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Contents
Articles
French protectorate in Morocco

History of Morocco

Moroccan franc

19

References
Article Sources and Contributors

21

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

22

Article Licenses
License

23

French protectorate in Morocco

French protectorate in Morocco

French Protectorate in Morocco

Protectorat franais au Maroc
Protectorate ofFrance

19121956

Flag

Anthem
La Marseillaise
Cherifian Anthem (instrumental only)

Map of Morocco in 1912; the area under French protectorate is shown in light green.
Capital

Rabat

Languages

French, Moroccan Arabic, Standard Arabic, Berber languages

Religion

Islam, Roman Catholicism, Judaism

Political structure

Protectorate

Resident-General
-

1912-25

Hubert Lyautey

1955-56

Andr Louis Dubois

1912-27

Yusef

1927-53

Mohammed V

1953-55

Mohammed Ben Aarafa (French puppet)

Sultan

French protectorate in Morocco

2
1955-56

Historical era

Mohammed V
Interwar period

Treaty of Fez

March 30, 1912

Independence

March 2, 1956

Currency

Moroccan rial
(19121921)
Moroccan franc
(19211956)

The French Protectorate in Morocco (Arabic: Himaet Fransa fi El-Maghreb; French:

Protectorat franais au Maroc) was established by the Treaty of Fez. It existed from 1912, when a protectorate was
formally established, until Moroccan independence (2 March 1956), and consisted of the area of Morocco between
the Corridor of Taza and the Draa River.

Prelude
Despite the weakness of its authority, the Alaouite dynasty
distinguished itself in the 18th and 19th centuries by maintaining
Moroccos independence while other states in the region
succumbed to Turkish, French, or British domination. However, in
the latter part of the 19th century Moroccos weakness and
instability invited European intervention to protect threatened
investments and to demand economic concessions. The first years
of the 20th century witnessed a rush of diplomatic maneuvering
through which the European powers and France in particular
furthered their interests in North Africa.
French activity in Morocco began during the end of the 19th
century. In 1904 the French government was trying to establish a
Map of Atlantic coast of Morocco (1830)
protectorate over Morocco, and had managed to sign two bilateral
secret agreements with Britain (8 April 1904, see Entente cordiale)
and Spain (7 October 1904), which guaranteed the support of the powers in question in this endeavour. France and
Spain secretly partitioned the territory of the sultanate, with Spain receiving concessions in the far north and south of
the country.

First Moroccan Crisis - March 1905 - May 1906

The First Moroccan Crisis grew out of the imperial rivalries of the great powers, in this case, between Germany on
one side and France, with British support, on the other. Germany took immediate diplomatic action to block the new
accord from going into effect, including the dramatic visit of Wilhelm II to Tangier in Morocco on March 31, 1905.
Kaiser Wilhelm tried to get Morocco's support if they went to war with France or Britain, and gave a speech
expressing support for Moroccan independence, which amounted to a provocative challenge to French influence in
Morocco.
In 1906 the Algeciras Conference was held to settle the dispute, and Germany accepted an agreement in which
France agreed to yield control of the Moroccan police, but otherwise retained effective control of Moroccan political
and financial affairs. Although the Algeciras Conference temporarily solved the First Moroccan Crisis it only
worsened international tensions between the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente.

French protectorate in Morocco

Agadir Crisis
In 1911, a rebellion broke out in Morocco against the
Sultan, Abdelhafid. By early April 1911, the Sultan
was besieged in his palace in Fez and the French
prepared to send troops to help put down the rebellion
under the pretext of protecting European lives and
property. The French dispatched a flying column at the
end of April 1911 and Germany gave approval for the
occupation of the city. Moroccan forces besieged the
French-occupied city. Approximately one month later,
French forces brought the siege to an end. On 5 June
1911 the Spanish occupied Larache and Ksar-el-Kebir.
On 1 July 1911 the German gunboat Panther arrived at
the port of Agadir. There was an immediate reaction
from the French and the British.

The French artillery at Rabat in 1911

French protectorate 19121956

Part of a series on the

History of
Morocco

Morocco
portal

v
t

e [1]

French protectorate in Morocco

4
France officially established a protectorate over Morocco with the
Treaty of Fez (March 30, 1912), ending what remained of the country's
de facto independence. From a strictly legal point of view, the treaty
did not deprive Morocco of its status as a sovereign state. The Sultan
reigned but did not rule.[citation needed] Sultan Abdelhafid abdicated in
favor of his brother Yusef after signing the treaty. On April 17, 1912,
Moroccan infantrymen mutinied in the French garrison in Fez. The
Moroccans were unable to take the city and were defeated by a French
relief force. In late May 1912, Moroccan forces again unsuccessfully
attacked the enhanced French garrison at Fez.

In establishing their protectorate over much of Morocco, the French

had behind them the experience of the conquest of Algeria and of their
protectorate over Tunisia; they took the latter as the model for their Moroccan policy. There were, however,
important differences. First, the protectorate was established only two years before the outbreak of World War I,
which brought with it a new attitude toward colonial rule. Rejecting the typical French assimilationist approach to
culture and education as a liberal fantasy, Morocco's conservative French rulers attempted to use urban planning and
colonial education to prevent cultural mixing and to uphold the traditional society upon which the French depended
for collaboration. Second, Morocco had a thousand-year tradition of independence; though it had been strongly
influenced by the civilization of Muslim Iberia, it had never been subject to Ottoman rule. These circumstances and
the proximity of Morocco to Spain created a special relationship between the two countries.
French Moroccan medal

Morocco was also unique among the North African countries in

possessing a coast on the Atlantic, in the rights that various nations
derived from the Conference of Algeciras, and in the privileges that
their diplomatic missions had acquired in Tangier. Thus the northern
tenth of the country, with both Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts were
excluded from the French-controlled area and treated as a Spanish
protectorate.
Although being under protectorate, Morocco retained -de jure- its
personality as a state in international law, according to an ICJ
statement, and thus remained a sovereign state, without discontinuity
between pre-colonial and modern entities.[2] In fact, the French enjoyed much larger powers.
Civil ensign of French Morocco (19191946)

Under the protectorate, French civil servants allied themselves with the French colonists and with their supporters in
France to prevent any moves in the direction of Moroccan autonomy. As pacification proceeded, the French
government promoted economic development, particularly the exploitation of Moroccos mineral wealth, the
creation of a modern transportation system, and the development of a modern agriculture sector geared to the French
market. Tens of thousands of colonists entered Morocco and bought up large amounts of the rich agricultural land.
Interest groups that formed among these elements continually pressured France to increase its control over Morocco.

