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Optical Fibre Communication

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Chapter1:Introduction

Chapter1:Introduction
Chapter2:OpticalFibers
Chapter3:OpticalTransmitters
Chapter4:OpticalReceivers
Chapter5:LightWaveSystems
Chapter6:Multichannel
Systems

Q. 1. Define telecommunication.
Ans. Telecommunication is defined as the exchange of
information over a certain distance using some type of
equipment.

Q. 2. What is information carrying capacity of

communication system?
Ans. Information carrying capacity of communication
system is to transmit certain amount of information per
unit of time.

Q. 3. Fiber optic communication systems have

highest information carrying capacity. Why?
Ans. The information carrying capacity of communication
system depends on its bandwidth which further depends
on the frequency of carrier. Light is used as carrier in fiber
optic communication system which has highest frequency
among all the practical signals. That is why, fiber optic
communication systems have highest information capacity.

Q. 4. What is the frequency range of light signal.

Ans. Ligh has frequency between 100 and 1000 THz.

Q. 5. What are the three commonly used fixed

wavelengths in use in fiber optic communication

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system?
Ans. The commonly used wavelengths in today fiber optic
communication system are 750 to 850 nm, 1310 nm and
1530 to 1560 nm.

Q. 6. What are the wavelengths ranges for optical

bands S. C and L?
Ans. The wavelength ranges for optic band are:

Q. 7. What is an optical fiber?

Ans. An optical fiber is a thin transparent flexible strand

that consists of a core surrounded by cladding. It confines
electromagnetic energy in the form of light to within its
surfaces and guides the light in a direction parallel to its
axis. The core is the portion of the fiber that carries the
transmitted light. The cladding surrounds the core. It has a
lower index of refraction to keep the light in the core. An
optical fiber has an additional coating around the cladding
called protective jacket. It protects the core and cladding
from shocks that might affect their optical or physical
properties. It has no optical properties affecting the
propagation of light within the fiber.

Q. 8. What is Snells law and laws of reflection?

Ans. Snells law gives a relationship at the interface of two
mediums having different refractive indexes.
According to snells law

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Laws of Reflection
According to laws of reflection.
The angle at which the incident ray strikes the
interface is exactly equal to the angle the reflected ray
makes with the same interface.
2. The incident ray, the normal to the interface and the
reflected ray, all lie in the some plane which is
perpendicular to the interface plane between the two
materials.
1.

Q. 9. What are the advantages of the cladding?

Ans. Advantages of the cladding are:
(a) It adds mechanical strength to the fiber and protects
the fiber from absorbing surface contaminants with which
it may come in contact.
(b) The cladding is capable of reducing the scattering loss
of light resulting from dielectric discontinuities at the core
surface.
Q. 10. Define the terms (a) Refractive Index (b)
Total Internal Reflection.
Ans. Refractive Index: It is defined as the ratio of speed
of light in vacuum to that in medium. It is given by

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Total Internal Reflection: It is the mechanism by

which light at a sufficiently shallow angle less than
is
considered to propagate down in an optical fiber with lovv
loss.
Total internal reflection occurs at the interface between
two dielectrics of different refractive indices.
When a light ray travelling in one material hits a different
material and reflects back into the original material
without any loss of light, total internal reflection occurs.
For total internal reflection to occur, the index of refraction
ofthe core must be higher than that of the cladding.

Q. 11. Draw the block diagram of a fiber optic

communications system and describe function of
each component.
Ans.

The basic blocks of fiber optic communication systems are

transmitter, optical fiber cable and receiver. The
transmitter consists of light source and its associated drive
circuit, optical fiber cable offers mechanical and
environment protection to optical fibers contained inside
and receiver consists of photodetector, amplification and
signal restoring circuit Information to be conveyed enters
an electronic transmitter. In electronic transmitter it is
converted into electrical form, modulated and multiplexed.
The electrical signal then goes to optical transmitter where
it is converted into optical form i.e. into light. The light
signal is then transmitted over optical fiber. At the receiver
end, light signal is received by optical detector which
converts the light signal into an electrical signal. The
electrical signal then enters into electronic receiver where
electrical signal is processed to get the exact information.
Transmitter: The heart of the transmitter is a light source.
The main function of light source is to convert an
information signal from its electrical form into light. LEDS
and laser diodes are used as light sources.
Optical Fiber: The transmission medium in fiber optic
communication systems is an optical fiber. The optical fiber
is the transparent and flexible filament that guides light
from a transmitter to a receiver. The optical fiber provides
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the connection between a transmitter and a receiver. The

optical fiber basically consists of two concentric layers, the
light carrying core and the cladding. The cladding acts as a
refractive index medium which allows the light to be
transmitted through the core and to the other end with
very little distortion or attenuation.
Receiver: The heart of an optical receiver is the photo
detector. The major task of a photo detector is to convert
an optical information signal back into an electrical signal.

