HydrogenInduced Cracking in Surface

Production Systems: Mechanism,

Inspection, Repair, and Prevention
J.D. Burk, Amoco Corp.Amoco Research Center

Summary
Hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC) is a materials- and corrosion-related problem that occurs in surface production systems. Steels used
to construct sour-gas production facilities and flowlines may corrode from wet hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas in the production stream.
The corrosion process generates hydrogen that may damage the
steel, resulting in HIC and other forms of damage from hydrogen.
HIC control and prevention are an important consideration in operating surface-facility equipment in a safe and efficient manner. By
effectively controlling or preventing HIC damage in surface-facility
equipment, operating costs are reduced, potential costly downtime
from equipment failure is avoided, and a safe work environment is
more easily realized.
We developed an overall approach to understand and deal with
the HIC problem in sour-surface production facilities. The approach
dealt with understanding the mechanism in steel materials used in
surface-facility equipment; implementing state-of-the-art inspection techniques; fitness-for-service (FFS) evaluation to assess damage effect on performance; repair procedures on existing equipment; and finally, establishing steel performance and fabrication
requirements to eliminate or reduce HIC damage risk for newly fabricated equipment.
This paper presents the results of laboratory examinations of over
40 steels covering both new and existing equipment, leading to the
approaches developed for controlling HIC in existing equipment
and for controlling or preventing HIC in new construction. We also
present the basis for the approaches developed to deal with HIC in
surface production facilities.
Introduction
Wet H2S- or cyanide- (CN-) cracking in surface production process
equipment, such as pressure vessels, is now a major concern in the
industry. Industry attention turned to this potential cracking problem in the mid-1980s, following the catastrophic rupture of an
amine contactor at the Union Oil refinery in Lemont, IL.1
Two steps were taken to address this concern in production operations: 1) special requirements were placed on steel, vessel fabrication, and operation to avoid process equipment and vessel cracks after understanding the steel-cracking mechanism, and 2) a sour-gas
plant inspection/maintenance program was initiated2 in the operating plants with an FFS capability developed to assess cracking significance on equipment service ability. This overall approach has an
industry-wide impetus.
To address materials performance in hydrogen-charging environments for new construction, we initiated an effort to study the performance of pressure vessel steels in wet H2S/CN environments.
From these studies, recommendations about the benefit of specialized chemistry control, normalization after rolling, special metallurgical processing techniques, and other controllable variables
were determined. These recommendations were then incorporated
into a material-purchase specification.
Wet H2S/CN Cracking Mechanisms in Process Equipment. Wet
H2S- or CN- assisted hydrogen cracking (HC)often known as
Copyright 1996 Society of Petroleum Engineers
Original SPE manuscript received for review June 1, 1993. Revised manuscript received July
13, 1995. Paper peer approved Aug. 15, 1995. Paper (SPE 25583) first presented at the 1993
SPE Middle East Oil Technical Conference & Exhibition held in Bahrain, April 36.

