GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

MINISTRY OF WATER
RESOURCES

Central Water Commission

Water Resources Day2008
Theme Paper
Integrated Water Resources
Development and Management

20th March 2008

Water Resources Day - 2008

Theme Paper

Integrated Water Resources

Development and Management

Central Water Commission

New Delhi

FOREWORD
Year 2007 was observed as Water Year with activities focused on
developing consensus on appropriate measures including legislation for better
management of the water sector, timely completion of irrigation projects,
maintenance of existing projects to ensure optimum water availability to farmers
and awareness programmes for the masses. Conferences/workshops on important
water development and management issues were also organised. It is important to
maintain the pace of activities in the year 2008 as well. Water Resources day and
World Water Day gives us opportunity to formulate strategy on the important
aspects of water resources development and management. Accordingly Integrated
Water Resources Development and Management have been chosen as the theme
for discussion on the occasion of the Water Resources Day-2008.
The problems of water resources management are multidimensional and
need an integrated approach for effective development of water resources to
address issues in different sub-sectors such as hydropower, water supply,
sanitation, irrigation, drainage and environment. An integrated water resources
perspective with full involvement of all the stakeholders ensures that social,
economic, environmental and technical dimensions are taken into account in the
management and development of water resources.
This theme paper has attempted to cover several related aspects like
assessment of water resources availability; multi-sectoral water use scenario and
demand assessment, integrated approach through decision support system
(Planning), etc. I hope this paper would meet the twin objectives of highlighting
the critical issues in the water sector together with management aspects and
making people aware of concerted, co-ordinated and well-targeted efforts to be
launched in an atmosphere of cooperative participation.
I gratefully acknowledge the efforts, dedication and hard work put in by
several directorates of Central Water Commission and particularly the officers and
staff of Basin Planning and Management Organisation, CWC in preparing the
theme paper.

(B S Ahuja)
Chairman,
Central Water Commission

CONTENTS

Chapter No.

Chapter Title

Page
No.

Introduction

II

Assessment Of Water Resources

Availability

III

Multi-Sectoral Water Use Scenario And

Demand Assessment

IV

Development and Management

13

Integrated Approach Through Decision

Support System (Planning)

16

VI

Conclusion

19

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Water is prime requirement for all aspects of life. It is imperative to make certain
that adequate supplies of water of good quality are maintained for all the needs of entire
population of this planet, while preserving the hydrological, biological and chemical
functions of ecosystems, adapting human activities within the capacity limits of nature
and combating vectors of water-related diseases. Innovative technologies, including the
improvements in the indigenous technologies, are needed to fully utilize limited water
resources and to safeguard these resources against pollution.
Fast growing population, rapid urbanization, industrialization coupled with spatial
& temporal variations in water availability, water quality problems, etc. demand
integrated water resources planning and management. Such integration must consider all
types of interrelated freshwater bodies, including both surface water and groundwater,
and duly consider water quantity and quality aspects. The multisectoral nature of water
resources development in the context of socio-economic development must be
recognized, as well as the multi-interest utilization of water resources for water supply
and sanitation, agriculture, industry, urban development, hydropower generation, inland
fisheries, transportation, recreation, and other activities. Rational water utilization
schemes for the development of surface and ground water-supply sources and other
potential sources have to be supported by concurrent water conservation and wastage
minimization measures. Priority, also needs to be accorded to flood prevention and
control measures, as well as soil conservation and sedimentation control, where required.
All social and economic activities rely heavily on the ensured supply and quality
of freshwater and as population and economic activities grow, many countries are rapidly
reaching conditions of water shortage / scarcity and are facing limits to their economic
development. Water demands are increasing rapidly, with around 80 per cent required for
irrigation, and the balance for industrial, domestic, energy and other uses. The holistic
management of freshwater as a finite and vulnerable resource, and the integration of
sectoral water plans and programmes within the framework of national policy, are of
paramount importance for action. Therefore, effective implementation and coordination
mechanisms are required to remove impediments for promoting integrated water
management.
Integrated water resources management is based on the perception of water as an
integral part of the ecosystem, a natural resource and a pivot for socio-economic
development, whose quantity and quality determine the nature of its utilization. To this
end, water resources have to be protected, taking into account the functioning of aquatic
ecosystems and the perenniality of the resource, in order to satisfy and reconcile needs
for water in human activities. In developing and using water resources, priority has to be
given to the satisfaction of basic needs and the safeguarding of ecosystems.

