Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Hull
Inspection,
Damage and
Repair Course
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Table of Contents
1
Overview ................................................................................................... 4
4.1
Definition ..............................................................................................................15
Solution..............................................................................................................................15
Solution..............................................................................................................................16
4.2
4.3
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.2.4
Change of Section............................................................................................... 22
4.3.1
4.4
4.5
Problem ................................................................................................................23
4.4.2
Solution ................................................................................................................23
Openings............................................................................................................. 24
4.5.1
4.6
4.7
Problem ................................................................................................................22
Problem ................................................................................................................24
Misalignment ....................................................................................................... 26
4.6.1
Problem ................................................................................................................26
4.6.2
Solution ................................................................................................................26
Problem ................................................................................................................27
4.7.2
Solution ................................................................................................................27
5.1
Recommended Approaches................................................................................ 28
5.2
Summary................................................................................................. 30
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Overview
Many ships do not meet classification requirements due to the cumulative
effects of corrosion and structural damage. In many cases, this damage is
preventable with timely maintenance and an understanding of the causes of
corrosion and damage.
This document looks at:
The type of damage sustained on ships
The main reasons this happens
Methods of prevention and repair
This section covers the following topics:
Types of damage sustained on ships
The main factors contributing to damage and corrosion
An examination of the main areas of stress concentration, including the
fractures that can occur and how to repair them
Recommended methods of prevention and repair
A summary of the measures you can take to lengthen the life of an
element
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Types of Damage
The table below lists the main causes of damage and for each one explains
how damage is caused and the best approach to repair it.
Cause of Damage
Structural overload
Grounding
Collision
Poor workmanship
Vibration fatigue
Poor alignment
Poor welding
Internal deformations
Hydrodynamic
Mechanical
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Cause of Damage
General wastage
Localised pitting
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Cause of Damage
Pitting
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1% pitting
3% pitting
5% pitting
10% pitting
15% pitting
20% pitting
25% pitting
30% pitting
40% pitting
50% pitting
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Issues to Consider
Fatigue
The structure of a ship may fail well below the calculated safe limit of
nominal stress. This can be the result of any of the types of damage
looked at earlier; design, stress concentration, overloading, poor
workmanship and so on. In order to combat fatigue we need to
understand:
Aspects of Fatigue
Fatigue should be considered as a probable cause of damage when:
Definition Of Fatigue
Fatigue can be defined as failure under alternating or cyclic loads or the
propagation of cracks through a component due to cyclic loads.
Stages of Fatigue
There are three stages of fatigue:
Fracture
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Issues to Consider
Fatigue (continued)
Fatigue Curve
The fatigue curve is used to demonstrate the relationship between stress
() and the cycle of loads.
In normal operation, a ship is subject to alternating loads. These result
from cargo operations and the cyclic effect of wave loading.
LEGEND
= Stress
= Fatigue limit
Number of Cycles
(equivalent to Age)
The fatigue strength is the maximum stress under which the material
will fail after a specified number of cycles.
The fatigue limit is the fatigue strength for an infinite number of cycles.
For the purpose of design the fatigue strength is set at the maximum
stress under which the material will only fail after 107 cycles.
Solutions to Fatigue Damage
You need to repair damage resulting from fatigue but more importantly,
you need to prevent the damage from re-occurring by reducing or
eliminating stress on the affected area.
You can reduce stress on a structure by:
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Issues to Consider
Stress Corrosion
STRESS
CORROSION
CORROSION
STRESS
Often the stress cycle produces fracture lines at the point of the highest
initial stress.
In other cases the area around the initial stress concentration becomes
corroded.
Areas of excessive
corrosion and probable
subsequent buckling
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Issues to Consider
Progressive Corrosion
Adequate recoating
Increasing thickness
Closing openings
Humidity and heat can both increase corrosion. If they are present
together the effect is greater and the rate of corrosion is vastly
accelerated.
Areas on the ship which are prone to increased humidity and heat will
suffer most, for example, tanks. In general, tanks above the waterline
are more affected than those below.
The following types of tank may suffer from the effects of heat and
humidity:
Deep tanks
Side tanks
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Issues to Consider
Stress Concentration
Stress concentrations occur where there are points of very high stress.
In any given area the stress concentration factor (SCF) is measured by
the ratio between the maximum stress and the nominal stress in the
surrounding structure.
SCF = maximum
nominal
In general, stress concentration occurs where there is a geometrical
discontinuity such as:
A change in thickness
A change in section
An opening
Pores
Cuts
Overheating
Grinding
The age of the ship is an important factor when establishing the cause of damage.
In the case of defects due to fatigue then the age of the ship gives an indication of the
actual levels of stress.
Damage occurring on a young ship may indicate that there is a structural fault, or a poor
design feature.
If damage occurs on an older ship, the damage is more likely to be age-related.
Estimating how much longer a ship is expected to stay in service may influence the type
of repair.
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4.1
Hard Spots
4.1.1
Definition
A hard spot or hard area can be defined as one of two things:
Any point or area which is rigid in a flexible or less rigid structure
A point or area where the deflection curve of a plate is abruptly interrupted
by the effect of a very rigid member supporting the plate
In general, a hard spot can be defined as a point or area where there is an
abrupt change of rigidity.
Generally a hard spot will occur when there is a distance of more than 80 mm between
the end of a bracket and the nearest supporting member.