French protectorate in Morocco

Opposition to French control

Rif Rebellion

Flag of Rif Republic (19211926)

Sultan Yusef's reign, from 1912 to 1927, was turbulent and marked
with frequent uprisings against Spain and France. The most serious of
these was a Berber uprising in the Rif Mountains, led by Abd el-Krim
who managed to establish a republic in the Rif. Though this rebellion
originally began in the Spanish-controlled area in the north of the
country, it reached to the French-controlled area until a coalition of
France and Spain finally defeated the rebels in 1925. To ensure their
own safety, the French moved the court from Fez to Rabat, which has
served as the capital of the country ever since.

Nationalist parties
In December 1934, a small group of nationalists, members of the newly formed Moroccan Action Committee
(Comit dAction Marocaine - CAM), proposed a Plan of Reforms that called for a return to indirect rule as
envisaged by the Treaty of Fez, admission of Moroccans to government positions, and establishment of
representative councils. The moderate tactics used by the CAM to obtain consideration of reform - including
petitions, newspaper editorials, and personal appeals to French. Nationalist political parties, which subsequently
arose under the French protectorate, based their arguments for Moroccan independence on such World War II
declarations as the Atlantic Charter.
During World War II, the badly divided nationalist movement became more cohesive, and informed Moroccans
dared to consider the real possibility of political change in the post-war era. However, the nationalists were
disappointed in their belief that the Allied victory in Morocco would pave the way for independence. In January
1944, the Istiqlal Party, which subsequently provided most of the leadership for the nationalist movement, released a
manifesto demanding full independence, national reunification, and a democratic constitution. The sultan had
approved the manifesto before its submission to the French resident general, who answered that no basic change in
the protectorate status was being considered.

Exile of Sultan Mohammed

The general sympathy of the sultan for the nationalists had become evident by the end of the war, although he still
hoped to see complete independence achieved gradually. By contrast, the residency, supported by French economic
interests and vigorously backed by most of the colonists, adamantly refused to consider even reforms short of
independence. Official intransigence contributed to increased animosity between the nationalists and the colonists
and gradually widened the split between the sultan and the resident general.
Mohammed V and his family were transferred to Madagascar in January 1954. His replacement by the unpopular
Mohammed Ben Aarafa, whose reign was perceived as illegitimate, sparked active opposition to the French
protectorate both from nationalists and those who saw the sultan as a religious leader. By 1955, Ben Arafa was
pressured to abdicate ; consequently, he fled to Tangier where he formally abdicated.
Later on, faced with a united Moroccan demand for the sultans return, on a great scale, rising violence in Morocco,
and the deteriorating situation in Algeria, Mohammed V was returned from exile on November 16, 1955, and again
recognized as Sultan. In February 1956 he successfully negotiated with France for the independence of Morocco,
and in 1957 took the title of King.

French protectorate in Morocco

Independence 1956
In late 1955, Mohammed V successfully negotiated the gradual restoration of Moroccan independence within a
framework of French-Moroccan interdependence. The sultan agreed to institute reforms that would transform
Morocco into a constitutional monarchy with a democratic form of government. In February 1956, Morocco
acquired limited home rule. Further negotiations for full independence culminated in the Spanish-Moroccan
Agreement signed in Paris on March 2, 1956. On April 7 of that year France officially relinquished its protectorate in
Morocco. The internationalized city of Tangier was reintegrated with the signing of the Tangier Protocol on October
29, 1956. The abolition of the Spanish protectorate and the recognition of Moroccan independence by Spain were
negotiated separately and made final in the Joint Declaration of April 1956.[3] Through this agreements with Spain in
1956 and another in 1958, Moroccan control over certain Spanish-ruled areas was restored, though attempts to claim
other Spanish possessions through military action were less successful.
In the months that followed independence, Mohammed V proceeded to build a modern governmental structure under
a constitutional monarchy in which the sultan would exercise an active political role. He acted cautiously, having no
intention of permitting more radical elements in the nationalist movement to overthrow the established order. He was
also intent on preventing the Istiqlal from consolidating its control and establishing a single-party state. In August
1957, Mohammed V assumed the title of king.

Monetary policy
The French minted coinage for use in the Protectorate from 1921 until 1956, which continued to circulate until a new
currency was introduced. The French minted coins with denomination of francs, which were divided into 100
centimes. This was replaced in 1960 with the reintroduction of the dirham, Morocco's current currency.
The Algeciras conference gave concessions to the European bankers, ranging from a newly formed State Bank of
Morocco, to issuing banknotes backed by gold, with a 40-year term. The new state bank was to act as Morocco's
Central Bank, but with a strict cap on the spending of the Sherifian Empire, with administrators appointed by the
national banks that guaranteed the loans: the German Empire, United Kingdom, France and Spain.

Postal history
A French postal agency had sent mail from Tangier as early as 1854, but the formal beginning of the system was in
1891, when French post offices were established throughout the sultanate. The offices issued postage stamps of
France surcharged with values in pesetas and centimos, at a 1-1 ratio with the denominations in French currency,
using both the Type Sage issues, and after 1902, Mouflon issue inscribed "MAROC" (which were never officially
issued without the surcharge). In 1911, the Mouflon designs were overprinted in Arabic; in the same year, the
Sherifian post was created to handle local mail, using special stamps.
The first stamps of the protectorate appeared 1 August 1914, and were just the existing stamps with the additional
overprint reading "PROTECTORAT FRANCAIS". The first new designs were in an issue of 1917, consisting of 17
stamps in six designs, denominated in centimes and francs, and inscribed "MAROC".

French protectorate in Morocco

Railways
Morocco had from 1912 1935 one of the largest 600mm (1ft11 58in) gauge networks in Africa with total length
of more than 1700 kilometres. After the treaty of Algeciras where the representatives of Great Powers agreed not to
build any standard gauge railway in Morocco until the standard gauge Tangier - Fez Railway being completed, the
French had begun to build military 600mm (1ft11 58in) gauge lines in their part of Morocco.