Integrated water resources management, including the integration of land- and waterrelated aspects, should be carried out at the level of the basin or sub-basin. Four principal
objectives to be pursued are as follows:
(a) To promote a dynamic, interactive, and multisectoral approach to water
resources management, including the identification and protection of potential
sources of freshwater supply, that integrates technological, socio-economic,
environmental, ecological and human health considerations;
(b) To plan for the sustainable development and rational utilization, protection,
conservation and management of water resources based on community needs and
priorities within the framework of national water policy;
(c) To design, implement and evaluate projects and programmes that are socially
appropriate and economically efficient within clearly defined strategies based on a
participatory approach
(d) To strengthen or develop, as required, the appropriate institutional, legal and
financial mechanisms to ensure that water policy and its implementation are a
catalyst for sustainable social progress and economic growth.
In a nutshell, the centrality of sustainable management of water resources
encompassing ecological, economic and ethical sustainability therefore hinges on a
holistic and integrated approach involving engineering, socio-economic and
environmental aspects. All the problems need to be looked at in their totality.
Development of hydropower, lowering of ground water table and devastations faced by
people due to floods have to be examined in an integrated manner. Similarly, traditional
system of water management through ponds and small tanks should be integrated with
canal and pumped ground water irrigation. An integrated approach would minimize the
conflicts among the multiplicity of agencies working in the water sector, each having
different goals, motivation and dynamics.
The rationale of the future strategy is to meet the challenges in such a manner that
development is sustained and the growth process does not disturb the delicately balanced
environmental and ecological equilibrium, which are predominantly water centric.
Therefore, project-centric development that was aggressively pursued during the earlyplan periods for catering specific need should be replaced by integrated water resources
management (IWRM) that is better suited under the present circumstances for optimizing
the water resources allocation among competing multi-sectoral water demand/uses. It is
evident that suitably prioritizing the water demand from the socio-economicenvironmental point of view and simultaneously maintaining harmony among the
different users, be it sectors or regions, should form the core of any long term vision that
is being formulated for the water resources development & management.

CHAPTER II
ASSESSMENT OF WATER RESOURCES AVAILABILITY
2.1

Assessment of average annual water resources potential of the country

Proper assessment of the availability of water from surface and sub-surface

sources is the cornerstone for proper planning, development and management. The
National Water Policy (2002) has stated that the planning, development and management
of the water resources should be done on a hydrological unit basis, along with a multisectoral, multi-disciplinary and participatory approach as well as integrating quality,
quantity and the environmental aspects. Accordingly the water resources assessment is
being done river-basin wise.
The precipitation, in the form of rain and snowfall, is a crucial component of the
hydrological cycle that makes fresh water available on a renewable basis. The
geographical area of India is 329 million hectares (Mha). The mean annual rainfall,
taking the country as a whole, is 1170 mm. This gives an annual precipitation of about
4,000 Km3. A significant part of this precipitation seeps into the ground and the balance
flows through streams and rivers and collects in water bodies adding to the surface flow.
A part of the water that seeps into the ground remains as soil moisture in the upper layers
and the rest adds to the ground water resources. Subsequently, a major part of the water
from surface flows, soil moisture and ground water sources, when put to various uses,
returns to the atmosphere through evapo-transpiration.
Natural (virgin) flow in the river basin is reckoned as water resources of a basin.
The mean flow of a basin is normally obtained on pro-rata basis from the average annual
flow at the terminal site. However, at any point of time, the water resources in a river
basin have already been developed and utilized to some extent through construction of
major or medium storage dams and development of hydropower, irrigation and other
water supply systems. A large number of diversion schemes and pumped storage schemes
may also have been in operation. Assessment of natural flow has, therefore, become
complex in view of the upstream utilizations, reservoir storages, re-generated flows and
return flows. The natural flow at the location of any site is obtained by summing up the
observed flow, upstream utilization for irrigation, domestic and industrial uses both from
surface and ground water sources, increase in storage of reservoirs (surface and subsurface) and evaporation losses in reservoirs, and deducting return flows from different
uses from surface and ground water sources.
Based on the above methodology, CWC assessed the average annual water
resources potential of the country as 1869 billion cubic metre (BCM) in the year 1993
and was given in the report Reassessment of Water Resources Potential of India
(March,1993). The estimation made by the National Commission for Integrated Water
Resources Development Plan (NCIWRD, 1999) differed slightly owing to the reasons
that in the case of Brahmaputra sub-basin the additional contribution of flow of 9
3

tributaries joining Brahmaputra downstream of Joghighopa site was included and

secondly in case of Krishna basin the estimation was based on the mean flow of the yield
series accepted by KWDT award.
The Standing Sub-Committee for Assessment of Availability and Requirement of
Water for Diverse Uses in the Country constituted by the MoWR in its Report (August,
2000) observed that the latest assessment made by CWC in the year 1993 that is, 1869
BCM is considered as reliable.
2.2

Assessment of utilizable water resources potential of the country

Utilization of water resources can be considered in two different ways. Utilization