SPE Production & Facilities, February 1996

HIC to cover a multitude of related cracking mechanismsoccurs

in both refinery and production facilities. Upstream production facilities are exposed to H2S, while downstream systems experience hydrogen charging into the steel from both H2S and CN. The hydrogen-driven cracking is observed in several modes. The modes or
mechanisms are sulfide-stress corrosion cracking (SSC), hydrogen
blistering, hydrogen-induced (stepwise) cracking (HIC), and stressoriented hydrogen-induced (stepwise) cracking (SOHIC).
Other forms of stress-corrosion cracking (SCC), by direct consequence of the gas or by gas-treating agents, are also reported in refinery and production facilities that deal with wet acid gas. One SCC
type is related to amine cracking where the H2S- or CO2-rich gasprocess stream is sweetened by a lean amine such as monoethanol
(MEA) or diethanol amine (DEA). Cracking is observed in the H2Srich MEA or DEA stream. The second SCC type is carbonate/bicarbonate cracking. Both these cracking mechanisms are considered
similar, occurring in an alkaline environment and exhibiting intergranular branched crack growth in low-strength ferritic/pearlitic
steels.
These latter two mechanisms, amine- and alkaline-caused SCC,
are briefly summarized here because they are present in surface production equipment exposed to H2S and CO2 acid gases. These
cracking mechanisms are typically reported in industry surveys.
Such mechanisms are found in recent cracking reports to the NACE
T8-16 committee on refinery equipment3 subjected to H2S/CN- and
H2S-production surface-equipment-inspection survey results referred to earlier2 in this paper.
HC Mechanisms. The wet H2S/CN HC mechanisms we observed
all require the presence of an aqueous phase, temperatures from ambient to 300F, and the evolution of hydrogen by a corrosion reaction at the environment/steel interface. The presence of hydrogen
ions does not strongly promote absorption into the steel at the interface. The presence of the bisulfite (HS) or CN ions does strongly
promote hydrogen absorption into the steel, poisoning the recombination of hydrogen into a gas in the corrosion reaction. Similar
types of HC damage are not associated with CO2 when the HS or CN
ions are not present. HS and CN ions promote the transport of hydrogen across the environment-metal interface and promote blistering,
HIC, and SOHIC.
The cracking mechanism for SSC requires extremely low concentrations of hydrogen in the metal (5 ppm). Low concentrations
of HS or CN can produce this level of hydrogen in the steel. Therefore, SSC is usually controlled by material selection and hardness
control.4-6
The HC mechanisms active in production surface equipment,
based on metallurgical reviews of operating vessel wet flourescent/
magnetic particle testing (WFMT) indications, are primarily blistering and HIC.2 Only limited instances of SOHIC and SSC have been
found.
Blistering. Hydrogen blistering occurs predominantly in lowstrength steels (yield strength less than 80 ksi) that are exposed to
hydrogen. Blistering occurs from molecular hydrogen that collects
at internal planar nonmetallic inclusions or laminations. Under the
internal hydrogen pressure the inclusion (lamination) disbonds
from the steel matrix and forms a blister. Blistering is observed in
pressure vessels, storage tanks, and piping. This form of hydrogen
damage is contrasted with high-temperature (greater than 600F)
hydrogen damage in steels where hydrogen reacts with carbon
49

Fig. 1HIC- and SOHIC-cracking morphologies in a steel-plate

cross section.

found in the pearlite colonies and forms methane that produces intergranular fissuring, cracking, and severe loss of ductility.
Hydrogen blistering is not necessarily considered critical to the
pressure integrity of a vessel or pipe; often the blisters do not link
from one plane to another or break the surface. This influences vessel FFS assessments and leads to extended service life. Typically,
blisters are observed on the internal surface of the vessel and may
be drilled to relieve pressure and reduce further deformation.
SSC. SSC has been extensively studied in carbon manganese,
low-alloy high-strength, and microalloyed steels (Ref. 6). SSC is a
specific form of hydrogen embrittlement that occurs in highstrength steels and hard-weld heat-affected-zones (HAZ). Other research characterizes cracking for steels as dependent on hardness,
temperature, H2S concentration, cold work, and alloy content. Alloys with higher alloying content, called corrosion resistant alloys
(CRAs), can still be susceptible to SSC. SSC in CRAs is influenced
by the same parameters. SSC is mostly observed in surface production equipment at internal attachment clip welds where a hard HAZ
can be developed.
HIC. HIC is a hydrogen-damage mechanism that occurs in soft,
low-strength steels (yield strength less than 80 ksi). Cracking occurs
by the linking of small inclusions that have blistered. The linking
mechanism proceeds from one blistered inclusion to another in anisotropic planes developed from the rolling process in plate manufacture. The linking is sometimes called stepwise cracking because
the cracking morphology appears as steps in a metallurgical section
(Fig. 1). Another common term that is applied is blister cracking.
HIC or blister cracking is differentiated from simple blistering by
the linking or cracking of the steel from one blister to another.
SOHIC. SOHIC is a hydrogen-damage mechanism like HIC. The
damage mechanism, however, is driven not only by the high pressures that are generated by the hydrogen at the inclusion to steel interface, but also by the external applied stress.4 These stresses cause
the crack path between inclusions to move more directly through the
plate. The cracking morphology is more reminiscent of a ladder than
a stair step; the inclusions link not as stair steps, but more in a vertical direction like the rungs on a ladder (Fig. 1). Another common
term that is used to describe this phenomenon is ladder cracking.
Corrosion Process: Hydrogen Generation and Transport. To
produce HC-blistering, SSC, HIC, or SOHIC, hydrogen must be
present at the steel surface and then be adsorbed into the metal. The
corrosion process generates hydrogen and involves the production
of iron at the anode that goes into aqueous solution as
FeFe+2)2e, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
and at the cathode hydrogen is produced and either enters the steel
or forms hydrogen gas and bubbles off. When H2S is present,
2H+)2e H)H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
When H2S is not present,
H)H H2 (gas). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3)
Hydrogen enters the steel first by adsorption onto the steel at the
water to steel interface and then by being absorbed into the steel as
hydrogen. The amount of hydrogen absorption depends on the cor50

