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Published by:
Coordination
in Development
Environment and Development Program
79 Madison Avenue
New York, NY 10016 USA
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are $ 3.00.
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from:
Coordination
in Development
Environment and Development Program
79 Madison Avenue
New York, NY 10016 USA
Reproduced by permission
Development).
of CODEL (Coordination
in
Simple Assessme%d
Techniques for Soil and Water
;IVORKBOOK
INC.
Environment
and Development
Program
SIMPLE ASSESSMENTTECHNIQUES
FOR SOIL AND WATER
CODEL
Environment and Development Program
79 Madison Pvenue
New York, New York 10016 U.S.A.
CONTENrS
ii
Preface
iii
Introdmtion
Test #l:
Soil pH
Test #2:
Soil Texture
Test #3:
Percolation
Test #4:
Dissolved
Test #5:
Sodium in Water
Situation
Field
14
Minerals
Irrigation
Colifom
Practice
10
16
Conditions
Bacteria
Data Sheet
19
22
27
29
Data Sheets
31
Notes
PREFACE
This booklet
wqs prepared
for a workshop on
Environmental
Factors in Small-Scale Developmellt
Projects
at Lake bohoiJk, New York, June 17-19,
1980, by Dr. Timothy S. Wood, then Director of
Environmental Studies, Wright State University,
Dayton, Ohio. Dr. Wood is IIOWserving in West
Africa with Volunteers in Technical Assistaxe
from an init ial
(VITA). The work!xjok was develqxd
draft by Dr. Gus Tillman, Cary Arboretum, which
presented these tests to earlier
workshops.
Also
involved in early veryions were Carol Roever
and Helen Vukasin, CODEL, and Keith Smiley,
Mohonk Consultations
on the Earth? Ecosystem, DI*.
Nail Ozerol, Howard University,
and Craig Tufts,
National Wildlife
Federation.
This draft has been further revised by Helen 1,.
Vukasin, CODEL, based on technical
reviews by Dr.
Ralph Martin, University
of Oklahoma, Norman; Dr.
Frederic K. Pfaender, University
of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill;
Rev. John Ostdiek, Mundelein College,
Chicago; and Dr. August Haffenraffer,
Millipore
Corporation,
Bedford, Massachusetts.
CODELwelcomes your comments and suggestions on
the usefulness of the booklet.
We are particularly
interested
in knowing about experience with the
tests in the field.
CODELEnvironment and
Development Program
ii
.,
-------1
_I-
..__-
environmental
INTRODUCTION
Among project planners in developing countries,
there is a growing need for reliable
environmental
assessment techniques.
The most effective
methods
are often those which are very simple, using locally
While they may bc primitive
available materials.
such methods can be extremely
and lack precision,
valuable in helping to assure the long-term success
of small-scale
development projects.
The techniques.described
in this booklet represent a first
step toward low-technology
environWhat ia surprising
is huw much
mental analysis.
useful information
can be gained with so little
These tests deal with significant
equipment.
features of soil and water, and with reasonable
care, the results can be meaningful and reliable.
Certainly,
such simple tests are not intended
to substitute
for detailed,
long-ten
environmental
Many problems in soil and water
impact studies.
analysis are complex, requiring
the services of
trained and experienced technicians.
Where such
services are unavailable,
however, the preliminary
assessment techniques described here can prove
very useful.
. . .
111
TEST Wl :
SOIL pH
film
canister
Procedure
of the
. Collect a sample of soil representative
field you wish to analyze.
The soil should be
dry and loose, without any hard clumps.
2.
Add rainwater
-iatery mud.
3.
atories
from i
to the soil
IpH indicator
paper is available at laborand some pharmacies.
It can be ordered
Micro Essential Laboratory, Inc.
4224 Avenue H
11210 U.S.A.
Brooklyn, New York
Ph one : 212-338-3618)
-l-
-- -
4.
5.
Inte retation.
A close relationship
is found
etween soil pr!Jand the nutrients
available to
a growing plant,
Figure 1 (below) shows the effects of pH on 12 such nutrients,
where the wider
the band the greater the availability,
Clearly,
strongly acid soils are deficient
in many dissolved nutrients,
while strongly alkaline soils
have little
available phosphate. Like all living things, plant growth depends on that essential nutrient which is available in the least
quantity.
