Mechanical Engineering 3870

Measurements and Data Analysis

Temperature Measurement, Seebeck Effect, and Thermocouples
EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
The educational objectives of this lab are for students to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Understand the Seebeck effect

Learn how thermocouples work in theory and practice
Fabricate their own thermocouples
Learn practical measurement of temperatures with thermocouples
Understand why modern electronics are needed for temperature measurement

EXPERIMENTAL OBJECTIVE
The experimental objective of this lab is to build a working thermocouple circuit with an output voltage in the
0.1 1.0 Volt range for temperatures between 10C and 70C that would be practical for application to the
situation described below.
MOTIVATION
You work for a company that designs high precision computer controlled milling machines. Another group has
designed a prototype milling machine frame using a new material that they suspect will make the machining
process more accurate due to better mitigation of unwanted vibrations. The new material is very susceptible to
expansion due to heating, though, which can negatively impact the quality of the machining. You have been put
in charge of measuring and recording the temperature of the frame at 20 different points in the machine, to
better gauge how heat is transferred away from the tool. You will need to record this information over time to
determine the steady state heat distribution resulting after a long period of continuous machining. A co-worker
suggests that you look into mounting thermocouples on the frame to accomplish your task. You find that the shop
has thermocouple wire and a welder available for use.
1.1

List 3 different ways to measure the temperature of an object. Include notes on the advantages and
disadvantages of each method as it relates to your situation.

INTRODUCTION
Understanding the Seebeck Coefficient
The thermocouple is an instrument used to measure temperature. Its operating principle is the Seebeck effect,
named after its discoverer in 1821. The Seebeck effect refers to the difference in voltage (also known as electric
potential or just potential) that arises between two points in a conductor or semiconductor when there is a
temperature gradient present between those points. Although complete understanding of the phenomenon
requires knowledge of kinetic theory, solid state physics, and irreversible thermodynamics, an intuitive and
phenomenological understanding is possible.
Metals contain electrons that are free to move within them. In a crude way, you can think of the electrons as
comprising a gas trapped within the metal. Now, suppose you take a metal rod of material A as shown in Fig. 1,
and heat one end of the rod relative to the other, up to a constant temperature.
1

Figure 1: Hypothetical metal rod with temperature gradient

The average energy of the electrons at the hot end is greater than their average energy at the cold end.
Consequently, some migrate from the hot end to the cold end until a steady state is reached where there is a
temperature difference (hot cold ) across the rod. Since there is now an imbalance in the number of electrons
between the two ends of the rod, there is an imbalance of charge. A voltage or potential difference (hot )
is therefore established between the ends of the rod. The potential difference will be such that it opposes any
further migration of electrons from the hot to the cold side. Since the potential difference is related to the
temperature difference across the rod, a coefficient called the Seebeck coefficient, , is defined such that
= (),

(1)

where has units of Volts per Kelvin or (V/K) when is measured in Volts and is measured in K. By
convention, the voltage difference is measured between the cold side and the hot side, i.e. 4 3 or cold hot.
Note that the foregoing discussion implies that if 3 > 4 , i.e. hot > cold, it follows that cold < hot, such that
is positive. In reality, because the migrating electrons suffer collisions with the atoms of the material, can be
positive or negative, depending on the material (see Table I in Chip Specification sheet located on Carmen).
In practice, to measure the voltage across this rod, you would have to connect a voltmeter with wires to the two
ends of the rod. However, the moment you do this, as shown in Figure 2, you have changed the situation.

Figure 2: Rod with attached leads

The metal lead wires now see a temperature difference across them (say between 3 and 1 and possibly between
4 and 2 ), which introduces additional potential differences that augment the potentials you are trying to
measure. Let us examine this further. From the definition of the Seebeck coefficient, we can write the following:
3 1 = (3 1 )
4 3 = (4 3 )
2 4 = (2 4 )
where is the Seebeck coefficient of the rod material, and is the Seebeck coefficient of the wire material

(2)

Adding all three equations results in:

2 1 = = (3 + 2 1 4 ) + (4 3 ),

(3)

where 1 and 2 are the temperatures at the voltmeter terminals. If 1 = 2 , then

2 1 = = ( )(3 4 )

(4)

= ( ),

(5)

This can also be written as:

where is positive (from Figure 2). Thus,

(6)

=
.
0

(7)