Fig. 2Steel corrosion and hydrogen entry in an H2S environment.

rosion rate of the steel surface and the concentration of anions, such
as CN or HS, that reduce the tendency to produce hydrogen gas,
shown in Eq. 2. CN and HS also promote hydrogen, H, entry into
the steel. Fig. 2 shows that in a strictly acid environment without
H2S present, HIC, SOHIC, and SSC would not occur.
Produced wet sweet-acid gas (CO2) environments are an example
of the criticality of HS in the HC mechanisms. General weight loss
corrosion occurs, but HIC, SOHIC, SSC, and blistering in steels
does not occur when HS and CN are not present. Introduction of a
sour environment allows this to occur and these damage mechanisms become active given a susceptible steel microstructure.
Acid-concentration, typically related to pH, has an influence on
damage. An example is acidizing to clean Fe2S-scaled carbon-steel
vessels or piping. Acidizing with a Fe2S scale present produces an
acidic environment with HS present. At pHu4,
Fe2S)acidFe+2)H+)HS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4)
At pHt4,
Fe2S)acidFe+2)H+)H2S, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (5)
which then leads to either hydrogen charging of the steel with hydrogen or hydrogen gas evolution.
2H+)2eH)H , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (6)
and H)HH2 (gas). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (7)
The presence of the HS promotes the transfer of hydrogen into the
steel (Eq. 6). Normally, acidizing is accomplished with acids with
a pH of 4 to 6, producing high fluxes of hydrogen and the risk of blistering, HIC, or SOHIC from the acidizing alone.
Conditions for Blistering, HIC, and SOHIC. Blistering, HIC,
and SOHIC are interrelated and depend heavily on hydrogen entry
into the steel microstructure. Blistering occurs when the hydrogen
concentration, CH , at a discontinuity exceeds the critical threshold
hydrogen concentration, Cth . The internal discontinuity is usually
an inclusion, but can be produced by SSC of a hardened area where
high Mn segregation has occurred. The condition is expressed as
CH uCth , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (8)
and Cth is related to the material resistance to the hydrogen gas that
has recombined to produce a pressure on the inclusion nucleated
void. The pressure available for causing the inclusion to disbond
from the metal matrix is related to CH at the point where the inclusion is located. Fig. 3 shows a typical profile of CH through thickness in a pressure vessel steel wall, illustrating the conditions for
blistering, HIC, or SOHIC.
Blistering, HIC, or SOHIC damage conditions are determined by
the following critical variables: (1) pressure, pc , (2) steel matrix to
inclusion resistance or fracture-toughness, KIC , and (3) the length
SPE Production & Facilities, February 1996

Fig. 3Condition for HIC in a steel plate based on CH and Cth required for HIC or blister formation.