can be taken as the quantum of withdrawal of water from its place of natural occurrence
such as river or ground water. Withdrawability of water depends on the possibility of
storage and diversion structures. Alternatively, it can be considered as the additional
evaporation / evapotranspiration caused by man, of the natural water through its diversion
and use. The former approach has been used more commonly and is used for estimating
the utilizable flow. Within the limitations of physiographic conditions, environmental
consideration, problem of resettlement & rehabilitation, legal & constitutional constraints
and the technological development available at a given point of time, utilizable quantities
of water have been assessed from time to time by different authorities.
Irrigation Commission 1972 placed the countrys utilizable quantity at 666 BCM
from surface structures or 35% of the surface water resources of the country and
indicated that utilization possible from ground water could be of the order of 204 BCM.
Dr. K.L Rao put the utilizable quantity much more and has suggested that the quantum
should be about 50% of the countrys available annual surface water resources. The
National Commission on Agriculture, 1976 have estimated the utilizable quantity as 1050
BCM. This includes 350 BCM from ground water resources. This amount constitutes
about 56% of the annual average flow of the river. Central Water Commission estimated
the utilizable water in each river basin considering the suitable sites / locations for
diversion and storage structures to meet the needs of irrigation and demands of domestic,
industrial and other sectors. Central Water Commission has estimated the utilizable water
from surface structures at about 690 BCM. The National Commission for Integrated
Water Resources Development Plan (NCIWRD, 1999) as well as the Standing SubCommittee for Assessment of Availability and Requirement of Water for Diverse Uses in
the Country constituted by the MoWR (August, 2000) have adopted utilizable surface
flows in various basins as assessed by CWC that is 690 BCM.
The dynamic ground water resource in the active recharge zone in the country has
been assessed by the Central Ground Water Board in association with the concerned State
Government authorities and the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
(NABARD). The assessment was carried out with Block/Mandal/Taluka/Watershed as the
assessment unit and as per norms recommended by the Ground Water Estimation
Committee (GEC) 1997. As per the latest estimates of 2004, the annual replenishable
ground water resource in this zone has been estimated as 433 BCM, out of which 399

BCM is considered to be available for development for various uses. The remainder of 34
BCM is set aside for natural discharge during non-monsoon period for maintaining flows
in springs, rivers and streams.
Therefore based on the above, the total utilizable water resources of the country
have been assessed as 1123 BCM. A table showing the river basins of the country
catchment area, average water resources potential and the utilisable surface water
resources is given below.
Water Resources Potential of River Basins of India
S. River Basin
No.

Catchment
area
(sq.km)

1 2
1 Indus
2 Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna

3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

(a) Ganga
(b) Brahmaputra
(c) Barak & others
Godavari
Krishna
Cauvery
Subernarekha
Brahmani-Baitarni
Mahanadi
Pennar
Mahi
Sabarmati
Narmada
Tapi
West Flowing Rivers from Tapi to Tadri
West Flowing Rivers from Tadri to
Kanyakumari
East Flowing Rivers between Mahanadi
and Pennar
East Flowing Rivers between Pennar &
Kanyakumari
West Flowing Rivers of Kutch and
Saurashtra including Luni
Area of Inland Drainage in Rajasthan
Minor Rivers draining into Myanmar
(Burma) and Bangladesh

Total
5

Utilisable
surface
water
resources

Average
Water
Resources
Potential
(BCM)
4

321289

73.3

46

861452
194413
41723
312812
258948
81155
29196
51822
141589
55213
34842
21674
98796
65145
55940
56177

525
537.2
48.4
110.5
78.1
21.4
12.4
28.5
66.9
6.3
11
3.8
45.6
14.9
87.4
113.5

250
24
76.3
58
19
6.8
18.3
50
6.9
3.1
1.9
34.5
14.5
11.9
24.3

86643

22.5

13.1

100139

16.5

16.5

321851

15.1

15

--36202

Negl.
31

---

1,869.4

690

CHAPTER III
PLANNING
MULTI SECTORAL WATER USE SCENARIO AND
DEMAND ASSESSMENT
3.1

Irrigation

Food nourishes the body and the mind and keeps both in a fit condition, to
continue to remain an asset for the society. Next to drinking water, food is the most basic
need of mankind, which has been met with by practicing agriculture. The Millennium
Development Goal (MDG), which have set out an agreed framework for future directions
in the international cooperation for development recognizes the eradication of poverty as
its overcharging goal. Infact, most of the countries in the categories of least developed
and developing depend upon funding support from International Agencies to achieve the
set targets of MDG. The rural sector still depends on agricultural and related activities for
the livelihoods in developing countries. The issues of food security should keep in mind
the interest of rural people who are extremely poor and engaged in agriculture and related
activities with very little scope to engage in other activities.
In India, the production of food grains which was just about 51 million tonnes
(m.t.) in 1950-51 has increased to more than 210 m.t. at present. The cultivable area of
the country is estimated to be about 184 m ha which is about 12.7% of worlds cultivable
area. The ultimate irrigation potential of the country through major, medium and minor
irrigation projects has been assessed as 140 million hectare of which 58.50 m.ha. by
major and medium irrigation projects, 17.40 m.ha. by minor surface water schemes and
64.10 m.ha. by ground water schemes. The irrigation potential created by the end of
Tenth Five-Year Plan has gone upto approximately 102.77 m.ha. against 22.6 m.ha. in
1951. Out of the potential created so far, about 87.23 m.ha is being utilized.
The countrys population of 1027million (2001 census) is expected to stabilize at
1600 million by 2050. This would require about 450 million tonnes of food grains
annually at the present level of consumption. Further, considering the conditions of
monsoonal climate and drought leading to crop failures, we have to plan for buffer stocks
also. To meet the country's demand reasonably well, production of not less than 500
million tonnes of food grains by 2050 are to be planned.
At present irrigation sector consumes as much as 83% of available water
resources. With the demand from other sectors rising at a faster pace, the availability of
water for irrigation would reduce. It is, therefore necessary to improve the performance
of existing system. Higher degree of efficiencies in the management of water use in
irrigation sector is required to be achieved to sustain production of crops. Irrigation
efficiency should be improved from the present average of about 35-40 per cent to the
maximum achievable i.e. around 60 per cent. Wherever water is scarce, economically