( ) =
In the limit as 0,
( ) = lim

While the alphas are the Seebeck coefficients, ( ) is called the Seebeck coefficient of the thermocouple
or the thermoelectric power. The thermocouples basis for measuring temperature is found using (6). If the
Seebeck coefficients are presumed known, then measurement of the potential difference 2 1 = yields a
relation between the two temperatures hot and cold . If cold is known, then hot can be determined from (6).
Table 1 lists the Seebeck coefficients for several materials as a function of temperature.
Understanding how a thermocouple measures temperature
Returning to Figure 2, let us replace the metal rod and the lead wires with two wires of different material
connected to form a beaded (a.k.a. welded) junction as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Wires of two different materials with junction

Writing the voltage drops for each wire,

1 = ( 1 )
2 = (2 ),

(8)

where 1 and 2 are the temperatures (presumed known) at the terminals, and is the desired unknown.
When the two equations above are added, the unknown is eliminated from the resulting equation. In any case,
the configuration in Figure 3 is impractical since connecting terminals 1 and 2 to a voltmeter would result in the
3

formation of new junctions between the copper (or whatever metal) leads in the voltmeter and materials A and B
(the thermocouple). Suppose we connect two copper leads to the two wires shown in Figure 3 to produce the
configuration shown in Figure 4:

Figure 4: Wires of two different materials with copper leads attached

Writing the voltage drops for each wire segment we find that
1 3 = (1 3 )
1 = ( 1 )
2 = (2 )
4 2 = (4 2 )

(9)

4 3 = (1 3 + 4 2 ) + 2 1 + ( )

(10)

Adding all four equations yields:

Since junctions 3 and 4 represent the Cu-Cu connections at the terminals of the voltmeter, 3 = 4 . Furthermore,
if we force 1 and 2 to be at a common, known reference temperature, such as an ice bath maintained at 0oC,
then 1 = 2 = . Therefore, the first term on the right hand side of (10) vanishes and the equation simplifies
to:
4 3 = ( )( )

(11)

The left hand side of (11) is the voltage drop measured at the voltmeter. When the materials comprising the
thermocouple are known, e.g. iron and constantan, then and are known from a separate measurement. The
reference temperature, , is known by virtue of the fact that it is held fixed by an ice bath or similar standard.
Thus, (11) represents a single equation in the unknown temperature, .
Prior to the modern era of electronics, ice baths were indeed used to provide the reference temperature for
thermocouples. However, since the reference temperature generates an equivalent voltage as can be seen from the
( ) term in (11), reference junctions can be eliminated by electronic compensation which refers to
adding or subtracting an equivalent voltage electronically. This is exactly what some thermocouple amplifier
chips such as the AD594 do they provide what is called cold junction compensation, which is essentially
setting the reference temperature to a fixed value using an equivalent voltage. In addition, the AD594 provides a
constant reference temperature by anchoring the reference junctions, junctions 1 and 2 in Figure 4, to the circuit
board itself. Thus, provided the heat dissipated within the chip is small enough, the electronic compensation is
4

related to the reference temperature or temperature of the chips circuit board itself (see AD594 specification
sheet for further details). It is recommended that you read the AD594 specification sheet before the lab.
Test your understanding
1. Suppose all the wires, including the lead wires in the configuration in Figure 4 were made of the same
material. What would the voltmeter read for the potential difference 4 3?
2. Consider the thermocouple arrangement shown below:
Cu

Voltmeter

T1

Cu

Constantan

Figure 5: Diagram for use with question 2, note that T1 is the temperature of the thermocouple.

a. The Seebeck coefficient of copper (Cu) and constantan are 1.52 V/K and -35 V/K, respectively.
If the temperatures at the voltmeter are equal, i.e. = , and 2 = 0oC, what is the temperature 1
in terms of the potential difference ?
b. If 1 = 500oC, what is the potential difference recorded by the voltmeter?
c. What is the Seebeck coefficient of the thermocouple? See Appendix A for a table of Seebeck
coefficients of common materials.

EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT
Per Person
1.5 type J thermocouple
wire

Per Group
1 prepared breadboard
(with chips)
1 set of jumper wires
2 banana plugs with leads
1 banana cable to BNC
connector
1.5 type J thermocouple
wire
(NOT WELDED)

2 glass beakers
Ice and water
5V fixed power
supply
Hotplate
Oscilloscope
LabVIEW

DELIVERABLES
See details on deliverables in sections to follow.
Deliverable
Pre-Lab Exercise
Post-Lab Assignment