References
[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:History_of_Morocco& action=edit
[2] Bengt Brons, "States : The classification of States", in: International Law: Achievements and Prospects, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 1991
(ISBN 9789231027161), p.51 .31 (http:/ / books. google. fr/ books?id=jrTsNTzcY7EC& pg=PA51#v=onepage& q& f=false)
[3] Text used in this cited section originally came from: Morocco profile (http:/ / lcweb2. loc. gov/ frd/ cs/ profiles/ Morocco. pdf) from the
Library of Congress Country Studies project.

Bensoussan, David. Il tait une fois le Maroc : tmoignages du pass judo-marocain. p.620.
ISBN978-1-4759-2608-8.

Further reading
Gershovich, Moshe (2000). French Military Rule in Morocco: colonialism and its consequences. Routledge.
ISBN0-7146-4949-X.

History of Morocco
Part of a series on the

History of
Morocco

Morocco
portal

v
t

e [1]

The history of Morocco spans over twelve centuries, without taking Classical antiquity into consideration. The
territory that now constitutes Morocco has been inhabited by Berbers for over 5000 years. The country was first
unified by the Idrisid dynasty in 789, half a century after the Berber Revolt, that led to its independence from the
Arab Caliphate. Under the Almoravid dynasty and the Almohad dynasty, Morocco dominated the Maghreb and
Muslim Spain. The Reconquista ended Almohad rule in Iberia and many Muslims and Jews migrated to Morocco.
Under the Saadi dynasty, Morocco would consolidate power and fight off Portuguese and Ottoman invaders, as in
the battle of Ksar el Kebir.

History of Morocco

The reign of Ahmad al-Mansur brought up new wealth and prestige to the Sultanate, and an invasion of the Songhai
Empire was initiated. However managing the territories across the Sahara proved to be difficult. After the death of
al-Mansur the country was divided among his sons. In 1666 the sultanate was reunited by the Alaouite dynasty, who
have since being the ruling house of Morocco. The organization of the state developed with Ismail Ibn Sharif. With
his Black Guard he drove the English from Tangier in 1684 and the Spanish from Larache in 1689. The Alaouite
dynasty distinguished itself in the 19th century by maintaining Moroccan independence while other states in the
region succumbed to European interests. In 1912, after the First Moroccan Crisis and the Agadir Crisis, the Treaty of
Fez was signed, effectively dividing Morocco into a French and Spanish protectorate. In 1956, after 44 years of
occupation Morocco regained independence from France as the Kingdom of Morocco.

Prehistoric Morocco
In 1971 the fossilised bones of a 400,000 year old early human ancestor were discovered in Sale.[1] In 1991 the
bones of several very early Homo sapiens were discovered at Jebel Irhoud that are at least 160,000 years old. In 2007
small perforated sea shell beads were discovered in Taforalt that are 82,000 years old, making them the earliest
evidence of personal adornment yet found anywhere in the world.
The Capsian culture brought Morocco into the Neolithic about 2001 BC, at a time when the Maghreb was less arid
than it is today. The Berber language probably was formed at roughly the same time as agriculture (see Berber), and
was developed by the existing population and adopted the immigrants who arrived later. Modern DNA analysis (see
link) has confirmed that various populations have contributed to the present-day gene pool of Morocco in addition to
the main ethnic group, which is the Amazighs/Berbers. A very small percentage of those other populations are
Iberians and sub-Saharan Africans.
In Mesolithic ages the geography of Morocco resembled a savanna more than the present day arid landscape.[2]
While little is known about Morocco settlement in these early times, excavations elsewhere in the Maghreb suggest
an abundance of game and forests that would have been hospitable to Mesolithic hunters and gatherers.
Eight thousand years ago, south of the great mountain ranges in what is now the Sahara Desert, a vast savanna
supported Neolithic hunters and herders whose culture flourished until the region began to desiccate as a result of
climatic changes after 4000 BC. The coastal regions of present-day Morocco shared in an early Neolithic the
Cardium Pottery culture that was common to the whole Mediterranean littoral. Archaeological remains point to the
domestication of cattle and the cultivation of crops in the region during that period.
In the Chalcolithic/Early Bronze Age the Bell Beaker culture reached the north coast of Morocco.

Early history
Phoenicians and Carthaginians
Phoenician traders, who had penetrated the western Mediterranean
before the 12th century BC, set up depots for salt and ore along the
coast and up the rivers of the territory that is now Morocco. The arrival
of Phoenicians heralded many centuries of rule by foreign powers for
the north of Morocco. Major early substantial settlements of the
Phoenicians were at Chellah, Lixus and Mogador, with Mogador being
a Phoenician colony as early as the early 6th century BC.[3] Carthage
developed commercial relations with the Berber tribes of the interior
and paid them an annual tribute to ensure their cooperation in the
exploitation of raw materials.

Phenician plate with red slip, 7th century BCE,

excavated in Mogador island, Essaouira. Sidi
Mohammed ben Abdallah Museum.

History of Morocco

By the 5th century BC, Carthage had extended its hegemony across much of North Africa. By the 2nd century BC,
several large, although loosely administered, Berber kingdoms had emerged.

Mauretania
In antiquity, Mauretania was originally an independent Berber kingdom on the Mediterranean coast of north Africa
corresponding to northern modern-day Morocco. The earliest known king of Mauretania is Bocchus I who ruled
from 110 BC to 81 BC. Some of its earliest recorded history relates to Phoenician and Carthaginian settlements such
as Lixus and Chellah.[4] There were also Berber cities such as Tamuda and Tingi (modern-day Tangiers).

Roman and sub-Roman Morocco

Initially the Berber kings ruled overshadowing Carthage and Rome, often as satellites, allowing Roman rulership to
exist.

Roman coins excavated in Essaouira, 3rd century.