advantageous deficit irrigation may be practiced. Water intensive crops such as sugarcane
and paddy should be discouraged in the areas of water scarcity.
In assessing the water requirements for irrigation purposes, the objective should
be food security based on relative self sufficiency in food production. Projections for
irrigation water requirement should be based on an important stipulation of constantly
improving irrigation efficiencies. Water requirement for irrigation is, therefore, a derived
demand that depends on some key determining variables like:

3.2

Requirement for food production,

Requirement for non-food production,
Efficiency of water use, and
Productivity per unit of land

Domestic

Access to fresh water and sanitation services is a precondition to most of the goals
and targets of social development. By focusing on water quality, the water, sanitation and
aquatic biodiversity targets can be met. It is estimated globally that nearly 1.5 billion
people lack safe drinking water and that at least 5 million deaths per year can be
attributed to waterborne diseases. Furthermore there are significant economic impacts of
water pollution. One of the estimates suggest that the combined health and non-health
cost of outdoor air and water pollution for China stands at around 5.8 percent of the
country's GDP (3.8% for air pollution and 2% for water pollution) as per the World Bank
report issued following a joint assessment with Chinas State Environmental Protection
Administration (SEPA).
Discharge of untreated domestic wastewater is predominant source of pollution of
aquatic resources in India. Urban centres contribute most of the sewage generation in the
country. The smaller towns and rural areas do not contribute significant amounts of
sewage due to low per capita water supply. The wastewater generated in these areas
normally percolates in the soil or evaporates. CPCB regularly carries out inventory of
water supply, wastewater generation, collection and disposal in Class I cities and Class
II towns of the country. As per the latest estimate 423 Class I cities and 498 Class II
towns of the country harbouring population of 20 crore generate about 29000 million litre
per day (mld) of wastewater out of which about 7000 mld of wastewater gets some kind
of treatment.
As per the paper authored by Ms. Sabrina Barker UNEP GEMS / Water
Programme, Kenya, well-managed water resources have helped to promote economic
development, which in turn contributes to human well-being. Services provided by inland
waters are vital for human well-being and poverty alleviation. It has been estimated that
for each dollar invested in improving water and sanitation, a return of $3-34 can be
expected. The economic benefits of simultaneously meeting the drinking water and
sanitation targets on households and the health sector amounts to $ 84 billion per year,
representing reduced health care costs, value of days gained from reduced illness, averted
7

deaths, and time savings from proximity to drinking water and sanitation facilities for
productive endeavour.
3.2.1

Urban Water Supply & Sanitation

As per 2001 census, out of total 1.02 billion population of India, the urban
population is about 285 million, which is 27.8% of the total population living in 5161
towns. Of the 5161 urban agglomerations and other towns, 35 metropolitan cities consist
about 37% of the total urban population. As per the estimates of Registrar General,
Census Operations, Government of India, the urban population is expected to reach 433
million by 2021, while the total population may reach 1340 million. Thus, the level of
urbanization in the country in the year 2021 is expected to be about 32%.
On the basis of information contained in the report of the working group on urban
development (excluding urban transport), urban water supply and sanitation (including
low cost sanitation, sewerage and solid waste management) and urban environment for
Eleventh Five Year Plan, about 91 % of the urban population has got access to water
supply and 63% to sewerage and sanitation facilities. However, adequacy, equitable
distribution and per-capita provision of these basic services may not be as per prescribed
norms in most of the cities. For instance, the poor, particularly those living in slums and
squatter settlements, are generally deprived of these basic facilities.
As per assessment made by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) on the
status of wastewater generation and treatment in Class I cities and Class-II towns during
2003-04, about 26,254 MLD of wastewater is generated in 921 Class I cities and Class II
towns in India (housing more than 70% of urban population). The wastewater treatment
capacity developed so far is about 7044 MLD - accounting for 27% of waste water
generated in these two classes of urban centers. Solid Waste Management (SWM) is a
part of public health and sanitation. Since this activity is non-exclusive, non-rivaled and
essential, the responsibility for providing the service lies within the public domain. As
this activity is of local nature, it is entrusted to the Urban Local Bodies. The Urban Local
Body undertakes the task of solid waste service delivery, with its own staff, equipment
and funds. In a few cases, part of the said work is contracted out to private enterprises.
With a view to provide reform link infrastructure facilities in the urban areas, the
Gol has launched the two new programmes namely (i) Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban
Renewal Mission (JNNURM) and (ii) Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for
Small and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT). The aforesaid programmes are reform oriented
and the State Governments are eligible for implementing infrastructure facilities such as
water supply, sewerage, drainage and solid waste management etc. in all the cities and
towns. The ongoing JNNURM and UIDSSMT, are envisaged for implementation over 7
years period starting from 2005 to 2012.
The assessment of domestic water requirements in a river basin in the present as
well as future years needs to be based on the present and future population of the river
basin and the present actual average water consumption per person and the estimated
future water consumption. The water requirements for livestock also form a part of the
8

total domestic water requirements. Therefore the assessment of the later should also
include an assessment of the former which is done on the basis of the cattle population,
present and projected, and an average rate of water requirement.
3.2.2