of the inclusion, a. These variables are related by the condition for

inclusion disbonding and crack growth as7
pc tKIC/2(p/a), . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (9)
where pc +F(a,CH ), . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (10)
where a is the fraction of hydrogen absorbed into the steel lattice,
pc is the pressure at the inclusion location, and CH is the concentration of hydrogen at the inclusion location. The CH decreases from
a maximum at the absorption interface where the concentration of
hydrogen (CH) is maximum to zero at the external surface. This is
expressed in Eq. 11 as (Ref. 8)
CH +CH (1*x/h), . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (11)
where h is the steel-vessel wall thickness and x is the distance in
from the surface exposed to the environment.
This basic condition for blistering, HIC, or SOHIC given in Eqs.
8 and 9 shows that the inclusion size, the amount of hydrogen entering the steel to produce the internal pressure, the location of the inclusion, and the steel matrix to inclusion interface toughness is critical in determining whether HIC damage occurs. Treating practices
that reduce the hydrogen entry or reduce the size of inclusions
would reduce or preclude damage to the steel-pressure vessel wall.
Techniques to Control or Prevent Damage. Techniques to control
or reduce the hydrogen entry are (1) water washing to reduce concentrations of HS, (2) treating with inhibitors to reduce corrosion
and available hydrogen, and (3) lining the steel areas that are subject
to corrosion with corrosion-resistant claddings like austenitic stainless steels.
Steel Resistance. Steel resistance to damage is improved by steel
production techniques that reduce the inclusion or internal discontinuity size. Techniques used to control inclusion size are (1) reducing
sulfur content to low (t0.012) or ultra-low (0.002) levels, (2) reducing phosphorus and other elements like Mn, Cr, Ni, Mo, and Cu,
(3) using specialized continuous casting, slabbing, hot-topping, ingot-casting, bottom-pouring, deoxidization, and calcium-treating
processes during steel making, (4) specialized cross-rolling practices for thinner plate thicknesses in the - to 1-in. range, and (5) inspection techniques to examine plate steel internally for cleanliness
before finishing rolling or after finishing rolling and shipping acceptance.
Steel to inclusion toughness or resistance to void extension (KIC)
is indirectly controlled by the toughness of the steel matrix and the
interaction of the inclusion with the steel grain size for ductile-tearing fracture instabilities. Stronger steel will require more pressure
SPE Production & Facilities, February 1996