Delivery Method
Carmen dropbox
Individual Hard Copy

Due Date
Before scheduled lab time
One week after lab

PRE-LAB EXERCISE
Read through and understand this document.
Download the example executable VI for this lab. Exercise the example VI to gain insight into how the VI works.
Construct your own VI based on the provided example and the following description. (Hint: Place all the
components needed to construct the VI first. Then, figure out what is needed to wire everything together on your
block diagram.) Once completed, submit your VI attempt through the Carmen dropbox. The VI will be graded
based on a combination of functionality and level of attempt.
Description of VI
The VI that you are being asked to construct is regarded as a preliminary VI because you will be simulating the
thermocouple voltage instead of actually collecting data. Instructions are given in the In-Lab Exercise sections
of how this VI will be modified to take actual data. The following description should help you to construct the VI
in the correct manner.
1. General description of VI operation
a. The DC gain of the simulated voltage signal is controlled by the Simulated Thermocouple
Voltage slider. Voltage readings are being taken continuously and then output to the Raw
Waveform Graph
b. The Thermometer Reading Input box is where you will type the actual thermometer reading
during the lab so that it can be added to the table to aid in record keeping. However, you will
want to test its functionality during the preliminary VI.
c. When the OK Button is pressed, all of the voltage readings plotted on the Raw Waveform
Graph will be averaged. The gain you determine for the thermocouple is then applied to the
mean voltage to calculate the corresponding temperature. The mean voltage and calculated
temperature and then added to the second and third columns of the Data Table, respectively.
d. The OK Button also controls the indexing of the data point number (first column of the data
table headed by Point #).
2. Tips on front panel objects
a. Data table
Once your data table is placed, you will need to add column headers. To do this, right
click on the table, and make sure that column headers is selected in the Visible Items
dropdown menu.
b. Simulated thermocouple voltage slider
As is shown on the VI example, the voltage slider range differs from the default settings.
You will want to range the voltage slider such that the minimum and maximum voltages
correlate with the voltage produced by the thermocouple at room and boiling water
temperature, respectively. Once you have verified the voltage range needed, you can
double click on the default minimum and maximum slider values to edit them.
When you run the VI, you will need to click the sliders pointer to initialize it to your
minimum value. Before you do this, it will be sending a DC signal at 0 V.

3. Hints and tips for block diagram objects

a. After completing the front panel, you should see 7 objects on your block diagram one for each
front panel object, except the table, which creates 2 block diagram objects.
b. Continuous running of the VI
As with previous VIs you have made for this class, you will need to add a control
structure that keeps the VI running until the Stop Button is pressed.
c. Simulated signal
Add the same simulate signal block as you have done in previous labs
Under the signal type drop down menu, select DC
We know that the actual thermocouple is not a perfect voltage source. To simulate this
we will add artificial noise to our simulated DC signal. To do this, check the Add
noise option. Set the noise type to Uniform White Noise, with an amplitude of 2 and
a seed number of -1.
Set the sampling rate to 1000 Hz, the number of samples to 100. Make sure that Run as
fast as possible and automatic are selected. All other settings can be left at their
default values.
What will have to be done to the signal to get a single value for the table?
d. Data point number indexing
There are several ways to do this. However, the easiest is to use a shift register, which
creates something like a local variable that is stored between OK Button presses.
Shift registers are created by right clicking on the outer control loop, and selecting add
shift register off of the right-click-menu
The blocks for connecting the circuitry of the shift register can be found in the arithmetic
and comparison section in express functions a similar logic scheme was used in the
LabVIEW basics lab for the enable button.
The OK Button will also be tied into this circuit.
e. Data table
You should have a build table block and table block from placing the front panel
object. If you do not see both of these blocks, replace the table with the express table.
After all of your other objects are wired together in the block diagram, you should have
data from four blocks, one piece of data per column, which needs to be sent to the table.
After all of the calculations and inputs are ready for the table, they will be carried on thin
orange wires, which indicate that they are double-precision scalars. However, the build
table block requires a data array input. Therefore, you will have to merge all of the
scalars into a single array.
You will need to send an enabling signal to the Build Table block, or the table will
display every array it is sent.
4. Useful tips for working in LabVIEW
a. When you place an object on the block diagram, they appear in the most condensed from
possible. To expand them, click and hold on the double arrow near the bottom edge. You can
then drag the edge down, which will reveal all the input and output names.
b. Colors are important in LabVIEW programming because they indicate the data types flowing
throughout the program. The color scheme of the block diagram is not limited to the wire color.
It extends to block boarders (e.g. the OK Button is outlined in thick green because it is a
Boolean output that cannot be changed, and the slider is outlined in thick orange because it is a
scalar output in all cases) and the text of input and output names on a block (e.g. after configuring
the Simulate Signal block, the outputs name will appear in blue because it is a data array).
However, certain blocks will automatically convert the data type. An example of this is the
mean block. When you try connecting the simulated signal output to the mean block,
LabVIEW will automatically place an array-to-double conversion block before it. Other blocks
will accept data types other than their default requirement. For example, the waveform graph is
7