Rural Water Supply and Sanitation

The rural habitations have been provided access to the safe drinking water from
nearly 3 million hand pumps and stand posts and about 0.11million mini and regional
piped water supply schemes. More than 85 percent of rural water supply is ground water
based and consumes about 5 percent of the total annual replenishable ground water. The
Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP) was introduced in 1972-73 by the
Government of India to assist the States and Union Territories (UTs) to accelerate the
pace of coverage of drinking water supply. The entire programme was given a Mission
approach with the launch of the Technology Mission on Drinking Water and Related
Water Management in 1986. Later in 1999 Department of Drinking Water Supply was
formed to give more emphasis on Rural Water Supply programme.
Reforms in the rural drinking water sector were adopted in 1999 through Sector
Reform Project (SRP) on pilot basis and have been scaled up throughout the country in
the form of Swajaldhara launched on 25th December 2002. The programme is a paradigm
shift from supply driven to demand driven, centralized to decentralized implementation
and Government's role from service provider to facilitator. The fundamental reform
principles in Swajaldhara are adhered to by the State Governments and the Implementing
Agencies in terms of adoption of a demand-responsive approach with community
participation.
Indias progress towards achieving villages with total sanitation has been steady
but there is long way to go. In 1981, only one per cent of households in rural India had
sanitation coverage. In 1991, nine per cent of the households and by 2001, twenty two per
cent of the households had attained sanitation coverage. Over the years the sanitation
coverage has raised which has left marked improvement in health of the people. Today, it
is estimated that 44 percent rural households have toilets.
Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) is a comprehensive programme to ensure
sanitation facilities in rural areas with broader goal to eradicate the practice of open
defecation. TSC as a part of reform principles was initiated in 1999 when Central Rural
Sanitation Programme was restructured making it demand driven and people centered. It
follows a principle of low to no subsidy where a nominal subsidy in the form of
incentive is given to rural poor households for construction of toilets. TSC gives strong
emphasis on Information, Education and Communication (IEC), Capacity Building and
Hygiene Education for effective behaviour change.
3.3

Industries

With the urbanization and industrialization, the water demand for industrial
purposes is also increasing. Necessary measures to reduce the demand should be taken
by adopting processes with minimum use of water, recycle and re-use etc. Tariff rates
9

should be prescribed so that industries feel compelled to look into technological

intervention leading reduced water requirement per unit production.
It is usually difficult to estimate the future water requirement for industries mainly
due to lack of information on the present use of water by industries. This is further
compounded by the uncertainty about the future growth and composition of
manufacturing activities. Several assumptions have to be made to arrive at the figures of
water requirement. In some cases special sub-groups need to be created for working out
the industrial water requirement.
The industrial water requirements as estimated by the NCIWRD are 37 BCM, 67
BCM and 81-103 BCM for the years 2010, 2025 and 2050 respectively. The requirement
of 103 BCM in the year 2050 corresponds to the present rate of use of water, whereas the
requirement of 81 BCM in the year 2050 assumes significant breakthrough in adoption of
water saving technologies for industrial production. The later figure has been used by
NCIWRD for estimates of total water requirement for the year 2050. 70% of water
requirement is expected to be met from surface water resources and remaining 30% from
ground water sources.
3.4

Energy

Another important developing sector of economy using substantial quantity of

water is power sector. The installed generating capacity which was only 1362 MW in
1947, has increased nearly eighty fold, to 1,41,079 MW. Thermal, hydropower, nuclear
and renewable power constitute the sources for energy in the country.
Hydropower is a renewable, economic, non polluting and environmentally benign
source of energy. Furthermore, there is no fuel cost during the life of the station as hydro
power generation is a non consumptive use of water. Inspite of the above advantages, the
present installed capacity in the country is 35,208 MW which is close one fourth of the
total hydroelectric potential in the country, assessed as 84044 MW at 60% load factor
(equivalent to an installed capacity of 1,50,000 MW). At present, the share of hydro
power stands at one-fourth of the total generating capacity in the country, which is much
less than the desired ideal share of 40%.
Normally, water is drawn for thermal and nuclear power stations from the rivers,
canals and ponds and the cooling water system may either be a direct cooling system for
condenser i.e without cooling towers where a substantial quantity of water is returned
back to the source, or an indirect cooling system with cooling towers which are a part of a
closed circuit system and in which case only the make-up water drawn from the source
becomes consumptive. The nuclear power stations handle much larger quantities of
cooling water for condensers and other auxiliaries as also for the heat transport system
between the reactor and the steam generator. On an average, consumptive water
requirement of thermal power units works out to about 3 to 4.5 cusecs per 100 MW with
once through system pond cooling systems and 5 to 6.5 cusecs per 100 MW with cooling