Therefore, whether it is one nutrient
or ten nutrients that are unavailable to the
plant, the growth restriction
will be the same.
P
+-
-,
(Figure 1 is
from R.E. Lucas
and J.F. Davis,
Department of
Crop and Soil
Sciences, Michigan State
University.)
40. 4.5
. 5.0 55 6.0 6.5 1.0 7.5 8.0 85 9.0
1 N~"&j
1 Id:;:Eg
1
I
loA color
I
ZINC
If you were to select a pH that would have available the greatest number of plant nutrients,
you
would be correct to choose something around 5.5.
Nonetheless, every plant species has its own specSuitable pH ranges for selected
ial pH preferences.
plants Tare given in Table 1 (below).
Acidic soils can be made more alkaline by the addition of ground limestone, ground seashells, or wood
ashes. Decreasing the pH of alkaline soils is much
Traditionally,
ammonium sulfate is
more difficult.
used, but cor;lposted organic material also helps.
Tebting for pH in soils is useful wherever crops
important before and
are grown. It is especially
during any program for irrigation,
fertilization,
or soil improvement.
The pH of water is easily measured, but is has little
It would be
significance
in agricultural
projects.
incorrect to assume, for example, that irrigating
with acid water will create an acid soil.
The pH
of water, however, may be of concern for fisheries
So many different
factors combine to
projects.
establish the soil pH that it usually is better
to just measure the soil pH alone.
TABLE 1.
Crop
Alfalfa
Apples
Asparagus
Barley
Beans, Jima
Beans, Snap
Beans, Velvet
Blueberries
Buckwheat
Cabbage
Carrots
Clover 9 Alaska
Clover, Crimson
Clover, Red
I!!!
6.3 5.7 6.0 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.2 5.7 5.7 5.3 5.5 6.0 -3-
7.5
7.5
7.0
7.0
6.8
6.5
6.5
5.8
6.5
7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
Table 1 (continued)
Crop
I?!!
Clover, Sweet
Clover, White
Corn
Cotton
Cowpeas
Cucumber
Grasses, many kinds
Kale
Lettuce
Mustard
Oats
Onions
Parsnips
Peas
Peppers
Potatoes, Sweet
Potatoes, White
Radishes
Rye
Sorghum
Soybeans
Spinach
Squash
Strawberries
Sudangrass
Timothy
Tobacco
Tomatoes
Wheat
6.5
6.0
5.5
5.5
5,s
5.5
5.5
5.3
6.0
5.5
5.5
6.0
5.5
6.0
5.5
5.0
5.0
5.5
5.5
5.5
5.5
6.0
5.5
5.2
5.5
5.7
5.0
5.5
5.5
-4-
7.5
7.0
7.0
6.5
7.0
6.8
7.0
6.5
7.0
6.5
7.0
6.8
6.8
7.0
6.5
5.8
5.2
6.5
7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
6.5
6.5
7.0
7.3
6.0
6.8
7.0
TEST #2:
SOIL TEXTURE
Test
1.
2.
3.
rrFeYl-r Test
1.
Try to form
a Ml by
rolling the
sample between
your fingers .
-6-
By l%ming
the texture
Ot a ~11
lnterpretatlon.
sample, one can also know some of its chemical and
physical properties.
-7-
TABLE
CH?U?ACI'ERISTICS
OF THE
Feel (moist)
a
Ability
to
Form Stable Ball'
Very gritty
No
No
SANDYLOAM
Very gritty
Gritty
LOAM
Gritty
Yes
SILTY LOAM
Velvety
Yes
Velvety and
sticky
Gritty and
sticky
Yes (very
stable)
Yes (very
stable)
SANDYCLAY LOAM
Very gritty
and sticky
Yes (very
stable)
SILTY CLAY
Extremely
sticky and
very smooth
Yes (very
resistant
to
molding)
CLAY
Extremely
sticky with
slight
grittiness
Yes (very
resistant
to
molding)
Soil Textural
Class
WWY SAND
CLAY LOAM
-80
Yes (easily
deformed)
II
MAJORSOIL TEXTURALCLASSES
Ability
~bbon
to 1
out
Consistency
Moist.