initially outlined in a thin orange line, which indicates that its default requirement input is an
array of scalars, but it will accept other data structures as well. When you connect the waveform
graph block to the simulated signal, the outline turns blue, which indicates that waveform arrays
are acceptable. It is important to note that if you try and connect an unacceptable data type to a
block, a broken wire will appear.
c. Order of operations for making this VI
Start by placing all front panel objects
While working on the block diagram, begin with general considerations such as the outer
control loop
Figure out and place the blocks needed to process the data from input to output.
Finish wiring the block diagram.

IN-LAB EXERCISE
This lab is divided into two parts. In the first part you will measure temperatures using a reference bath and in the
second part, you will measure temperatures using an AD594 chip.
Part 1: Use thermocouple in conjunction with a reference bath.
The TA will review with the entire class on how to weld their thermocouple. Listen carefully as you and your
partner will be required to do the welding on your own while the TA helps other students with circuit board
design. After the class demo, each student will weld one thermocouple. To do this, follow the Thermocouple
Welding Procedure outlined below. While waiting to weld thermocouples, students should read the power supply
and AD594 chip specifications sheets, and the sections describing how to use a breadboard. You can save time
by starting the first step of Part 2 of the experiment (building the breadboard circuit) while others are
welding their thermocouple.
Thermocouple Welding Procedure
Weld a thermocouple junction using separate segments of iron and constantan wire. This type of thermocouple
made out of Iron-Constantan is called a "Type J Thermocouple". Pure white wire is iron and, wire with red
stripe is constantan.

Use extreme caution when operating the welder, as there is a high risk of shock, burn, or death if proper
procedures are not followed. Remember that there is a very large electrical potential stored in the welder, and it
will use any route available to it to get to ground, including going through your body.
1. Prepare the wire to be welded.
a. Unroll a length of thermocouple wire from the reel; a foot of wire will be more than sufficient. The
thermocouple wire is white and red and is on a spool located near the welder.
b. Strip about half an inch from the end of each wire. The wire with the plain white insulation is the iron
and the one with the red stripe is the constantan. Constantan is a copper-nickel alloy often used in
thermocouples and strain gauges. You may cut the wires from the spools or unwind to have slack in order
to manipulate the wire near the machine.
c. There are two methods of which one can prepare the wire ends for welding.
Method 1 (a bit harder to get right the first time):
a. Bend both wire ends towards each other about 45o.
b. Grip the wires so that the ends are just touching.

Method 2 (a bit easier for first time welders):

a. Grip the ends of both wires with the pliers close to the insulation/bare wire edge, but leave a little space
between the pliers and the insulation.
b. Use the needle-nosed pliers to twist ends of wires. Cut any un-twisted wire off the end so that the two
wires are touching at the tip. Leave about one and a half to two turns, excess twists or large junction
bead will cause the thermocouple to respond slowly to a temperature change.
2. Prepare the welder for use.
a. Check to ensure that pliers/electrode is plugged into the machine (lower right, front).
b. Place foot switch on floor.
c. Turn main valve on regulator of argon cylinder counter-clockwise until it cannot be turned any further. At
that point the valve will be seated against the stop.
! Whether opening or closing the argon cylinder, always seat the valve in the position desired. The valve is
a double-seat valve which will leak past the stern if not seated in the open or closed position. Set the
output pressure to 3-4 psi.
d. Turn welder switch on. The power switch is on the back of the machine, above the power cord on the left
side.

Do not touch the pliers or the cone electrode with your fingers, hands, tongue, or other body parts unless you
want to be nominated for a Darwin award! It will cause shock, burn and/or death! Also, do not touch the cone
electrode with the pliers! The welder passes a high current through the cone and thermocouple tip to weld it.
Normally this current travels back into the welder via the blue-handled electrode pliers, but if you provide an
alternate route to ground (such as through your body via your fingers or another set of pliers, etc) the current will
take advantage of it and you will not be happy!
e. Set toggle to Arc.
f. Set the level dial to Medium.
g. Test the foot switch or weld toggle to be sure that argon is flowing (the copper cone in the middle of the
machine front is going to be the powered electrode, your junction between the two wires is the other
electrode; Argon is dispensed through the center of the cone, defining the weld region at the tip of the cone).
h. Turn the power setting to 2/3-3/4 of maximum.
3. Weld the thermocouple junction.
a. When the ready light turns green, the machine is ready to weld.
b. Put on the green safety goggles.