10

tower system. Hydropower stations in general do not have any consumptive use except
for evaporation from reservoirs.
3.5

Ecology

The World Water Vision presented at the second World Water Forum in The
Hague, recognized three main components for water use: water for agriculture, water for
drinking and other domestic requirements, and water for ecological and environmental
objectives. These were called water needs for food, for people and for nature,
respectively. The nature component refers to the needs of the natural eco-systems. The
flow to be maintained in the river for maintaining the aquatic system and the ecosystem
dependent on it in good health; to protect hydrologic integrity of the natural environment
in the river; and to conserve its bio-diversity; is called Environmental Flow Requirements
(EFR). Some analysts expand the scope of EFR to cover socio-economic and cultural
values also.
For maintaining the EFR, eventually at some stage there has to be a tradeoff ,
between EFR and other requirements. Agriculture being the largest user of water, most of
the trade-off will be with agriculture. This is more easily possible in industrialized
countries where the people are less dependent on agriculture. But in India agriculture is
the largest provider of livelihoods and any trade-off between agriculture and ecology is
extremely difficult.
3.6

Other uses

Besides the above significant amount of water is also used for other uses like
navigation, recreational activities etc
3.7

Water Demand
The water demand as estimated by various committees are shown below:

Table-1 - Assessment by Standing Sub-Committee for assessment of availability and

requirement of water for diverse uses in the country constituted by the MoWR
Sector
Irrigation
Drinking Water
Industry
Energy
Others
Total

2000
541
42
8
2
41
634

Water Demand (BCM)

2010
2025
688
910
56
73
12
23
5
15
52
72
813
1093

11

2050
1072
102
63
130
80
1447

Table-2 - Assessment by the National Commission on Integrated Water Resources

Development (NCIWRD)
Sl.
No. Uses
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Irrigation
Domestic
Industries
Power
Inland Navigation
Flood Control
Environment(1)
Afforestation
Env.(2)Ecology
Evaporation losses
Total

Total Water Use (BCM)

Year
Year 2010
Year 2025
1997-98
Low High Low High
524
543
557
561
611
30
42
43
55
62
30
37
37
67
67
9
18
19
31
33
0
7
7
10
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
36
629

5
42
694

6
42
710

10
50
784

10
50
843

Year 2050
Low
628
90
81
63
15
0
0
20
76
973

High
807
111
81
70
15
0
0
20
76
1180

It would be observed that the assessment made by the NCIWRD is relatively on

lower side as compared to that estimated by the Standing Sub-Committee. In respect of
other uses, the estimate made by the NCIWRD is generally on a higher side. The main
reason for such variation in the estimate is the assumption made by the NCIWRD in
respect of the overall improvement of irrigation efficiency. The NCIWRD has assumed
that the irrigation efficiency will gradually increase to 60 % from the present level of 35
to 40%. Considerable effort is required to achieve the objective of efficiency in water
resource system and particularly in the irrigation system, which is the major water
consumptive sector.
The World Bank has projected that the annual water demand will be 1050 BCM
by 2025 of which 69% will be from agricultural uses, 20% from industrial uses, 5% from
domestic uses and 6% from environment and others.

12

CHAPTER IV
DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT
4.1

Development of water resources to optimize utilization of available resource

Severe spatial and temporal variations in rainfall prompted that creation of

storages be given due priority within the overall plan for water resources development.
The successive Five year Plans initiated after independence, therefore laid significant
emphasis on creation of storages that resulted in creation of many major, medium and
minor water resources projects. All these projects have resulted in increasing the live
storage capacity from 15.6 BCM at the time of independence to 225 BCM now. Storages
held in these dams are insurance against the vagaries of nature. Projects under
construction are likely to add another 64 BCM while 108 BCM is to be contributed by the
projects under contemplation.
Even after such relentless persuasion to create more storage, till date, the present
level of development in terms of creation of live storages is only just more than 12% of
the average annual water resources potential of the country. The level of creation of
storages in India is decisively lower compared to some other nations in the world. The
per capita storage in the country which is about 219 m 3 is way below the storage achieved
in many of the countries. India can store only about 30 days of rainfall compared to 900
days in major river basins in arid areas of developed countries. Therefore, there is an
urgent need to vigorously pursue the case for creating storages, wherever feasible, given
its projected rise in population, urbanization and industrialization.
Realizing the importance of quick completion of ongoing projects for creation of
more storages, the Government of India has already launched the Accelerated Irrigation
Benefits Programme (AIBP) during 1996-97 to provide Central Loan Assistance (CLA)
for accelerating implementation of ongoing irrigation/multi-purpose projects on which
substantial progress has been made and which are beyond the resources capability of the
States. Apart from creation of storage projects, repair, renovation and restoration of old
water bodies as well as ground water development needs to be expeditiously pursued in
an integrated manner.
The total annual replenishable ground water resources of the country have been
reassessed as 433 BCM. The stage of ground water development is 58%. The
development of ground water in different areas of the country has not been uniform.
Highly intensive development of ground water in certain areas in the country has resulted
in over exploitation leading to decline in the levels of ground water and sea water
intrusion in coastal areas. The strategy for the XI Five Year Plan, therefore, recommends
a two-pronged approach for ground water.