for an internal void or blister based on Eq. 9 to be formed. Steel grain

refinement should improve the material resistance. Techniques to
refine the grain size during steel production are (1) heat treating by
normalizing, (2) using an accelerated thermomechanical treatment,
and (3) using aluminum or silicon to semikill or fully kill the steels.
These approaches are effective in increasing the blistering, HIC, or
SOHIC resistance of a material.9,10
H2 S Stress-Cracking Control. HS and CNcaused stress cracking in carbon and low-alloy steels is controlled by limiting the material strength. Prevention of hydrogen entry into the steel is not considered practical because bulk steel content of as little as 5 ppm of
hydrogen can result in cracking in a hard susceptible microstructure.
Water washing or inhibition would not be considered viable methods of controlling SSC.
Limiting strength is accomplished by placing hardness limits on
the carbon and low-alloy steels. The hardness is proportional to the
material strength. Hardness limits are used for weld metal. A 200
Brinell hardness (BHN) limit is typically used for refinery applications.4 This limit is based on NACE RP 0472-87. Hardness limits
placed on carbon steels, welds, and HAZs, as defined by NACE
MR-0175-92, were set at 22 Rockwell C-Scale (RC), which is
equivalent to 248 Vickers and 237 BHN. These limits are recommended, but not required. When low-alloy steels, such as AISI 4130
or 4140, are properly heat treated to produce uniform microstructures virtually free of retained austenite and upper bainites, hardness
limits are extended to RC 26.
Some approaches to controlling strength or maximum hardness
in fabricated steel vessels and equipment are (1) using lowerstrength steels without a tendency to develop high hardnesses; (2)
controlling cooling rates below a critical rate during welding by
using higher heat inputs and/or preheat; (3) controlling material carbon equivalent or being aware of the carbon equivalent when welding; (4) controlling residual elements, such as Ni, Cu, Cr, Mo, and
V, to a maximum; (5) controlling cooling rates during mill production; (6) using normalized carbon-manganese steels; and (7) using
a postweld heat treatment to act as a tempering heat treatment that
reduces hardness.
Production-Facility Service Environments. HC occurs in specific
production gas plant and refinery locations. While the focus of this
paper is on production equipment, locations in refineries are being
mentioned to provide a complementary view of downstream problem similarity.11
The conditions for blistering, SSC, HIC, and SOHIC have been
discussed. These conditions typically occur in the following refinery units: fluid catalytic-cracking units (FCCU), hydrotreating/hydrocracking units, amine absorbers, sour-water strippers, and liquid-propane-gas (LPG) storage vessels. These units, however, will
not be discussed in detail here. In production gas plants, the conditions are also present in amine absorbers and sour-gas/water strippers.
Amine Absorbers and Strippers. Amine absorbers, common to
both refineries and production-acid-gas CO2 and H2S sweetening
plants, are prone to HC when HS or CN are present. Wet sour-gas
feed is sweetened by intermixing with H2S/CO2 and lean amine
through a series of bubble trays. The process occurs between temperatures of approximately 100 to 250F. These temperatures are
associated with the lower portion of the absorber column. HIC damage occurs primarily near wet sour-gas-inlet areas in absorbers as
the gas feed contacts the steel. SOHIC damage occurs near internalattachment welds associated with the bubble-cap trays. Strippers
force the highly condensed H2S and CO2 out of the rich amine.
Strippers could potentially experience SSC, HIC, or SOHIC further
downstream in the outlet area for the H2S where aqueous condensation has occurred. These stripper overheads are treated to avoid corrosion, discussed previously.
Sour-Water Strippers. Sour-water stripping of single or multiphase sour-gas and oil feeds leads to acidic aqueous environments
in the bottom of sour-gas/water strippers or at outlets in multiphase
separators. These areas are prone to blistering, HIC, and SSC. Temperatures associated with separators may vary greatly and depend
51

TABLE 1WFMT INDICATIONS

Cracking-Cause
Mechanism/Source

Weld Fabrication
Blistering or HIC
Sulfide Stress
Alkaline Stress Cracking
Total

Number of
Vessel
Instances

Total Vessels
Inspected
(%)

185
64
29
15
293

17
10
5
3

on feed-stream input temperature and extreme climactic conditions.

Water strippers or knock-out drums typically operate at temperatures from ambient to 200F. This temperature range is within the
range of susceptibility for HC mechanisms to operate.

Surface Production Equipment and Vessel Inspection

After the Lemont failure1 that drew a significant amount of industry
attention to wet H2S/CN cracking in pressure vessels, refinery operations formed a task force in early 1988 to address specific questions
about HC in sour-service vessels. The refinery-task-force activities
led to recommended guidelines for constructing, operating, inspecting, and repairing vessels in sour-service process streams. Production operators initiated inspection and repair programs to identify
and use wet H2S/CN cracking in pressure vessels and update vesselmaterials specifications.
The inspection programs are showing that many WFMT indications are caused by fabrication and suggest that a lesser percentage
of actual indications are a direct result of HC mechanisms in pressure/vessel steels subjected to wet H2S/CN environments.
Inspection Techniques. Vessel inspection for HIC, SOHIC, blistering, and SSC is preferably done with a WFMT technique. This technique requires the opening up of equipment and sand blasting or
flapper-wheel cleaning of the internal surface to detect HIC, SOHIC, or SSC.
Ultrasonic P-scanning techniques are also used when vessels are
not opened. This technique is capable of generating large quantities
of detailed information, but does not clearly identify whether or not
indications are caused by HIC or SOHIC damage, or by inclusions
(discontinuities) normally associated with steels from which the
equipment is fabricated.
Ultrasonic shearwave techniques, such as crack tip diffraction
techniques, are most helpful in determining the extent of crack
depth and morphologya determination critical in FFS assessments to be discussed later in this paper.
Industry Inspection Programs. NACE committee T8-16 has
conducted a survey of the refinery-industry process vessels that are
subject to wet H2S/CN cracking and found that 1,285, or 26%, of the
4,987 inspected vessels contained cracks.3
Internal Inspection Programs. Inspecting thousands of internal
refinery and production vessels, which costs tens of millions of dollars, is nearing completion, and monitoring continues as required.
The refinery results were provided to the NACE T8-16 Committee
as part of an inspection survey. The industry survey suggests that
many of the cracks detected and originally thought to be related to
HIC, SOHIC, or SSC are related to fabrication discontinuities.
Of all the production equipment and vessels inspected, 618 (57%)
of over 1,084 showed WFMT indications. The indications are
grouped according to the mechanisms or causes described in Table
1.
These results show that production equipment contains a relatively high percentage of as-fabricated discontinuities that have existed
in the equipment for an extended time period. The percentage of
HIC-related cracking is under 10%.
FFSVessels and Repair
Production surface equipment with discontinuities or cracks are
quite common, according to the inspection survey data. These vessels have operated for a number of years with original fabrication
52