Q. 12. Draw the block diagram of optical transmitter

and the optical receiver and explain function of each
component.
Ans.

The main function of an optical transmitter is to convert

the electrical signal into optical signal and to launch the
optical signal into the optical fiber. Optical transmitter
consists of optical source, modulator and a channel
coupler. Light emitting diodes (LEDS) and Laser diodes are
used as optical sources. The input electrical signal
modulates the intensity of light from the optical source.
The optical carrier can be modulated internally or
externally using an electro-optic modulator or acousto
optic modulator. Now a days electro-optic modulators
are widely used as external modulators which modulate
the light by changing its refractive index through given
input electrical signal. The function of a coupler is to
couple the optical signal to optical fiber cable. The coupler
is a micro lens that focuses the optical signal onto the
entrance plane of an optical fiber with maximum
efficiency.

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The main function of optical receiver is to convert the

received optical signal back onto the original electrical
signal. The optical receiver consists of a channel coupler, a
poto detector and a demodulator. The coupler focuses the
received optical signal onto if photo detector. The photo
detector like avalanche photo diode (APD) or
positivetrinsic-negative (PIN) diode converts the optical
pulses into electrical pulses. The requirements for a photo
detectors are similar to those of an optical source. It
should have high sensitivity fast response, Low noise, low
cost and high reliability. The demodulator, demodulates
the received electrical signal back to original information.
The design of demodulator depends on the modulation
formate used by light wave system.

Q. 13. Evolution of light wave system.

Ans.
1st Generation System
First generation light wave systems utilized the 0.85 urn
(850nm) wavelength window. These systems utilized
GaAs/Al GaAs fabry perot semiconductor lasers or LED,
multirnode fiber as the transmission medium, and silicon
P-i-N or APD based direct detection receivers. A direct
detection receiver recovers the information signal after
converting the light intensity into electrical current by
using a photo detecter and associated receiver electronics.
As a first step in the transition from research to
commercial applications, transmission field trials were
carried out at around 850 nm.
2nd Generation System
In the early 1980, the course of system development was
shifted to 1.3 urn wavelength window because of the
reduced fiber loss. Suitable sources and detectors were
developed based on InCa AsP and Ge materials for the
1300 nm wavelength window. Some of the earliest 1300
nm systems used multimode fiber in conjunction with
LEDs because LEDs offered low cost, simplicity of design
and high reliability for commercial applications. The
practical implementation of these 1300 nm LED systems
marked a transition between the 1st and second,
generation light wave systems. These systems operated at
a bit rate of upto 100 Mb/s with a repeater spacing of more
than J kim but the performance was limited by intermodal
dispersion. The big leap in the performance of 1300 nm
system came with the development of a single mode fiber
that propagates a single waveguide mode and has near

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zero dispersion around 1300 nm.

This type of fiber is commonly known as standard or
conventional single mode fiber (SMF). These systems
belong to 2nd generation of light wave systems.
3rd Generation System
3rd generation systems were designed around the 1.5 ,um
(1500 nm) wavelength window to utilize the minimum loss
(0.25 dB/km) of a single mode fiber. But this wavelength
region has the drawback of high material dispersion (17
ps/km-nm at 1550nm) of a standard single mode fiber.
Several approaches were adopted to overcome this high
material dispersion. In one approach a laser with
extremely narrow spectral width called the single
frequency laser that oscillates in a single mode was
developed. The performance of 4th generation system was
improved by shifting the near zero dispersion wavelength
region of a SMF to the low loss 1500 nm wavelength
region, giving rise to dispersion shifted fiber (DSF).
4th Generation
The light wave systems prior to the 4th generation utilized
direct detection receivers. The performance of these
systems was improved by the use of coherent detection
receivers during the 1980s. The light wave systems using
coherent receivers belong to 4th generation.
5th generation
In the late 1980s semiconductor amplifiers (SOAs) were
investigated for light wave amplification. In the early
1990s, the development of an erbium doped fiber amplifier
(EDFA) for signal amplification in 1550 nm wavelength
window revolutionized the field of light wave transmission
systems. An EDFA offers higher gain and lower signal
crosstalk than an SOA. The use of an optical amplifier in
conjunction with a direct detection receiver yielded a
performance similar to coherent detection in terms of
receiver sensitively. So transmission in 1500 nm
wavelength window along with the use of optical amplifiers
and direct detection receivers belongs to fifth generation
light wave systems. In the mid 1990s wavelength division
multiplexing technology was introduced to increase the
capacity of a light wave system. Another important
development during mid 1990s is soliton propagation in
which the optical pulses preserve their shape during
propagation by compensating the chromatic dispersion
through fiber nonlinearity In late I 990s new fiber types
such as zero dispersion shifted fibers have emerged for
long haul systems which minimizes the four wave mixing
impairment that occurs in dispersion shifted fibers due to
near zero dispersion. Additionally, a new fiber type called

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dispersion managed cable was developed to nullify the

chromatic dispersion. In recent years, the system capacity
has reached up to several Tb/s with the addition of more
wavelength channels or by increasing the set rate from
2.5 Gb/s to 10 Gb/s and 40 Gb/s.