Promotion of ground water development in areas having untapped /

unutilized potential
13


4.2

A comprehensive act for regulation of ground water development on

sustainable basis

Management Practices to improve water use efficiency

Improvement in water use efficiency is increasingly perceived to be a very

important strategy for mitigating the gap between creation and utilization. This is even
more relevant in case of irrigation sector since a small improvement in the efficiency can
lead to considerable saving of water that can be utilized for catering to the demand from
other sectors. Different water management practices need to be followed in different
sectors depending on their suitability, however, a few of them are discussed below:
4.2.1

Irrigation Sector
Some of the management practices that needs to be taken up in right earnest are:

Bridging the gap between irrigation potential created and utilised

Implementation of Restructured CADWM Programme in States

Participatory Approach in Irrigation Management (PIM)

Modernization of Irrigation System and Performance Improvement

Rationalization of Water Rates

Benchmarking of irrigation systems

Conjunctive use of surface and ground water

On farm management

Reducing Application Losses

Precision Land Levelling

Irrigation Scheduling / Deficit Irrigation

4.2.2

Domestic, Industrial and Other sectors

With population growth, rise in urbanization and non-uniform water availability,

the domestic water supply particularly in the large urban centers, of late, has been an
issue of immense concern. Under such circumstances the adoption of water conservation
measures, augmentation of water supply through creation of storages and demand
management has assumed significant importance. To improve the efficiencies in domestic
sector various measures such as water audits, mass awareness programmes, water pricing,
proper maintenance and improvement in supply, control on leakages, prevention of
unaccounted use of water, etc. has to be adopted.
The water requirement of the industries used to be very small compared to other
sectoral demands in earlier years, however the rapid industrialization has changed the
scenario. Most of the industrial production processes require large quantities of water.
Adoption of most appropriate technology to ensure efficient use of cooling and process
water apart from sound maintenance practices including leakage control is necessary for
water conservation. Some of the action points towards water conservation for improving
efficiency in industrial sector could be setting up of norms for water budgeting,

14

modernization of industrial process to reduce water requirement, recycling water for

cooling purposes, rational pricing of industrial water to compel adoption of water saving
technologies, proper treatment of effluents and use of treated water by industrial units.
Other major consumer of water is energy sector. The water requirements in the
power sector are mainly met from the surface water resources. There is need to maintain
the water use to the prescribed norms and reduce evaporation losses which would result
in efficient water use. Recycling of water in pump storage plants would conserve water
and should be encouraged, wherever feasible, for generation of peaking power. The other
miscellaneous water requirements are for recreation, navigation etc., most of which are
non-consumptive. Necessity for maintaining minimum flow may arise out of the
necessity to maintain water quality, river regime, maintenance of river eco system or
other public necessities such as bathing etc.

15

CHAPTER V
INTEGRATED APPROACH THROUGH
DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM (PLANNING)
5.1

Overview of the integrated approach

For catering to multi-sectoral water demand, the need for optimum and judicious
utilization of the available land and water resources through integrated water resources
management (IWRM) is of utmost significance. IWRM in consultation with and with
participation of all stakeholders would ensure speedy realization of the object of
adequacy of water supplies in requisite quantity and quality. Conflicts on sharing of
waters will also reduce if concept of IWRM is put in practice. Maximization of basinlevel water use efficiency, integration of mega to micro level facilities, surface and
ground waters, of consumptive and non-consumptive uses, of demands and supply and
disciplines (technical, social, economic, legal, environmental, etc.) be necessary at basin
level and where necessary across basin boundaries. Water resources policies have to be
designed at the country level for integrating the needs optimally and making appropriate
allocations to different sectors viz. food, people and nature. IWRM will have a positive
impact on farm income through increased output levels and this may result in lower food
prices at local or national level, which will be favourable for increased food insecurity in
majority of the rural and urban poor.
In any river basin, there are several stakeholders and water uses; these include
agriculture, domestic, industrial, livestock, hydropower, navigation, fisheries, etc. In
addition, there are several institutions involved in various (often overlapping) aspects of
basin planning, development and management. The future poses major challenges for
making the water available at the right place at the right time at right quantity and
quality. This also indicates the primary problem in addressing inter-sectoral water
conflicts. Therefore, it is important to analyze various alternatives and development
scenarios, which can result in efficient and optimal planning, development and
management of water resources. The accomplishment of the above objective would call
for;

A good data base on river basin resources.