discontinuities. The question is how to determine whether the

equipment or vessel is fit for service and can continue to be operated
safely and profitably. To address this question, a FFS is being applied to process vessels.12 The FFS technology is not new, and has
had success in application in the aerospace, nuclear, and offshorestructures industries, among others.
Application to process vessels after inspection has shown that
cracks and other types of discontinuities present allow for repair or
replacement strategies based on sound performance criteria. Three
levels of analysis are available, each one being more involved than
the one before. Through this analysis, acceptance criteria are set that
allow safe and productive operation of a process vessel with cracks
or discontinuities.
Blistering. Blisters in the center of the plate are treated simply and
directly by FFS technology. Blisters that remain in the plane of the
plate parallel to the stressed direction are benign and simply ignored. Blisters with ends that extend towards the surface of the plate
require a more detailed analysis.
Internal Surface Cracks and Weld Repair. Surface cracks found
by WFMT inspection are typically ground or excavated by arc
gouging. Typically, when the grinding or excavation depth exceeds
the corrosion allowance, weld repair is required. By using FFS technology, many of these ground areas do not require weld repair.
HIC and SOHIC Materials Performance
Field and Supplier Steels. Steel pressure/vessel materials ASTM
A285C, A515, A516 Grades 60 and 70, A537 Class II and A841
were obtained from both field-process service locations and from
international and domestic steel suppliers where steels are produced
with various processes, representing current steel-production technology.
Steels From Operating Vessels. Field sample sources were developed as available with the support of the operating locations to include pressure/vessel steel grades such as ASTM A285 Class C,
A212, A515, and A516 Grade 60 or 70 in the as-welded or postweld
heat treatment (PWHT) condition.
Steel-Producer Sources. Materials were obtained from vessels
that had been in wet H2S/CN service with evidence of HC found by
WFMT inspections. Supplier steel pressure/vessel samples were
obtained from both domestic and international sources to provide
materials fabricated with different state-of-the-art steel-making
technologies. These steels included ASTM A516 and A841 with
supplemental requirements in both the as-rolled, normalized, thermomechanically processed (TMCP), and quenched and tempered
finished conditions.
Steel Chemistries and Mechanical Properties. Steel chemistry
and mechanical properties were measured for both the field and the
steel-supplier samples evaluated. Heat analysis results were not
used in an effort to characterize the actual plates tested and did not
consider variations in properties within a heat. Weldability parameters were also calculated from the individual chemistries according
to the following formulas from the IIW.
HIC-Testing. Steel pressure/vessel materials ASTM A285C,
A515, A516 Grades 60 and 70, A537 Class II and A841 were tested
in both pH 3.5 and 4.5 solutions. Tests were run in both the more
aggressive pH 3.5 solution (TM 01 77) and the pH 4.5 solution (TM
02 84) to see the relative differences in the corrosion and hydrogencharging effects of the two solutions.
Test results generally showed that the lower sulfur steels have a
tendency to produce lower values of crack/sensitivity ratio (CSR),
crack/length ratio (CLR), and crack/thickness ratio (CTR). Test results showed that materials can achieve a CLR below 30 when the
sulfur is less than 0.006 wt%, the material is normalized, and some
inclusion shape control practice is used. Finally, steels that are asrolled with higher sulfur content show a greater tendency to have
higher values of CLR and lower values of CTR relative to the
normalized steels with lower sulfur contents. Steels that are specifically produced for HIC resistance by the manufacturer for new
construction have a goal performance-acceptance criterion that
ranges from 10 to 15 CLR in the industry.
SPE Production & Facilities, February 1996