But after the fall of Carthage, the area was annexed to the Roman
Empire in AD 40. Rome controlled the vast, ill-defined territory
through alliances with the tribes rather than through military
occupation, expanding its authority only to those areas that were
economically useful or that could be defended without additional
manpower. Hence, Roman administration never extended outside the
restricted area of the northern coastal plain and valleys. This strategic
region formed part of the Roman Empire, governed as Mauretania

Tingitana.
During the time of Augustus, Mauretania was a vassal state and his rulers (like Juba II) controlled all the areas south
of Volubilis. But the effective control of Roman legionaries was until the area of Sala Colonia (the castra "Exploratio
Ad Mercurios" south of Sala is the southernmost discovered until now). Some historians believe the Roman frontier
reached actual Casablanca, settled by Romans as a port.
During the reign of Juba II Emperor Augustus (who created in the area of what is now northern Morocco 12 colonies
with retired Roman legionaries) had already founded three colonias, with Roman citizens, in Mauretania close to the
Atlantic coast: Iulia Constantia Zilil, Iulia Valentia Banasa[5] and Iulia Campestris Babba.
This western part of Mauretania was to become the
province called Mauretania Tingitana shortly
afterwards. The capital was the rich emporium of
Volubilis.
In those centuries, the area controlled by Rome had
great economic development, helped by the
construction of Roman roads. The area was initially
fully under control of Rome and only in the mid-2nd
century was built a limes south of Sala and until
Volubilis.
Roman remains of Volubilis

Roman control reached the area of Casablanca, then

called Anfa according to Leo Africanus: it was used as a port by the Phoenicians and later the Romans.[]
In his book "Wasf Afriquia" Hassan Al Wazan (nicknamed Leo Africanus) refers to "Anfa" (ancient
Casablanca) as a great city which was founded by the Romans. He also believed that Anfa was the most
prosperous city on the Atlantic coast because of its fertile land.[6]
Around 278 AD Romans moved their regional capital to Tanger and Volubilis started to lose importance.

History of Morocco

10

The region remained a part of the Roman Empire until 429 AD as the Vandals overran the area and Roman
administrative presence came to an end.
Indeed in the 5th century, the region fell to the Vandals, Visigoths, before being recovered by the Romans in rapid
succession. During this time, however, the high mountains of most of modern Morocco remained unsubdued, and
stayed in the hands of their Berber inhabitants.
Christianity was introduced in the 2nd century and gained converts in the towns and among slaves and Berber
farmers. By the end of the 4th century, the Romanized areas had been Christianized, and inroads had been made as
well among the Berber tribes, who sometimes converted en masse. But schismatic and heretical movements also
developed, usually as forms of political protest. The area had a substantial Jewish population as well.

Early Islamic Morocco

Muslim conquest
The Arabs conquered the region in the late 7th century, bringing their
civilization and Islam. While part of the larger Islamic Empire,
Morocco was initially organized as a subsidiary province of Ifriqiya,
with the local governors appointed by the Arab governor in Kairouan.
The Arabs converted the indigenous Berber population to Islam, but
Berber tribes retained their customary laws. Arab-Berber relations
were inconsistent and often tense in the early years while some Arab
governors encouraged Berbers to participate in the new Islamic state
and cultivated their Berber lieutenants, others regarded them as little
more than a conquered people, imposing high taxes and tribute
demands upon Berber populations and treating Berber auxiliaries
rather shabbily.

The school of Al-Karaouine in Fes, established

by the Idrisids in the 9th century

Berber Revolt

The Maghreb after the Berber Revolt

In 740, spurred by puritanical Kharijite agitators, the

Berbers revolted against Arab rule. The rebellion began
among the Berber tribes of western Morocco, and spread
quickly across the region. Although the rebellion petered
out before the gates of Kairouan in 742, neither the
Umayyad rulers in Damascus, nor their Abbasid
successors, would manage to re-impose Arab rule on the
liberated areas west of Ifriqiya. Morocco slipped out of
the leash, and fragmented into a small collection of
independent Berber statelets (Fes, Berghwata, Sijilmassa
and Nekor, plus Tlemcen and Tahert in what is now

History of Morocco

11

western Algeria[]) under their own rulers and laws. The Berbers went on to shape Islam in their own image some
(like the Banu Ifran) retained their connection with radical puritan Islamic sects, others (like the Berghwata)
constructed a new syncretic faith which was simply folk religion thinly disguised as Islam.

Idrisid dynasty
As the "wild west" of the Islamic world, Morocco quickly became a haven for many dissidents, rebels and refugees
from the eastern caliphate. Among these was Idris ibn Abdallah, who with the help of the local Awraba Berbers,
founded the Idrisid Dynasty in 788. His son Idris II erected a splendid new capital at Fes and launched Morocco as a
centre of learning and a major power. Another significant arrival around this time was a group of puritan Miknasa
Berber rebels from Ifriqiya, who went on to establish the settlement of Sijilmassa (in southeast Morocco) and open
trade across the Sahara desert with the gold-producing Ghana Empire of west Africa. Although the Midrarids of
Sijilmassa and the Idrisids of Fez were frequently at odds politically and religiously, the Trans-Saharan trade route
made them economically inter-dependent.
The balance was upset in the early 900s, when yet another group of religious refugees from the east, the Fatimids,
arrived in the Maghreb. Not long after seizing power in Ifriqiya, the Fatimids invaded Morocco, conquering both Fez
and Sijilmassa. Morocco fell into anarchy in the aftermath, fought over between Fatimid governors, Idrisid loyalists,
new puritan groups and interventionists from Umayyad al-Andalus. Opportunistic local governors sold and re-sold
their support to the highest bidder. In 965, the Fatimid caliph al-Muizz invaded Morocco one last time and
established a modicum of order. But no sooner was that done, the Fatimids turned their backs on the west, and
moved to Egypt, and their new capital in Cairo.
The Fatimids had assigned the Zirids, a Sanhaja Berber clan centered in Ifriqiya, to keep an eye on their western
dominions. But facing their own difficulties, the Zirids were unable to prevent Morocco from spinning out of their
control and crumbling into the hands of a collection of local Zenata Berber chieftains, most of them clients of the
Caliph of Cordoba, such as the Maghrawa in the region of Fez and their on-again, off-again rivals, the Banu Ifran,
just east of them.

Berber dynasties
Morocco reached its height under a series of Berber dynasties, which
rose to power south of the Atlas Mountains and expanded the dynastys
rule northward, replacing local rulers.[citation needed] The 11th and 12th
centuries witnessed the founding of several great Berber dynasties led
by religious reformers, each dynasty based on a tribal confederation
that dominated the Maghrib (also seen as Maghreb; refers to North
Africa west of Egypt) and Al-Andalus for more than 200 years.[citation
needed]
The Berber dynasties (Almoravids, Almohads, Marinids and
Wattasids) gave the Berber people some measure of collective identity
and political unity under a native regime for the first time in their
history.[citation needed] The dynasties created the idea of an imperial
Maghrib under Berber aegis, an idea that survived in some form from
dynasty to dynasty.[citation needed] Ultimately each of the Berber
dynasties proved to be a political failure because none managed to
create an integrated society out of a social landscape dominated by
tribes that prized their autonomy and individual identity.[citation needed]

The Hassan Tower, an incomplete minaret in

Rabat built during the Almohad dynasty

History of Morocco

12

Sharifian dynasties
In 1549, the region fell to successive Arab dynasties claiming descent from the Prophet Muhammad: first the Saadi
dynasty who ruled from 1549 to 1659, and then the Alaouite dynasty, who remained in power since the 17th century.