Make sure you wear the green safety goggles before welding the flash from the welder can damage your
eyes.
c. Grip the bare thermocouple wires with the welder pliers so that there is some space between the pliers and
the junction, and also between the pliers and the wire insulation. If you place the pliers too close to the
twist, they may be welded to the junction, requiring you to break the weld and start over.

Do not use a second pair of pliers while welding your junction. This can cause arcs to appear where they are
not intended.
d. Press the weld toggle or foot switch. Slowly move the junction closer to the cone while continuing to
depress the weld toggle or foot switch. The weld is completed when there is a flash of light accompanied
by a pop sound. Immediately move the junction away from the weld cone.
e. Remove your finger from the weld toggle or your foot from the foot switch, and remove the thermocouple
junction from the pliers.

Do not touch the junction bead immediately after welding it is very hot, but should cool down fairly
quickly.
f. Check your welded junction. Use the magnifying glass to check it visually or use the pick and pull on the
small loop created by the junction to check its strength. If the weld looks or feels strong enough, cut the
9

length of wire needed from the spool (if it has not already been cut) and you are done! If the weld appears
incomplete or broken, cut the ends and repeat the Wire prep and Welding steps above.
4. Shut down the welder
a. Repeat all steps for Wire prep in reverse and place all tools and devices where they were found. Close the
main valve on the regulator of the argon cylinder.
b. Depress the toggle or foot switch to release the trapped argon from the lines. This will ensure that the argon
regulator is closed.
Use thermocouple to make temperature readings
In this lab procedure you have been provided space to write notes as you run through the lab. You should have
something written in each of these boxes before you leave the lab for the day. Use these notes to answer the
questions in the lab assignment. Students will work in their regular lab groups for the rest of the lab, using one of
the welded thermocouples. The remaining thermocouples will be used later for a time constant comparison.
You know that the thermocouple junction creates a voltage proportional to the temperature of the junction. So
why not plug the thermocouple right into a multi-meter, get a calibration curve, and call it a day? Let's do some
tests to make sure this is a good plan.
5. Use some alligator clips to connect the non-welded ends of your thermocouple to the banana clips and cables
directly to the multimeter. The iron wire should be connected to the positive terminal of the multimeter. These
junctions will be termed as reference thermocouple junctions (clip to non-welded wire) and will be used as a
reference thermocouple junction. The end where iron and constantan wires are welded will be termed as welded
junction. The welded end is the thermocouple you will use to measure temperatures. Enter all measurements
in to Table A on datasheet.
a. With the reference junctions suspended in the air, measure the room temperature with the welded junction.
Record this voltage and the temperature of the room according to a thermometer. Based on how this
thermocouple works, does this voltage make sense?
b. Again with the reference junctions suspended in the air, measure the temperature of the ice water bath using
welded junction.
c. Use the two points above to calculate the V/T value for the thermocouple.
d. Now hold one reference junction tightly in each hand and wait for them to get warm. While the reference
junctions are still in your hands, measure the room temperature and ice water temperature with the welded
junction (as was done in 5a and 5b). Using a thermometer, take updated measurements of the room
temperature (ambient air) and the ice water temperature. Using these new data points with the reference
junctions in your hands, calculate the V/T value.
Note: It is important to note that the reference junction is actually just another thermocouple that is not welded.
1.2

Were your two / values calculated above the same in both cases? What did you change between the
two sets of measurements? Does your answer agree with Equation 10? How would this impede your ability
to accurately measure the temperature of the machine parts using the thermocouple?

10

Use reference thermocouple junction as an ice water bath reference

6. Use an ice water bath to create a standard reference temperature for the reference thermocouple junctions and
get an estimate of the V/T value for the thermocouple. Enter measured values in to Table B on datasheet.
a. Insert the reference thermocouple junctions into a beaker containing ice and water, and let the welded
junction dangle in ambient air.
b. Convert the voltage that you measure into an ambient temperature using the values given for a Type J
thermocouple in Table I (AD594 595) of the specification sheet located on Carmen.
c. Use a thermometer to record the ambient temperature and compare that value with the one you determined
from your thermocouple using Table I (AD594 595) in the specification sheet.
1.3

Record both values and note their difference. Comment on possible reasons why they are not equal.

d. Immerse the welded junction into the beaker containing ice water, being careful to make sure that the
welded junction does not touch the reference thermocouple junctions.
e. Measure the voltage on the multimeter, and use Table I (located within the specification sheet) to determine
the temperature. Measure the temperature of the ice water in the beaker with a thermometer, and record
the temperatures. Be sure to place thermometer in water to the immersion line marked on the
thermometer
1.4

Using the results from the ambient temperature and ice water bath measurements, calculate /. How
well does this comare with the / value for a Type J thermocouple as determined from Table I?