SOHIC-Testing. The NACE TM 01 77 test method was selected

to simulate HIC cracking under stress, a reported prime influence on
property degradation and material performance in wet H2S/CN environments. The acidic-pH 3.5 aqueous NACE test solution with
H2S, 5% NaCl, and 0.5 wt% acetic acid was selected as the most severe and therefore most conservative measure of a steels resistance
to HIC or SOHIC.
The threshold stress, expressed as a percentage of the actual yield
strength, typically ranges from 40% to 100%. We should note that
the results show that steels with relatively high HIC resistance do
not necessarily have high thresholds. Steels used for wet sour-gas
production as oil-country tubular goods (OCTG) must pass an 80%
criterion set by API Specification 5CT. Amoco requires a 90% acceptance criterion for tests run to this method. However, the cracking mechanism for the OCTG is not SOHIC, but SSC, suggesting
that this acceptance criterion may or may not be applicable to SOHIC failure mechanisms that are different in pressure vessels.
Material-Performance Specifications. As a result of laboratory
testing and field-sample evaluation, specifications were established
for new construction and fabrication. These requirements are established to reduce risk of blistering, HIC, SOHIC, and SSC in new
construction. Key points to steel resistance are control of sulfur, carbon equivalent, and HIC/SOHIC resistance through acceptance
testing. Fabrication factors in controlling SSC are welding procedure, heat input, and PWHT.
Steel Requirements. Steels are required to be made to fine grain
practice (ASTM grain size 5 or smaller), normalized, and have a
maximum sulfur content of 0.012 wt%. The steel is also required to
pass a performance HIC test per NACE TM02 84 requirements,
using the more aggressive NACE TM 01 77 test solution. Acceptance criteria are set at a CLR of 15 % and CTR of 5%. CLR and CTR
to some degree measure material resistance to HIC and SOHIC.
Fabrication Requirements. PWHT is required after welding, with
WFMT inspection following. In selected situations, weld procedure
qualification is also required. As part of the procedure qualification
record (PQR), welds are hardness tested in the HAZ and must have
a hardness that is less than 248 BHN. Testing is done with a Vickers
hardness indentor with a 10-kg load. Carbon equivalent is controlled to reduce the risk of hardness exceeding 248 BHN. Steels
with plate thicknesses of 1.5 in. or less must have a carbon equivalent (CE) of less than 0.42, while steel with plate thicknesses that exceed 1.5 in. must have a CE of no more than 0.45. CE is computed
per the IIW formula.
CE+C)Mn/6)(Cr)Mo)V)/5)(Ni)Cu)/15.

. . . . . (12)

These requirements add to the cost of a surface-process vessel.

Estimates of added cost range from 10% to 30% increase in steel
cost and 8% to 50% increase in as-fabricated cost of a process vessel. However, these costs are easily offset by the cost of periodic inspection and dismantling of a vessel and making repairs, or, in extreme cases, replacing the equipment.
Conclusion
HIC in surface production equipment is an important consideration
in operating equipment in a safe and efficient manner. Understanding of the mechanism causing HIC, SOHIC, blistering, and SSC,
and the applications of FFS technology have shown ways of dealing
with the phenomenon in a cost-effective manner. Through inspection and repair strategies, process equipment in wet H2S service can
be maintained. Through specifications relating to material performance and fabrication control, new equipment can be placed in service with more resistance to HIC, SOHIC, blistering, and SSC in wet
H2S service.