Alaouite Dynasty
The Alaouite Dynasty is the name of the current Moroccan royal
family. The name Alaouite comes from the Al of its founder Moulay
Ali Cherif who became Prince of Tafilalt in 1631. His son Mulay
r-Rshid (16641672) was able to unite and pacify the country. The
Alaouite family claim descent from Muhammad through the line of
Fimah az-Zahrah, Muhammad's daughter, and her husband, the
Fourth Caliph Al ibn Ab lib.
The Alaouites entered Morocco at the end of the 13th century when Al
Hassan Addakhil, who lived then in the town of Yanbu in the Hedjaz
At Benhaddou at evening light
was brought to Morocco by the inhabitants of Tafilalet to be their
imm. They were hoping that, as he was a descendant of Muhammad, his presence would help to improve their date
palm crops thanks to his barakah "blessing", an Arabic term meaning a sense of divine presence or charisma. His
descendants began to increase their power in southern Morocco after the death of the Sad ruler Ahmad al-Mansur
(15781603).
In 1659, the last Sad sultan was overthrown in the conquest of Marrakech by Mulay r-Rshid (16641672). After the
victory over the zwiya of Dila, who controlled northern Morocco, he was able to unite and pacify the country.
The organization of the kingdom developed under Ismail Ibn Sharif
(16721727), who, against the opposition of local tribes began to
create a unified state. Because the Alaouites, in contrast to previous
dynasties, did not have the support of a single Berber or Bedouin tribe,
Isma'l controlled Morocco through an army of black slaves. With
these soldiers he drove the English from Tangiers (1684) and the
Spanish from Larache (1689.) However, the unity of Morocco did not
survive his death in the ensuing power struggles the tribes became a
political and military force once again.
Only with Muhammad III (17571790) could the kingdom be pacified
again and the administration reorganized. A renewed attempt at
centralization was abandoned and the tribes allowed to preserve their
autonomy.
Admiral Abdelkader Perez was sent by Ismail Ibn
Sharif as ambassador to England in 1723.

In 1777 Morocco was the very first state to recognize the sovereignty
of a newly independent United States.

Under Abderrahmane (18221859) Morocco fell under the influence

of the European powers. When Morocco supported the Algerian independence movement of the Emir Abd al-Qadir,
it was heavily defeated by the French in 1844 and made to abandon its support.
From Muhammad IV (18591873) and Hassan I (18731894) the Alaouites tried to foster trading links, above all
with European countries and the United States. The army and administration were also modernized, to improve
control over the Berber and Bedouin tribes. With the war against Spain (18591860) came direct involvement in
European affairs although the independence of Morocco was guaranteed in the Conference of Madrid (1880),[7]
the French gained ever greater influence. German attempts to counter this growing influence led to the First

History of Morocco

13

Moroccan Crisis of 19051906 and the Second Moroccan Crisis (1911.) Eventually the Moroccans were forced to
recognise the French Protectorate through the Treaty of Fez, signed on December 3, 1912. At the same time the Rif
area of northern Morocco submitted to Spain.
Under the protectorate (19121956) the infrastructure was invested in heavily in order to link the cities of the
Atlantic coast to the hinterland, thus creating a single economic area for Morocco. However the regime faced the
opposition of the tribes when the Berber were required to come under the jurisdiction of French courts in 1930 it
marked the beginning of the independence movement. In 1944, the independence party Istiqll was founded,
supported by the Sultan Muhammad V (19271961). Although banned in 1953, France was obliged to grant
Morocco independence on March 2, 1956, leaving behind them a legacy of urbanisation and the beginnings of an
industrial economy.

European influence
Despite the weakness of its authority, the Alaouite dynasty
distinguished itself in the 18th and 19th centuries by maintaining
Morocco's independence while other states in the region succumbed to
Turkish, French, or British domination. However, in the latter part of
the 19th-century Morocco's weakness and instability invited European
intervention to protect threatened investments and to demand economic
concessions. The first years of the 20th century witnessed a rush of
diplomatic maneuvering through which the European powers and
France in particular furthered their interests in North Africa. Disputes
over Moroccan sovereignty were links in the chain of events that led to
World War I.
Map of central Morocco. (1830)

The successful Portuguese efforts to control the Atlantic coast in the

15th century did not affect the Mediterranean heart of Morocco. After
the Napoleonic Wars, North Africa became increasingly ungovernable
from Istanbul by the Ottoman Empire, the resort of pirates under local
beys, and as Europe industrialized, an increasingly prized potential for
colonization.
The Maghreb had far greater proven wealth than the unknown rest of
Africa and a location of strategic importance affecting the exit from the
Map of the Maghreb before the French invasion
Mediterranean. For the first time, Morocco became a state of some
of Algeria
import to the European Powers. France showed a strong interest in
Morocco as early as 1830. Recognition by the United Kingdom in the
1904 Entente Cordiale of France's "sphere of influence" in Morocco provoked a German reaction; the "crisis" of
19051906 was resolved at the Algeciras Conference (1906), which formalized France's "special position" and
entrusted policing of Morocco jointly to France and Spain.

History of Morocco

14

French and Spanish protectorates

The French artillery at Rabat in 1911

A second "Moroccan crisis" provoked by Berlin, increased European

Great Power tensions, but the Treaty of Fez (signed on March 30,
1912) made Morocco a protectorate of France. By the same treaty,
Spain assumed the role of protecting power over the northern and
southern (Ifni) zones on November 27 that year. Spain was given
control of pieces of Morocco in the far north (Protectorate of Tetuan)
and south (Cape Juby). Tangier received special international status.
From a strictly legal point of view, the treaty did not deprive Morocco
of its status as a sovereign state. Theoretically, the sultan remained the
sole source of sovereignty. He reigned, but he did not rule.