1.5

Comment on the performance of the thermocouple when using the ice water reference bath. What are some
disadvantages of this method, especially regarding the use of thermocouples in the milling machine scenario?

1.6

You are planning on using an AD converter to record the temperatures of the temperatures of the parts over
time. Assuming a 12-bit conversion for a 5 volt range, what is the minimum resolvable voltage? How
does this compare to the voltage being generated by your thermocouple? What is the approximate
minimum resolvable temperature with this measurement scheme? Is this scheme suitable to the
measurements done in lab? Hint: Look up resolution and quantization error.

11

Part 2: Use thermocouple in conjunction with AD594 amplifier chip

A circuit chip can be used to amplify and linearize the thermocouple voltage to a more useful scale. This chip has
been designed specifically for this purpose. As a bonus, the chip has an internal reference point, doing away with
the need for the ice water bath.
7. Read the AD594 and Power Supply specs sheets. You will be using the AD594 chip in a basic configuration
with a single power supply. Remember that pin layouts for IC chips are conventionally drawn with the notch
facing left (pin #1 is located by notch). Complete the breadboard layout diagram shown in Figure 6 using the
specification sheet found on Carmen. Remember to include your power supply voltage. Note that you will
not use the op amp in this experiment. It will be used next week in the Stirling Engine experiment.
8. Have your TA approve the breadboard layout before building the circuit.
Banana to BNC Adapter
To LabVIEW or Oscilloscope

Black with bump

indicates ground

Power Supply
5V Fixed
Black
(Ground)

Red

Constantan
(Red)
AD594

LM324

Iron - Ground
(White)
Hint: Make this row a common
ground between all instrumentation
Figure 6: Breadboard for planning circuit layout

The AD594 chip is very sensitive to static electricity, and can be zapped if it is not handled carefully. Be
sure to ground yourself before touching the chip or any part of the circuit that the chip is in.

9. Build your circuit. Double check that it matches your approved diagram before you connect the power supply.
Take note that one of your wires for the thermocouple is grounded.

Check the output of the power supply with the multi-meter before connecting it to your circuit. You can
destroy the AD594 chip by supplying it with too much power.
10. Modify the VI you made for the pre-lab exercise to take input from the PCI-6321 at your lab station. This is
done by configuring the DAQ assistant, as we have done previously. You will also need to change the gain
applied to your thermocouple voltage signal according to the AD594 chip specifications. Take care to check
your input and output units.
11. After ensuring that the constantan end of your thermocouple is connected to pin 14 and the iron end is
connected to pin 1, connect the output from the AD594 (pin 8 or 9) and the ground to your PCI-6321 via AI0
using a banana-to-BNC adapter (as pictured in Figure 6).

12

12. Measure ambient temperature and the temperature of a heated bath.

a. Once your DAQ system is assembled, take a few test points to make sure that the system is working
correctly.
b. Using your VI, collect 8 to 10 different temperature readings from room temperature to near boiling. Your
first measurement should be taken before your turn on your hotplate this will be considered your baseline.
After taking your baseline reading, turn on your hot plate to the max setting. Make sure to stir the water
bath well and often to ensure an even temperature distribution. (Hint: while taking your data, the person
should set the thermometer entry, and then wait until the set trigger level is reached.) Compare the
voltages that you measure at the different temperatures with the values listed in Table I on page 3 of the
AD594 spec sheet.
13. Connect the output from the AD594 chip to the oscilloscope, while your thermocouple junction is measuring
a specific temperature.
1.7

How does the thermocouple signal seen on the scope differ from the one you observed by looking at the
multimeter readout? How could you later the signal to make it more usable?

14. Obtain step responses of each thermocouple made using the oscilloscope. Before starting, twist the end of
your un-welded thermocouple. You will include this as one of your trials in this section. However, do not
use the twisted thermocouple for your data sheet sketch for part 14e.
a. Top off the hot water bath and bring it to a rolling boil. Adjust your oscilloscope to accommodate for the
voltage change between room temperature and boiling water, and a 1 second window.
b. Make a few notes regarding the characteristic of the weld. Some examples of what to look for:
i. The weld is smooth and regular
ii. The wires are overlapping, thereby creating a weld with a larger surface area
iii. The weld is a messy blob.
iv. Twisted.
c. Plunge a thermocouple into the boiling water as quickly as possible. Once the full response is collected,
another team member should hit the Run/Stop button on the oscilloscope.