CHo + hydrogen concentration at the absorbation interface

Ec + carbon equivalent (IIW formula)
KIC + material fracture toughness at tip of inclusion or
crack
pC + critical pressure
h+ wall thickness of pressurized equipment
x+ position from surface through wall of vessel
References
1. McHenery, H.I. et al.: Examination of a Pressure Vessel that Ruptured
at the Chicago Refinery of Union Oil Company on July 23, 1984, Report No. NBSIR 86-3049, National Bureau of Standards, Boulder, CO
(March 1986).
2. Miller, C. and Sperling, E.: Crack Inspection of Sour Service and
Amine Service Vessels in Hydrocarbon Production Operations, paper
No. 44, CORROSION 92, Nashville (April 1992).
3. National Association of Corrosion Equipment (NACE) Committee
T8-16, Minutes, Fall Committee Week, Calgary 1992.
4. Merrick, R.D.: Refinery Experiences with Cracking in Wet H2S Environments, Materials Performance (Jan. 1988).
5. Hudgins, C.M. et al.: Corrosion (1966) 22, No. 8, 238.
6. Tuttle, R.N. and Kane, R.D.: H2S Corrosion in Oil and Gas Production-A Compilation of Classic Papers, Publication No. 51113, NACE,
Houston (1981).
7. Iino, M.: The Extension of Hydrogen Blister-Crack Array in Line pipe
Steels, Metallurgical Transactions (Nov. 1978) A, 1581-1590.
8. Hirth, J.P.: Effects of Hydrogen on the Properties of Iron and Steel,
Metallurgical Transactions (June 1980) A, 861-890.
9. Ikeda, A. et al.: Development of Hydrogen-Induced Cracking Resistant Steels and HIC Test Methods for Hydrogen Sulfide Service, Paper
No. 6, Session 11, 1983 Annual Conference of Metallurgists-Canadian
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Edmonton, Alta, March.
10. NACE T8-16, State-of-the-Art Report-Materials and Fabrication Practices for New Carbon Steel Pressure Vessels to be use in Wet H2S Refinery Service, Draft Report to T8-16 Members, NACE Fall Committee
Week 1992.
11. Kane, R. D., Whilhelm, S.M., and Oldfield, J.W.: Review of HydrogenInduced Cracking of Steels in Wet H2S Refinery Service, paper presented at the 1989 International Conference on Interaction of Steels with
Hydrogen in Petroleum Industry Pressure Vessel Service, Paris, March.
12. Warke, W.M.: Fitness-for-Service Approach for Pressurized Equipment With Discontinuities, 1992 ASME Pressure Vessel and Piping
Conference-Workshop on Fitness-for-Service in the Petroleum Industry, New Orleans, June 2426.

SI Metric Conversion Factors

F (F*32)/1.8
+C
in. 2.54*
E)00 +cm
lbm 4.535 924
E*01 +kg
psi 6.894 757
E)00 +kPa
*Conversion factor is exact.

SPEPF

James D. Burk, an associate research engineer at Amoco Corp.

in Naperville, IL, received his BS, MS, and PhD degrees from the
U. of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign in materials science and en
gineering. Before joining Amoco, he held either technical or su
pervisory positions at McDonnell Douglas Astronautics, Shell De
velopment Co., and Brown & Root Intl., and studied or directed
work in materials environmental degradation, fatigue, and
fracture. James currently focuses his interests on materials and
corrosion behavior in petroleum production, refining, trans
portation, and marketing operations. He has published or pre
pared over 30 papers related to environmental degradation of
materials, corrosion, welding, fatigue, and fracture over the
course of his 25 year career.

Nomenclature
a+ characteristic inclusion or crack length
a+ fraction of hydrogen absorbed into steel at interface
of steel and corrosive environment
CH + hydrogen concentration
SPE Production & Facilities, February 1996

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