Under the protectorate, French civil servants allied themselves with the French settlers (colons) and with their
supporters in France to prevent any moves in the direction of Moroccan autonomy. As pacification proceeded, the
French government promoted economic development, particularly the exploitation of Morocco's mineral wealth, the
creation of a modern transportation system, and the development of a modern agriculture sector geared to the French
market. Tens of thousands of colons entered Morocco and bought up large amounts of the rich agricultural land.
Interest groups that formed among these elements continually pressured France to increase its control over Morocco.

Opposition to European control

The separatist Republic of the Rif was declared on 18 September 1921, by the people of the Rif. It would be
dissolved by Spanish and French forces on 27 May 1926.
In December 1934, a small group of nationalistsmembers of the newly formed Moroccan Action Committee
(Comit d'Action MarocaineCAM)proposed a Plan of Reforms that called for a return to indirect rule as
envisaged by the Treaty of Fs, admission of Moroccans to government positions, and establishment of
representative councils. The moderate tactics used by the CAM to obtain consideration of reformpetitions,
newspaper editorials, and personal appeals to French officialsproved inadequate, and the tensions created in the
CAM by the failure of the plan caused it to split. The CAM was reconstituted as a nationalist political party to gain
mass support for more radical demands, but the French suppressed the party in 1937.
Nationalist political parties, which subsequently arose under the French protectorate, based their arguments for
Moroccan independence on such World War II declarations as the Atlantic Charter (a joint U.S.-British statement
that set forth, among other things, the right of all people to choose the form of government under which they live).
Many Moroccan Goumiere assisted the Americans in both World War I and World War II. During World War II, the
badly divided nationalist movement became more cohesive, and informed Moroccans dared to consider the real
possibility of political change in the post-war era. However, the nationalists were disappointed in their belief that the
Allied victory in Morocco would pave the way for independence. In January 1944, the Istiqlal (Independence) Party,
which subsequently provided most of the leadership for the nationalist movement, released a manifesto demanding
full independence, national reunification, and a democratic constitution. The sultan had approved the manifesto
before its submission to the French resident general, who answered that no basic change in the protectorate status
was being considered. The general sympathy of the sultan for the nationalists had become evident by the end of the
war, although he still hoped to see complete independence achieved gradually. By contrast, the residency, supported
by French economic interests and vigorously backed by most of the colons, adamantly refused to consider even
reforms short of independence. Official intransigence contributed to increased animosity between the nationalists
and the colons and gradually widened the split between the sultan and the resident general.
In December 1952, a riot broke out in Casablanca over the murder of a Tunisian labor leader; this event marked a
watershed in relations between Moroccan political parties and French authorities. In the aftermath of the rioting, the

History of Morocco
residency outlawed the new Moroccan Communist Party and the Istiqlal.[8]
France's exile of the highly respected Sultan Mohammed V to Madagascar in 1953 and his replacement by the
unpopular Mohammed Ben Aarafa, whose reign was perceived as illegitimate, sparked active opposition to the
French protectorate both from nationalists and those who saw the sultan as a religious leader. Two years later, faced
with a united Moroccan demand for the sultan's return, rising violence in Morocco, and the deteriorating situation in
Algeria, the French government brought Mohammed V back to Morocco. The negotiations that led to Moroccan
independence began the following year.

Independent Morocco: since 1956

In late 1955, Mohammed V successfully negotiated the gradual
restoration of Moroccan independence within a framework of
French-Moroccan interdependence. The sultan agreed to institute
reforms that would transform Morocco into a constitutional monarchy
with a democratic form of government. In February 1956, Morocco
acquired limited home rule. Further negotiations for full independence
culminated in the French-Moroccan Agreement signed in Paris on
March 2, 1956. On April 7 of that year France officially relinquished
its protectorate in Morocco. The internationalized city of Tangier was
The Mausoleum of Mohammed V in Rabat
reintegrated with the signing of the Tangier Protocol on October 29,
1956. The abolition of the Spanish protectorate and the recognition of
Moroccan independence by Spain were negotiated separately and made final in the Joint Declaration of April 1956.
Through this agreement with Spain in 1956 and another in 1958, Moroccan control over certain Spanish-ruled areas
was restored, though attempts to claim other Spanish possessions through military action were less successful.
In the months that followed independence, Mohammed V proceeded to build a modern governmental structure under
a constitutional monarchy in which the sultan would exercise an active political role. He acted cautiously, having no
intention of permitting more radical elements in the nationalist movement to overthrow the established order.[citation
needed]
He was also intent on preventing the Istiqlal from consolidating its control and establishing a single-party
state. In August 1957, Mohammed V assumed the title of king.

Reign of Hassan II
Hassan II became King of Morocco on March 3, 1961. His rule would be marked by political unrest, and the ruthless
government response earned the period the name "the years of lead". The new king took personal control of the
government as prime minister and named a new cabinet. Aided by an advisory council, he drew up a new
constitution, which was approved overwhelmingly in a December 1962 referendum. Under its provisions, the king
remained the central figure in the executive branch of the government, but legislative power was vested in a
bicameral parliament, and an independent judiciary was guaranteed. In May 1963, legislative elections took place for
the first time, and the royalist coalition secured a small plurality of seats. However, following a period of political
upheaval in June 1965, Hassan II assumed full legislative and executive powers under a "state of exception," which
remained in effect until 1970. Subsequently, a reform constitution was approved, restoring limited parliamentary
government, and new elections were held. However, dissent remained, revolving around complaints of widespread
corruption and malfeasance in government. In July 1971 and again in August 1972, the regime was challenged by
two attempted military coups.
After neighbouring Algeria's 1962 independence from France, border skirmishes in the Tindouf area of
south-western Algeria, escalated in 1963 into what is known as the Sand War. The conflict ended with no territorial
changes made after OUA mediation.

15

History of Morocco
Despite serious domestic turmoil, the patriotism engendered by Moroccos participation in the Middle East conflict
and by the events in Western Sahara contributed to Hassans popularity and strengthened his hand politically. The
king had dispatched Moroccan troops to the Sinai front after the outbreak of Arab-Israeli War in October 1973.
Although they arrived too late to engage in hostilities, the action won Morocco goodwill among other Arab states.
Shortly thereafter, the attention of the government turned to the acquisition of Western Sahara from Spain, an issue
on which all major domestic parties agreed.