Soils
Hands &:
Drjf
No
No
Loose
Mose
NO
Yes (dull surface, poorly
formed)
Yes (dull surface, poorly
formed)
Yes (dull surface, poorly
formed)
Yesblight)
Loose
Yes
very
Loose
Soft
friable
Yes
Friable
Yes
Friable
Yes (shiny
face, well
Yes
Friable
firm
sur-
formed)
Yes
Yes (shiny surface,well
formed)
Yes
Yes (very shiny
surface, well
formed)
Yes
Yes (very ehiny
Burface, well
faked)
Yes
Yes (very shiny
surface, well
formed)
to
soft
slightly
hard
Firm
Slightly hard
to hard
Friable2
to firm
Slightlyhard
to hard
Firm to
extremely
firm
Firm to
extremely
firm
Hard to very
hard
soft
Science,,
Hard to very
hard
1976.
TEST #3:
PERCOLATION
b)
c)
The amount of water already in the soil in saturated soils there are fewer cracks
and pores through which water can pass
readily.
d)
e)
- organic
structuiSe
5
Rent>ve th? can from the soil and the soil that
comes with it, leaving a round hole in the ground.
3.
-ll-
4.
Percolation
Interpretation.
classified
as follows:
a)
b)
c)
d)
percolation
a)
Fishpond construction,
where the desired
percolation
rate would be zero, and where
the testing should be conducted at many locations to the maximum depth of the proposed pond.
b)
Irrigation
projects, where it is necessary
to know how fast water will sink below the
root zone. Percolation and infiltration
rates should both be considered if there
are to be long, unlined channels conducting
irrigation
water to the fields.
Construction of latrines,
lagoons, or any
other in-ground sewage disposal system.
When percolation
rates are high, these
systems can handle a relatively
high volume of liquid wastes, but disease-causing
organisms may be carried over 100 meters
Soils with low percothrough the soil.
lation rates present problems with clogging
and low capacity, but the pathogens are
generally contained within 30 meters.
-13-
TEST #4:
DISSOLVEDMINERALS
Background. Most surface and subsurface waters contain a certain amount of dissolved minerals.
Many
of these are essential for plant growth, although
in high concentrations
their effects can be harmNo standards for irrigation
water quality are
ful.
possible since so much depends on soil drainage,
climate, types of crops, and specific minerals in
the water.
The following test can be considered useful in pro+.ding only a rough guide to the mineral content
Combined with other soil information,
of water.
the test results can be helpful in planning agricultural
projects.
Materials
Glass - flat, smooth, and clean, at least 40 cm2
in area. A hand mirror or any piece of window glass would be fine
Eyedropper, or any other device that can release
one drop of water at a time (drinking straw,
smooth stick, etc .)
Rainwater - only a very small %ncxrnt is needed,
but it must be clean.
Collect in clear
glass container.
Procedure
. Prepare the glass so that it is absolutely clean
and dry. It must be so clean that a drop of
water will bead on its surface.
2.
3.
-14-
position
Puddle
#l
#2
#3
#4
KS
4.
Rainwater
4
3
2
1
0
drops
drops
drops
drop
drops
Water to be Tested
0
1
2
3
4
drops
drop
drops
drops
drops
Interpretation.
If there is a mark left by the
rainwater alone, it should be only barely discernible; otherwise the test is void and should
be repeated with cleaner rainwater.
The remaining water marks should fit one of the following
descriptions :
TEST #S:
SODIUMIN WATER
3.
of
si~~ld match
Note that this test must be performed in conjunction with Test #4, Dissolved Minerals.
The sodium
test is meaningful only when the dissolved mineral
content is medium oxgh.
Together, these tests are essential
gation projects are undertaken.
before irri-
Slope
4f
---
Border
lwiget
-z
tbrv
A.
B.
-19-
......
1. a. Ground water often comes to within 1.5 meters of soil surface.
b. Ground water seldom comes within 1.5 meters of soil surface .......
I
Ri
!