Temperature

The result should resemble the diagram in Figure 7, where is the ambient temperature in the room, is
the temperature as you are approaching the hotplate and water, and is the temperature of the boiling
water. As you can see, there are actually two first order step responses captured. However, we are only
interested in the step from to ; therefore, you will base your calculations on the second step collected.

TW

TA
TR
Time
Figure 7: Diagram of Step Response Data

13

d. Save your step response data to a jump drive for later use. This is done with Save/Recall button on the
oscilloscope.
e. Calculate the time constant, , and label the points used in your calculations. The time constant is defined
as the time it takes for the measurement signal to reach 63.2 % of its final value.
f. Repeat steps b and d with your groups remaining thermocouple(s).
1.8

Draw a sketch of the step response from one of your thermocouples on your data sheet. List your observations
about the appearance of the weld bead. Comment on the system response. List any useful quantities that you
have determined from the response. Give an example of how someone may use this thermocouple in industry.
Do not use the examples given in lab.

15. You will keep your circuit and thermocouple built in this lab for the lab the next week. Be sure to record the
number of your breadboard before leaving class.

POST LAB ASSIGNMENT

This assignment is to be completed individually. Please type the assignment with 1 margins, size 12 or 14
font, and 1.15 line spacing. Make sure that all questions are clearly and correctly numbered. The pre-lab
questions should be numbered 1.1, 1.2, etc., matching the question numbers in the manual. Any tables or figures
used to answers should have labels and units for the axes, a legend (if needed), and be appropriately captioned.
Also, if you choose to print in black and white, your plots must be readable in black and white.
1. Summarize all 8 questions encountered during the lab. Must type out all answers, you may not just hand in
worksheet. Expand your answers if need be.
2. Plot static calibration of your thermocouple/AD594 measurement device by plotting voltage versus
temperature. Use linear regression (see Appendix B) to fit a straight line to the data. Obtain the best fit values
of the slope (static sensitivity) and y-intercept. Determine the standard deviation of these quantities. Compare
these values with those listed on Table I of the AD594 spec sheets, page 3. Do you see any differences? What
do you think is responsible for any differences?
3. Using the values obtained from your linear regression (question 2) determine the precision (95% Confidence
Interval) of a temperature measured in the approximate mid-range of your experimental data. Refer to Figliola
and Beasley, page 131, for a table of t-values.
4. Calculate the theoretical time constants for a thermocouple. Based on the differential equations governing a
first order system response, the expression for the time constant is
=

where is the mass of the weld bead, and are the average is the average specific heat and density,
respectively, of the thermocouples materials, and are the volume and surface area of the weld bead, and
is the heat transfer coefficient.

14

For these calculations, we will assume that the weld bead is a sphere which has the same diameter as the wire
(wire = 0.511 mm). We will also need to assume an appropriate value for . The expression for is predicated
on the assumption that the heat transfer between the water and thermocouple is limited by convection.
Therefore, in line with this assumption, we will assume that the heat transfer occurring at the boundary of the
thermocouple control volume is due to either natural or forced convection. Thus, we can find published typical
heat transfer coefficients are in the following ranges:
W
]
m2 K
Low
High
50
500
500
15000
[

Free convection
Forced convection

The precise value for the heat transfer coefficient is largely dependent on the physical geometry of the system,
as well as the fluid and thermocouple material and surface characteristics of the objects involved. For our
purposes, we are only looking for comparative values. In other words, we only need the bounding values for
the time constant for both of the heat transfer mechanisms.
5. Plot the step response data from all of the thermocouples your group tested. Calculate and compare the time
constants form each of the tested thermocouples. Do you see a correlation between your weld observations
and the different time constants? Based on your observations of the measuring junctions, and your time
constants determined from the collected data, which physical factors do you think effect the response time of
the system? Also, specifically comment on the performance characteristics of the twisted thermocouple when
compared to the welded thermocouples. Make sure to explain your reasoning with calculations or examples
from your data for each question.
How do your experimentally determined time constants compare with the bounding values you calculated in
question 4? Were the assumed heat transfer mechanisms reasonable in your opinion? Which of the
mechanisms is dominating the system? Make sure to explain your reasoning with calculations or examples
from your data for each question.
Applying knowledge gained to experimental objective problem
6. Write a short summary of your final conclusions that you will present to your boss before wiring up the
prototype for testing. Include only information that you think is necessary for her to know, presented in a
clear, concise manner.

