the map all

agree.

in grease

pencil,

water.

which will

Stakes may be used to

used in orchards.

make sure your application,

not be

At the time

the field

markers,

17

C.

Uniform

application

Failure
of mistake

to apply treatments
whicn greatly

care should

decreases

be taken to see that

are applied

etc.,

exactly

Application

equipment

apply

would consist
without

Carefully

of a plot

through

application

you think

you are.

over the plot.

Seeds must

planted.

treatments,

do not have the same

For example,

plant

growth.

when fertilizer

which the fertilizer

is

may prune some of

The proper
rig

Seed soaked in a chemical

untreated

check

had been pulled

should

be compared with

not dry seed.

weigh all

calibrate

seed treatments,

the shoes on the applicator

affect

seed soaked in water,

Extreme

over more than one replication.

will

the material.

common type

between trials.

are being

add factors.

on a row crop,
and this

and uniformly

is applying

the same treatment

side-dressed

pesticides,

be cleaned

varieties

Do not inadvertently

the roots,

fertilizer,

should

If more than one worker

is an extremely

the value of the experiment.

as specified

be swept out when different

worker

uniformly

materials

equipment
Fertilizer

ahead of the application

used where this

is required

to make sure you are putting

elements

to allow

should

time for

and
on the amount

be mixed several

any chemical

reactions

weeks
to take

place.
Obtain
plants

a uniform

are missing,

not "fill
desired

in".

Small grains

will

tiller

but on corn and many row crops,

One solution

is to plant

thick,

where adjacent
the existing

then thin

stand will

down to the

stand.

Uniform
yields

stand.

care of plots

and should

is important.

be removed early

Weeds greatly

in the trial.

influence

crop

18
Measuring

IV.
Considerable

and Recording

time and expense has been spent thus far,

experimenters

fail

the results.

The experimenter

in the end because they

terms;

but fail
things
A.

correctly

the affected

but not record

measure and record

attributes,

the results

to put all

time,

results

in numerical

in

terms,

or he may do all

in simple,

or

these

but complete

form.

measurements be taken?

Different

varieties

not be harvested
and harvest
maturity

time but fail

or he may measure at the right

to measure all

When should

improperly

yet many

may take measurements at the wrong time;

he may take measurements at the right

numerical

the Results

all

mature at different

at the same time.

each variety

for

as it

times,

and therefore

The experimenter

matures.

He must record

should

must watch closely

the total

days to

each variety.

The rate

at which results

seed germination,

the rate

are reached

is sometimes important.

of emergence as well

For

as the percentage

should

be recorded.
B.

What should
This

be measured?
is an extremely

important

considered

by inexperienced

may simply

harvest

factors

which are important

Even at a local

sophisticated
measured.

measuring
For example,

and one not adequately

In some experiments,

experimenters.

and weigh the crop with

The market and nutritional

mind.

question

no consideration

experiment

station
there

fertilizer

treatments

but also

and shape,-and

susceptibility

must always

or a school,

equipment,

yield,

other

on the market and may have been affected.

value of the product

only the total

for

workers

to diseases.

where there

are many attributes

on tomatoes

the time to maturity,

For corn,

be kept in

that

is no
can be

may affect

the color,

not

the size

the number of ears

19
should be counted,
measured,

using

and if

facilities

are available,

a sample of ears representing

moisture

all

sizes

percentage

and with

kernels

from 1 or 2 rows on each ear.

The following
field

are some further

and horticultural

examples of measurable

when deciding

what to measure,

mind the value of the product

C.

Put all

observations

ment in numerical

of quality

do not readily

want to measure the amount of insect

easiest

after

keep in

we put everything

lend themselves
pesticide

in numerical

"moderate",
terms,

to measure-

treatments

we may

It may seem

damage on the leaves.

to judge damage in terms of "light",

But unless

we should always

terms

For example,

terms.

of oats

on the market.

in numerical

Many attributes

of

crops:

Sugar content of sugarbeets

Specific
gravity
of potatoes
Grade of peaches
Oil and protein content of soybeans
Coumarin content of sweetclover
Hulling percentage and milling
quality
Ginning and fiber properties
of cotton
Pithiness
of carrots
In short,

attributes

and "heavy".

a statistician

cannot

make use of our results.