Optimization & simulation model and decision support system to arrive at

optimal decisions

Well-trained staff

Full involvement of stakeholders (Government, various users, Experts,

NGOs)
5.2

Decision Support System (Planning)

The Decision Support System (DSS Planning), which is the backbone of

integrated planning is required to simulate the natural resource system and social
developments in order to make better decisions for long term planning and short or

16

medium term operation/ management of existing systems. It helps in providing a better

insight into the complex physical and conceptual inter-connections in the basin and the
inter-sectoral and inter-regional trade-offs involved in the consideration of various
infrastructure and policy options for basin management. The decision support system will
address various aspects like assessment of surface and ground water availability,
conjunctive use of surface and ground water, multi-sectoral demand projection, flood and
drought management, sedimentation, water quality etc. and finally present alternative
scenario before the decision maker for allocation of water among various uses / users.
The DSS (Planning) basically has three components i) an information system to
help organize basic meteorological, hydrological, demographical, socio-economic,
agricultural, industrial and other information about the basin, ii) various simulation
models for various tasks (rainfall-runoff regression models, water balance, computation
of water requirement for diverse uses, reservoir simulation model, conjunctive use of
surface and ground water, water quality model, reservoir sedimentation model, models
for flood and drought management etc) to analyze the different scenarios and alternate
strategies to achieve the maximum possible benefits and iii) presentation of results and
reports.
5.3

Need for institutional framework for implementing the integrated approach

The National Water Policy has duly recognized the need for proper institutional
mechanism and stated that with a view to give effect to the planning, development and
management of the water resources on a hydrological unit basis, along with a multisectoral, multi-disciplinary and participatory approach as well as integrating quality,
quantity and the environmental aspects, the existing institutions at various levels under
the water resources sector will have to be appropriately reoriented / reorganized and even
created, wherever necessary. The Policy further states that as maintenance of water
resource schemes is under non-plan budget, it is generally being neglected. The
institutional arrangements should be such that this vital aspect is given importance equal
or even more than that of new constructions.
The issues / challenges concerning the institutional framework can therefore be
summarized as below:

Need for proper institutional framework for comprehensive water

allocation, planning and management particularly at basin levels
Improving co-ordination among various departments / institutions and
avoiding duplication of responsibility
Fostering of grass-root institutions
Involvement of civil society i.e local communities, NGOs, the private
sector and academia

Implementation of the concept of integrated water resources planning,

development and management however also relies on the establishment of proper
institutional framework in the form of River Basin Organizations which have to be
17

essentially multi-disciplinary in nature to prepare comprehensive plans taking into

account not only the needs of irrigation but also harmonizing various other water uses, so
that the available water resources are determined and put to optimum use having regard
to existing agreements or awards of Tribunals under the relevant laws.
5.4

Feed back System

The feed back system is an integral step in the integrated approach and essentially
comprises of two aspects:

Monitoring of changes in time

Feed of this information to the planners and decision makers for
sustainable management of water resources

18

CHAPTER VI
CONCLUSION
India, though have achieved remarkable progress in the area of water resources
development since independence, is nevertheless experiencing a range of issues in the
water sector primarily due to meteorological reasons such as severe climatic variations as
well as factors like rapid growth of population, urbanization & industrialization. The
demographic and economic growth of the country being further slated to carry on its
momentum in the coming decades, the water resources in India, which commands merely
4% of the global freshwater resources and supporting 17% of the worlds population,
needs to be developed, managed and utilized in a sustainable manner to maintain the
delicate balance between the competing multi-sectoral interests.
As we stand today as a nation, looking back at our progress and contemplating the
future, we may derive satisfaction from the path traversed but the challenges we shall be
facing in the future are many. There is the challenge of feeding a growing population. We
have grown from a nation of 360 million in the middle of the twentieth century to a
nation of over one billion today. On present indications, we may reach a size of around
1.5 billion by the middle of the twenty first century. There is the challenge of poverty.
There is the challenge of meeting growing aspirations for higher incomes and better life
of an increasingly more informed people. There is the challenge of meeting the
aspirations of growth in a way that development is sustainable and the growth processes
do not destroy the delicately balanced environmental and ecological systems. At the core
of all this is the challenge of meeting the water needs of the society.
Water resources development is to be seen not merely as a single sector end
objective, but as a prime mover in developing larger systems with multiple linkages.
This calls for a well set out multidisciplinary research agenda covering not only
technological issues but also issues of social, economic, legal and environmental
concerns. A trained, motivated manpower being the backbone of any developmental
activity, in the water resources sector also, there is need for human resource development.
The kind of approach suggested requires multi-level training of personnel involved in the
sector to undertake the challenging tasks ahead.
Integrated development and management of water resources should be based on
the treatment of water as an integral part of the eco system and a natural resource whose
quality and quantity determines the nature of its utilization. Water use, in turn, has its
impact on water quality and therefore utilization of water has to be so managed as not to
contribute to the deterioration of water quality. The challenge in water sector is, therefore,
to simultaneously take care of the needs of development and environmental health and
thereby ensure the sustainability of development. Given the rapid advancement in
technology, improvement in know-how of prudent management practices and
propagation of societal awareness, the nation shall be able to successfully meet the
challenges ahead.
19