Western Sahara conflict

The Spanish enclave of Ifni in the south became part of the new Morocco in 1969, but other Spanish possessions in
the north (Ceuta, Melilla and some small islands) remain under Madrid's control, with Morocco viewing them as
occupied territory.[citation needed]
A defining theme of Moroccan history and foreign policy is the bitter struggle over Western Sahara. Moroccan
claims to Western Sahara date to the 11th century. However, in August 1974, Spain formally acknowledged the 1966
United Nations (UN) resolution calling for a referendum on the future status of Western Sahara and requested that a
plebiscite be conducted under UN supervision. A UN visiting mission reported in October 1975 that an
overwhelming majority of the Saharan people desired independence. Morocco protested the proposed referendum
and took its case to the International Court of Justice at The Hague, which ruled that despite historical ties of
allegiance between Morocco and the tribes of Western Sahara, there was no legal justification for departing from the
UN position on self-determination. Spain, meanwhile, had declared that even in the absence of a referendum, it
intended to surrender political control of Western Sahara, and Spain, Morocco, and Mauritania convened a tripartite
conference to resolve the territorys future. But Madrid also announced that it was opening independence talks with
the Algerian-backed Saharan independence movement known as the Polisario Front.
In early 1976, Spain ceded Western Sahara administration's to Morocco and Mauritania. Morocco assumed control
over the northern two-thirds of the territory and conceded the remaining portion in the south to Mauritania. An
assembly of Saharan tribal leaders duly acknowledged Moroccan sovereignty. However, buoyed by the increasing
defection of the chiefs to its cause, the Polisario drew up a constitution and announced the formation of the Saharawi
Arab Democratic Republic (SADR). A new dimension was thereby added to the dispute because the liberation
movement could now present its claims as a government-in-exile.
Morocco eventually sent a large portion of its combat forces into Western Sahara to confront the Polisarios forces,
which were relatively small but well-equipped, highly mobile, and resourceful, using Algerian bases for quick strikes
against targets deep inside Morocco and Mauritania as well as for operations in Western Sahara. In August 1979,
after suffering military losses, Mauritania renounced its claim to Western Sahara and signed a peace treaty with the
Polisario. Morocco then annexed the entire territory and, in 1985, built a 2,500-kilometer sand berm around
three-quarters of it. In 1988, Morocco and the Polisario Front finally agreed on a United Nations (UN) peace plan,
and a cease-fire and settlement plan went into effect in 1991. Even though the UN Security Council created a
peacekeeping force to implement a referendum on self-determination for Western Sahara, it has yet to be held,
periodic negotiations have failed, and the status of the territory remains unresolved.
More than any other issue since independence, the objective of securing Western Sahara had unified the Moroccan
nation. Because of the firm stand the king had taken, it also enhanced his popularity in the country. But the war
against the Polisario guerrillas put severe strains on the economy, and Morocco found itself increasingly isolated
diplomatically. Successive governments showed little inclination to move seriously against pressing economic and
social issues. As a result, popular discontent with social and economic conditions persisted. Political parties
continued to proliferate but produced only a divided and weakly organized opposition or were suppressed. Through
the force of his strong personality, the legacy of the monarchy, and the application of political repression, the king
succeeded in asserting his authority and controlling the forces threatening the existing social order. Gradual political
reforms in the 1990s culminated in the constitutional reform of 1996, which created a new bicameral legislature with

16

History of Morocco
expanded, although still limited, powers. Although reportedly marred by irregularities, elections for the Chamber of
Representatives were held in 1997.

Reign of Mohammed VI
Gradual political reforms in the 1990s resulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature in 1997, and with the
death of King Hassan II of Morocco in 1999, the more liberal-minded Crown Prince Sidi Mohammed, who assumed
the title of Mohammed VI, took the throne. He has since enacted successive reforms to modernize Morocco, and the
country has seen a marked improvement in its human rights record. One of the new kings first acts was to free some
8,000 political prisoners and reduce the sentences of another 30,000. He also established a commission to
compensate families of missing political activists and others subjected to arbitrary detention. In September 2002,
new legislative elections were held, and the Socialist Union of Popular Forces (Union Socialiste des Forces
PopulairesUSFP) led all other parties in the voting. International observers regarded the elections as free and fair,
noting the lack of irregularities that had plagued the 1997 elections. Under Muhammad VI, Morocco has continued
down a path toward economic, political, and social reform and modernization. In May 2003, in honor of the birth of
a son and heir to the throne, the king ordered the release of 9,000 prisoners and the reduction of 38,000 sentences.
Also in 2003, Berber-language instruction was introduced in primary schools, prior to introducing it at all
educational levels. In 2004, the government implemented reforms of the family code improving the status of
womenfirst proposed in 2000despite the objections of traditionalists.
In March 2000, women's groups organised demonstrations in Rabat proposing reforms to the legal status of women
in the country. 200,000 to 300,000 women attended, calling for a ban on polygamy and the introduction of civil
divorce law. Although a counter-demonstration attracted 200,000 to 400,000 participants, the movement for change
started in 2000 was influential on King Mohammed, and he enacted a new Mudawana, or family law, in early 2004,
meeting some of the demands of women's rights activists.
In July 2002, a crisis broke with Spain over an uninhabited small island lying just less than 200 meters from the
Moroccan coast, named Toura or Leila by Moroccans, and Perejil by Spain. After mediation by the United States,
both Morocco and Spain agreed to return to the status quo by which the Island remains deserted.
Internationally, Morocco has maintained a moderate stance, with strong ties to the West. It was one of the first Arab
and Islamic states to denounce the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the United States. In May 2003, Morocco itself was
subjected to the more radical forces at work in the Arab world when Islamist suicide bombers simultaneously struck
a series of sites in Casablanca, killing 45 and injuring more than 100 others. The Moroccan government responded
with a crackdown against Islamist extremists, ultimately arresting several thousand, prosecuting 1,200, and
sentencing about 900. Additional arrests followed in June 2004. That same month, the United States designated
Morocco a major non-North Atlantic Treaty Organization ally in recognition of its efforts to thwart international
terrorism. On January 1, 2006, a comprehensive bilateral free trade agreement between the United States and
Morocco took effect. The agreement had been signed in 2004 along with a similar agreement with the European
Union, its main trade partner.