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Solution
The simple solution is to eliminate the hard spot, or avoid it in the first
instance. In the illustration above, there is a hard spot where the bracket toe
meets the floor. There are a number of solutions to this as shown below:
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If the hard point is not caused by a bracket toe, you can eliminate the hard
spot by doing the following:
Spreading the load over a wider area
Increasing the size of brackets
Making the change in rigidity more gradual
The chosen solution will depend on the costs and the best practice given the
age of the ship.
At the design or repair stage, brackets and trunk corners should be arranged
to avoid ending on unsupported plating.
4.2
4.2.1
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Bracket
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Stiffener
4.2.2
Bracket
Stiffener
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4.2.3
Bracket
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Stiffener
4.2.4
Fracture
Solution
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4.3
Change of Section
4.3.1
Problem
A change of section is always a problem because it creates a point of stress.
If the change is abrupt, this can cause a significant increase in stress. You
should always try to ensure that any changes in section are as soft as
possible to keep increases in stress to a minimum.
The change of section in this example is very abrupt and the resulting stress
has caused a crack.
Solution
The solution is to make the change of section more gradual. In the above
example this can be achieved by fitting a bracket.
The size of the bracket used varies according to the:
size of the crack
age of the vessel
speed of crack propagation
The bracket is fitted at the point of stress at the change of section. The
younger the vessel, the longer the bracket must be.
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4.4
Change of Thickness
4.4.1
Problem
A change of thickness can lead to stress. The stress increases in proportion
to the difference in the thickness. The more abrupt the transition, the greater
the stress that is caused.
In the example below, the dramatic change in thickness in the side of the
ship has resulted in fractures and buckling.
4.4.2
Solution
The solution to an abrupt change in thickness is to lessen the change and
make the transition as gradual as possible. The chamfer ratio should be
around 3:1. If required, an insert of intermediate thickness should also be
fitted.
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4.5
Openings
4.5.1
Problem
An opening in a structure can increase stress in two ways:
The structure in the area of the opening has to support a higher load
compared to the surrounding structure away from the opening.
There is stress concentration at the corners of the opening.
In the example below, the hatch cover opening creates stress and results in
a fracture.
Solutions
4.5.1.1
Choosing a Solution
The area that is lost because of the opening needs to be compensated for in
some way. There are various methods available to achieve this:
Increasing:
the thickness of the area around the opening stress point using an
insert
4.5.1.2
4.5.1.3
You can also restore the original section modulus by using of the following:
A thicker insert in the web
A thicker and wider face bar, that is no more than 150% of the original
thickness
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4.6
Misalignment
4.6.1
Problem
The misalignment of structural elements causes an increase in stress, which
can be excessive in combination with the shear effect.
The examples below show how stress concentration increases in proportion
to misalignment.
To recap, the formula for calculating the stress concentration factor (SCF) in
any given area is measured by the ratio between the maximum stress and
the nominal stress in the surrounding structure:
SCF = maximum
nominal
T increases SCF by a
factor of 1.6
Alignment
1 T increases SCF by a
factor of 2.1
SCF
3.2
SCF
2.0
SCF
4.3
P = Load
T = Thickness
SCF = Stress Concentration Factor
4.6.2
Solution
The solution is to correct the misalignment. In new builds misalignment
should be prevented at both the design and construction stages.
If the misalignment is not too severe, full penetration welding may repair the
damage.
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4.7
4.7.1
Problem
When three planes meet, such as at the intersection of a longitudinal and
transverse bulkhead and a platform deck, there is always the possibility of
the stress concentration arising. This can lead to fractures. The type of
damage depends on the size and type of the ship.
The example below shows how three planes meeting can cause a crack. The
fractures always occur in the weld and do not normally propagate more than
120 mm.
4.7.2
Solution
The solution is to fit brackets without scallops to the area on the fractured
side, ensuring that the brackets are in line with the plane on the other side to
prevent further hard spots. Extend the brackets to the nearest stiffeners.
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Repairing Damage
When repairing damage, your main focus should be to eliminate the cause of
the damage. Once the cause is eliminated the damage should not re-occur,
or at least not for a very long time.
If you make a repair without eliminating the cause of the damage, the damage will
certainly return in less time than it took the original damage to develop.
5.1
Recommended Approaches
In general, when making repairs there are two approaches which when
combined will remove most possibilities of damage:
Reduce stress by reducing the overall load on the structure
Improve the ability of the structure to withstand the stress by putting in
steel of greater thickness or more supporting structure
5.2
Type of Repair
Coating Repairs
Pitting/Grooving Repairs
Anode Repairs
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Type of Repair
Steel Repairs
Reinforcement
Welding Repairs
The re-design of an area which has been damaged will prevent that
damage re-occurring.
The following changes should be considered where applicable:
Add brackets.
Add stiffeners.
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Summary
The measures you can take to lengthen the life of an element are listed
below:
Fit brackets where there are no brackets.
Extend existing brackets to decrease stress.
Fix the ends of stiffeners by adding brackets where possible.
Increase the thickness at the ends of brackets to 40% more than the
original thickness.
Close all unnecessary openings.
Use full or partial penetration welding as appropriate.
Provide chamfers or transitions to avoid an abrupt change in thickness.
Improve the sniping of stiffeners where required.
Soft-coat unprotected areas or areas where the soft coating is peeling.
Touch up or re-apply hard coatings where these have started to break
down.
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