2. a. Mineral
b. Mineral
content
content
3. a. Percolation
b. Percolation
4. a. Mineral
b. Mineral
of irrigation
of irrigation
rate
rate
content
content
,
is very low
is not very low
of irrigation
of irrigation
2
.4
. .
. .
. .
. c
.B
.6
. 5
5. a. Sodium risk
b. Sodium risk
in irrigation
6. a. Percolation
b Percolation
7. a. Percolation
rate
rate
bm Percolation
in irrigation
6
C
.................
is low ..........................
...........
is medium or high
A.
B.
c.
7
B
., .......
TEST #6:
COLIFORMBACTERIA
The contamination
of water supplies with
Background.
disease-causing
organisms is a serious problem in
many parts of the world.
However, detecting such
contamination
can be tricky.
Water that appears
clean and without taste or odor may, in fact, be
swarming with extremely dangerous bacteria,
viruses,
and parasites
from human feces.
Fortunately,
testing for each individual
pathogen is
The common practice is instead to seek
unnecessary.
the presence of a rel;t+~ 1I,-ely harmless bacterium that
is common in the fecai icdstes of all warm-blooded
creatures.
These so-called coliform bacteria are
represented by a species known as Escherischia
coli,
or E. coli, whose presence can be easily detected by
The assumption
anyming
the proper equipment.
is that water containing E. coli is contaminated by
by fecal material and coum
contain dangerous
pathogens.
While several different
techniques serve
to detect coliform bacteria,
one of the simplest
methods uses a simple plastic
dip stick with a filIt was developed by
ter which holds 1 ml. of water.
Millipore
Corporation.
It is called a Millipore
Sampler.
Several types with different
media for
growing the cultures are available
to measure coliform, total bacteria or yeast and mold counts.
Materials
Mlllipore
Sampler for Coliform or Coli-Count
Sampler1
Incubator
The skin of or pl;lce next to a person
-22-
Procedure
1. Remove the stick (with the grid lines) from
the clear plastic case. Allow nothing to
touch the grid to protect the sterilization.
2.
In still
water the sampler may be dipped
directly
into the water. Alternatively,
fill
Lhe clear case to the upper line with a sample
of water to be tested.
It is very important
that the water not be inadvertantly
contaminated
by bacteria from your fingers.
If sampling from
a stream, point the mouth of the case upstream
Hold fo-r
into the direction of water flow.
several minutes. When sampling from a well,
fill
a clean container with water without
wetting your fingers, and pour the contents
carefully
into the clear plastic case up to
the line.
In still
water the
sampler may be dipped
directly
into the
water.
If sampling from
a stream point the
mouth of the case
upstream.. .I
-23-
filled
the
time,
water.
4.
5.
6.
7.
to remove excess
-[341
Rice
Milk
430
;*;::*
i:i.i -))
i *-R&
1*I 1
5 min
T-JI
-26-
......:...e
......
....
.l .-.*.*.-.
. . . .
. . . . .
l ,-..*.-.
Soil pJJ
Sample No.
% sand,
Textural
% clay
dlas: ification:
per hour.
rate:
hours.
Test duration:
TEST #4 - DISSOLVEDMINERALS
Water Sample
No.
Level of dissolved
TEST #5 - SODIUM (if
minerals:
applicable)
(same
sodium risk:
-27-
as
in Test #4)
Time
County
Location:
Direction
State
and distance
from nearest
Current
weather
Topography
Ground cover
Color of topsoil
color
Soil
Depth
of subsoil
texture
classification
% silt,
% sand,
% clay
Other particles
Depth of soil
Percolation
sample
per hour
rate?
Percolation
test
duration
Soil pH
Evidence and type of erosion
-29-
hours.
WATER.
Source of water
Transparency
color
Dissolved
Folids
PH
Sodium risk
Temperature range
coliforms
History of water-borne
cholera
dracontiasis
filariasis
malaria
achistosomiasis
(bilharzia)
typhoid
yellow fever
other
Reference:
Gus Tillman, Environmentally
Sound SmallScale Water Projech,
N.Y., CODEL/VIT& 1981.w
from VITA 9 3706 Rhode Island Avenue,- Mt. lbinier,
Maryland 20712.
-3o-
FIELD NOTES
-31-