Q. 14. What are the differences between analog and

digital signals?
Ans. The analog signal carries information by means of
the value of its amplitude, frequency and phase. It varies
continuously with time shown in fig. 1.2. Noise and other
distortion change these values, resulting very often in an
incorrect misinterpretation This is why analog technology
is error prone.

Examples of analog signals are audio and video signals.

Analog signal can have any value in a limited range.
Digital signals: Digital signals take only a few discrete
values. In the binary representation of digital signal only
two values are possible. The simplest case of a binary
digital signal is one in which the electric current is either
on or off as shown in figure 1.3.

Digital data can be processed and transmitted more

efficiently and reliably than analog data.

Q. 15. What are the advantages of optical fiber

communication system over conventional copper
system?

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Ans. Advantages of Optical transmission link over

conventional copper systems
1. Low transmission loss and wide B.W.: Optical fibers
have lower transmission losses and wider B.W. than
Copper wires. This means that with optical fiber cable
systems more data can be sent over longer distances,
thereby decreasing the no of wires and reducing the no of
repeaters needed for these spans. This reduction in
equipment and components decreases the system cost and
complexity.
2. Small size and weight: Optical fibers have very small
diameters which are often no greater than the diameter of
a human hair. Hence even when such fibers are covered
with protective coating they are far smaller and much
lighter than Cu cables.
The optical fibers have low weight and small (hair sized)
dimension of fibers. This small size and weight offer a
distinct advantage over heavy and bulky wire cables in
crowded underground city ducts or in ceiling mounted
cable trays. This is also of importance in aircrafts,
satellites and ships where small light weight cables are
advantageous and in tactical military applications where
large amounts of cable must be unreeled and retrieved
rapidly.
3. Immunity to interference: The dielectric nature of
optical fibers provides optical wave guides with immunity
to electromagnetic interference (EMI) such as inductive
pick up from signal carrying wires and lighting. It also
ensures freedom from electromagnetic pulse (EMP) effects
which is of interest in military application.
4. Electrical isolation: Since optical fibers are constructed
of glass which is an electrical insulator, there is no
problem of ground loops; fiber to fiber cross talk is very
low. Equipment interface problems are simplified. This
makes the use of fiber attractive in electrically hazardous
environments, since fiber creates no arcing or sparking.
5. Signal Security: The light from optical fibers does not
radiate significantly and therefore they provide high
degree of signal security. A transmitted optical signal cant
be obtained from fiber in a non invasive manner. By using
an optical fiber, a high degree of data security is available,
since the optical signal is well confined within the wave
guide. So, these fibers are used where information
security is important such as banking, computers networks
and military systems.
6. Abundant raw material: The principle material of which

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optical fibers are made is silica. This raw material is

abundant and inexpensive.
7. No hazard of short circuits as in metal wires.
8. No problems when used in explosive environments.
9. Immunity to adverse temperature and moisture
conditions.
10. No need for additional equipment to protect against
grounding and voltage problems.
11. Very nominal shipping, handling and installation costs.

Q. 16. Disadvantages of optical fiber cables.

Ans. The disadvantages of optical fibers are as follows
Strength: Optical fibers have a significantly lower
tensile strength than coaxial cable. This can be
improved by providing protective jacket of PVC. In
addition glass fiber is much more fragile than copper
wire making fiber less attractive where hardware
portability is required.
2. Optical fiber cables are more susceptible to losses
introduced by bending the cable: Electromagnetic
waves propagate through an optical cable by either
refraction or reflection. Therefore bending the cable
causes irregularities in the cable dimensions; resulting
in a loss of signal power. Optical fibers are more prone
to manufacturing defects, as even the minor defect
can cause excessive loss of signal power.
3. Specialized tools, equipment and training: Optical
fiber cables require special tools to splice and repair
cables and special test equipment to make routine
measurements. Not only repairing fiber cables is
difficult and expensive but technicians working on
optical cables also require special skills and training.
Sometimes it is difficult to locate faults in optical
cables because there is no electrical continuity.
1.

Q. 17. Find the critical angle at the core-cladding

interface and numerical aperture for the fiber
having core refractive index of 1.55 and a cladding
refractive index of 1.50.

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Q. 18. An optical fiber has core refractive index of

1.50 and the cladding refractive index of 1.450.
Calculate
(i) The critical angle for core-cladding interface.
(ii) The acceptance angle in air for the fiber.
(iii) The numerical aperture of the fiber.
(iv) The percentage of light collected by the fiber
assuming that the diameters of the core of fiber is
greater than the diameter of the light source.

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