In the case of disease
should

be set up.

from 0 to 10.
represents
scales

For example,

0 represents

a potato

or insect

to measure potato

a potato

entirely

damage, a convenient

completely

covered with

have been established--l-5

or 1-7--and

step are used as a method of standardization.

recommendations
(I)

scab.

scab,
free

numerical

set a scale

of scab,

In general,

ranging

and 10

In some places,
photographs

scale

standard

representing
the following

may be made:

Try to design
distributed,
observed.

the scale
that

is,

so that
the middle

observations

are normally

number is the most frequently

each

20
(2)

There should
observer

(3)

A report

try

to avoid

the data from a single

is not poss 'hle,

even at the local

seldom determine

do not have each

treatment.

report

sample format,

the following

Title

page:

the title

location

background

this

format.

the test
in a file

If there

is no

clearly

indicate

the nature

name, the date,

and

must include

this

out,

including

all

or basic

experiments

Results:
with

these should

the results

soil

and climatic

of the treatments

be in both tabular

of the statistical

pre-

of the problem.

pertinent

description

of literature

similar

and a definition

must include

and a careful

a review

and graphic

analysis.

con-

and how

they were applied.

(4)

with

acceptable:

page should

information,

carried

Procedure:
ditions

be a standard

and

must be included.

Introduction:

viously

as

some attention.

is to be placed

The experimenter's

of the experiment.

the ;-esults

as well

under what conditions

is generally

Single

It must convey clearly

If the report

may already

reason,

must receive

complex.

tested,

process.

but rather

For this

effect.

but not overly

there

practices,

of our experiment

and the results.

reports,

is a continuous

new farming

what the experimenter

took place,

level,

have a cumulative

the written

concisely

(3)

in making observa-

having more than one person make the

person collect

It must be complete,

(2)

is involved

If this

of experiments

(1)

as an experienced

procedure

experiments

similar

judgment

observations.

Research,

others,

in the scale

can distinguish.

Where any individual

tions,

D.

be as many steps

form

21
(5)

Conclusion
experiments

(6)

Appendix:
calculations.

and recommendations:
called
this

for

as a minimum, any further

by the results

may include

a plot

should

be mentioned.

map and the statistician's

22
APPENDIX:

TABLE OF RANDOMNUMBERS'

To randomize any set of ten items or less, begin at a random point

on the table and follow either rows, columns or diagonals in either
Write down the numbers in the order they appear, disregarding
direction.
those which are higher than the numbers being randomized and those which
If you wish to randomize more than
have appeared before in the series.
ten numbers, pairs of columns or rows can be combined to form two digit
numbers and the same process followed as that described above.
8203145821727385529063164
0873519752576980362512752
2338614240261895269834010
4755630771916174171379337
1939534955275803488127534
2878141494241529462152819
8485139660721902067060130
0388475151734520747966774
3531937495020146254585092
3459527989055851773554772
4153091372587713639787917
7295678545345419867579318
5328986441537708025606120
1333905287'409037317945528
4601086210050315490374701
7706632885895640591805494
3385757434579695077668859
9171369291942330818776472
6228094537254665665046568
1759002056585195337405824
0396947357065471185328098
3082814416766999758964590
0491220132467918829832629
7251449652855108262069223
9925743123641524042287182
2091894461486792506933012
6526121771478142737400129
1299642532743233853365532
3283796048605411490509441
0934119583246734492372578
6753421550124755268782803
9601305366296034761191653
4699678581292624490554520
9771926563363683998772797
7533337376739112390959657
2813142103123202397735069
6094885537900001920615842
3590770181293469289898655
4481174474441659365983243
6397062533260512437107821
1Thomas M. Little,
and F. J. Hills,
Experimental
Methods for Extension
Workers.
(Davis, California:
University
of California
Agricultural
Extension Service, 1966), p. 55.

c
.

23
.
-.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A Guide to Extensive Testinq

Hopp, Henry.
USDA Foreign Agricultural
Service,

on Farms.
1951.

Let [erg,

E. L., Leonard, W. H., and Clark, A. G. Field

Burgess Publishing
Co., 1962.
Mimeapolis:

Little,

Thomas M., and Hills;F.

J. Experimental
University
Davis, California:
Workers.
Agricultural
Extension Service, 1966.

Washington,
Plot

Methods for
of California

D. C.:

Technique.
Extension