17

History of Morocco

Notes
[1] http:/ / www. eva. mpg. de/ evolution/ staff/ hublin/ pdf/ human_roots. pdf
[2] D. Rubella, Environmentalism and Pi Paleolithic economies in the Maghreb (c. 20,000 to 5000 B.P.), in, J.D. Clark & S.A. Brandt (eds.),
From Hunters to Farmers: The of Food Production in Africa, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 4156
[3] Sabatino Moscati, The Phoenicians, Tauris, ISBN 1-85043-533-2
[4] C. Michael Hogan, Chellah, The Megalithic Portal, ed. Andy Burnham (http:/ / www. megalithic. co. uk/ article. php?sid=17910)
[5] Data and map of Roman Banasa (http:/ / www. diplomatie. gouv. fr/ en/ france-priorities_1/ archaeology_2200/
archaeology-notebooks_2202/ europe-maghreb_2210/ morocco-banasa_6428/ index. html)
[6] Roman Casablanca (http:/ / www. kennesaw. edu/ historymuseum/ creatingcommunity. shtml)
[7] Convention on diplomatic protection signed in Madrid 1880 (http:/ / www. warflag. com/ shadow/ history/ treaties/ moroc1880. htm)
[8] Text used in this cited section originally came from: Morocco profile (http:/ / lcweb2. loc. gov/ frd/ cs/ profiles/ Morocco. pdf) from the
Library of Congress Country Studies project.

Benjelloun, Abdelmajid (1994, November 16). La verite sur le Protectorat Franco-espanol. Al Bayane, p.3

External links
A short history of Morocco (http://www.oneworld-publications.com/samples/morocco-a-short-history.htm)
Morocco (http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Morocco.htm) timeline from Worldstatesmen
Early Twentiethth Century Timelines (http://cnparm.home.texas.net/Wars/MorCrises.htm): Moroccan crises,
19031914
The History of Morocco (http://www.magicmorocco.com/history_of_morocco.html)
Historical map of Morocco c. 1600 (http://www.euratlas.com/time/sw1600.htm)
Z. Brakez et al. "Human mitochondrial DNA sequence variation in the Moroccan population of the Souss area"
(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&
list_uids=11393336)
David Bensoussan, Il tait une fois le Maroc : tmoignages du pass judo-marocain, d. du Lys,
www.editionsdulys.com, Montral, 2010 (ISBN 2-922505-14-6). Second edition: www.iuniverse.com,
Bloomington, IN, 2012, ISBN 978-1-4759-2608-8, 620p. ISBN 978-1-4759-2609-5 (ebook);

18

Moroccan franc

19

Moroccan franc
The franc (Arabic: )was the currency of French Morocco from 1921. It became the currency of all Morocco in
1957 and circulated until 1974. It was divided into 100 centimes (Arabic: ).

History
Before the first World War, the Moroccan rial was worth 5 French francs. However, after the war, the franc's value
fell, such that when the franc replaced the rial, it was at a rate of 10 francs = 1 rial. The Moroccan franc was equal in
value to the French franc. When Spanish Morocco was united with the rest of Morocco, the franc replaced the
Spanish peseta at a rate of 1 peseta = 10 francs.
In 1960, the dirham was introduced. It was subdivided into 100 francs. The franc was replaced as the subdivision of
the dirham by the centime in 1974.

Coins
In 1921, coins were introduced under the reign of Yusuf, in
denominations of 25 and 50 centimes and 1 franc. The 25 centimes is a
holed, cupro-nickel coin, and comes with three Privy mark varieties:
no privy mark, minted in 1921 at Paris, thunderbolt privy mark minted
in 1924 at Poissy, and thunderbolt and torch privy marks minted in
1924 at Poissy. The 50 centimes and franc were both minted in 1921 in
Paris, and in 1924 at Poissy with the thunderbolt privy mark.

In 1928, under the reign of Mohammed V, silver 5, 10 and 20 francs

coins were introduced. These coins, and all following coins, were
minted in Paris. Between 1945 and 1947, aluminum-bronze 50
centimes, 1, 2 and 5 francs and cupro-nickel 10 and 20 francs coins
were issued. Another new coinage followed between 1951 and 1953 in
denominations of 1, 2 and 5 francs in aluminum, 10, 20 and 50 francs
in aluminum-bronze, and silver 100 and 200 francs. Silver 500 francs
coins were issued in 1956. The 1951 and 1952 dated 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 and
50 francs coins were minted without a change of date until 1974, when
they were replaced by the santim.

A 1924 Moroccan 25 centimes, with Thunderbolt

privy mark.

An AH1370 Moroccan 5 francs in Gem

Uncirculated.

Rarities during this time include KM#51a, the AH1371 50 francs coin in gold (it was normally minted in
Aluminum-Bronze.) Another major rarity is KM#A54, an AH1370 100 francs coin minted in silver. Krause says that
10 million of these coins were minted, but nearly all were melted. Today, only 100[citation needed] are known.
All of the coins are easily identified as coinage of the French Moroccan period by the presence of either the legend
Empire Cherifien or the legend Maroc. All of the coins will have one or the other legend, and often both. All of
the coins will also have either a five-pointed star or a Star of David featured prominently in the devices, and
sometimes both.

Moroccan franc

20

Banknotes
The first Moroccan notes denominated in francs were issued between
1910 and 1917 and were also denominated in rial. Denominations were
for 20 francs (4 rial) and 100 francs (20 rial). Although the franc only
replaced the rial in 1921, notes were issued in francs from 1919.
Emergency issues were made that year in denominations of 25 and 50
centimes, 1 and 2 francs.
Regular issues from the Banque d'Etat du Maroc were introduced
between 1919 and 1923 in denominations of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500
and 1000 francs. 5000 francs notes appeared in 1938. Further
emergency issues were made in 1944 for 50 centimes, 1 and 2 francs.
After World War II, a final issue by the Banque d'Etat du Maroc was
introduced between 1949 and 1953 in denominations of 50, 100, 500,
1000, 5000 and 10,000 francs.

References

A 1943 Moroccan 10 franc note.

Krause, Chester L., and Clifford Mishler (1991). Standard Catalog of World Coins: 18011991 (18th ed.).
Krause Publications. ISBN0873411501.
Pick, Albert (1994). Standard Catalog of World Paper Money: General Issues. Colin R. Bruce II and Neil Shafer
(editors) (7th ed.). Krause Publications. ISBN0-87341-207-9.
Lecompte, Jean. Monnaies et Jetons des Colonies Francaises. 2000

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21

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