15

Appendix A Seebeck Coefficients of Common Materials

Table A-1: Data from: L. Loeb, Fundamentals of Electricity and Magnetism, 2nd Ed., Wiley, New York, 1938.

Material
Al (Aluminum)
Ag (Silver)
Au (Gold)
Bi (Bismuth, commercial)
Bi (Bismuth, pure)
C (Carbon)
Cd (Cadmium)
Constantan*
Cu (Copper)
Fe (Iron)*
Ge (Germanium)
Hg (Mercury)
K (Potassium)
Na (Sodium)
Ni (-18oC to 175oC)
Nichrome
Pb (Lead)
Pt (Platinum, hard)
Pt (Platinum, malleable)
85%Pt-15%Ir (Platinum-Iridium alloy)
Rh (Rhodium)
Se (Selenium)
Si (Silicon)
Steel
Sb (Antimony)
Sn (Tin)
Ta (Tantalum)
W (Tungsten)
Zn (Zinc)
Sb (Antimony)
Sn (Tin)
Ta (Tantalum)
W (Tungsten)
Zn (Zinc)

T
[ C ]
20
20
20
20, 0
20
0
20
100, 0
20
20
100
0
0
0
20
0
20
20
20
20
0
20
100
20
20
20
0
0
20
20
20
0
0
20
o

, Seebeck coefficient at T
[ V/K ]
- 0.68
2.41
3.0
- 97, - 72
- 89
3.0
3.48
- 47.0, - 35.0
1.52
16.2
375.0
0.6
- 9.0
- 2.0
- 22.8
25.0
0
2.42
- 0.818
8.03
6.0
807
455.0
10.62
6.0
- 0.33
4.5
7.5
2.79
6.0
- 0.33
4.5
7.5
2.79

16

Temperature dependence
[ T in oC, in V/K ]
- 0.76 + 0.0039T
2.12 +0.147T
2.8 + 0.0101T
2.63 + 0.0424T
1.34 + 0.0094T
17.15 0.0482T
- 21.8 0.0506T
0
2.57 0.007T
- 0.6 0.0109T
7.9 + 0.0062T
11.27 0.0325T
- 0.43 + 0.0055T
2.32 + 0.0238T
- 0.43 + 0.0055T
2.32 + 0.0238T

Appendix B Least Squares Curve Fitting

Definitions and Procedure
Linear regression, also known as Least Squares curve fitting, is discussed in greater detail in the ME 3870
Lectures. The appendix is intended to be a quick reference summary of the information contained in section 4.6
of Figliola & Beasley (5th edition). The brief summary presented here will be sufficient for purposes of this lab.
Linear regression is the statistical process by which experimental data points are fit to the best smooth curve.
Typically, the data points are fit to a polynomial, but this is not a requirement. The criteria for accomplishing this
fit is that the residual, , is minimized. The analysis for our purposes will be restricted to fitting the experimental
data to a straight line in standard form ( = + ). Therefore, we may define the residual as

= ( + )2 ,

(B1)

=1

where ( , ) is the current experimental data point, is the total number of experimental data points, and and
are the best values of slope and -intercept, respectively. The slope and -intercept of the fit are calculated
using the entire data set. This process is start by calculating the following intermediate quantities.

(B2)

=1

= 2

(B3)

=1

(B4)

=1

(B5)

=1

Using the intermediate quantities determined from (B2)-(B5), the slope and -intercept of the fit can be
determined using (B6) and (B7), respectively.
=

(B6)

(B7)

After calculating and , you can now plot the line of best fit over the range of your experimental data using
( ) = + ,

(B8)

where ( , ) are the points along the line of best fit. The resulting curve may be regarded as the estimated
mean of the collected data set. Note that runs over the entire range of the experimental data; however, it does
not need to be the identical to the points of .
17

Standard Deviations
Standard deviations are a measure of how tightly grouped a data set is around its mean value, or fitted curve,
where low values indicate a tightly grouped data set, and a high value indicates a data set that is spread out.
Standard deviations may also be calculated in a point-wise fashion to determine the relationship of the individuals
within a data set to the mean of the data set. Here, we will use them to assess the quality of the fit, and to
determine how much uncertainty there is in our measurements.
We will begin by assessing the quality of the fit with respect to the original data. This is done using three
quantities: the standard deviation of the output (shown in (B9)), the standard deviation of the slope (shown
in (B10)), and the standard deviation of the -intercept (shown in (B11)). It should be noted that (B9) is
assumed to be independent of .
( + )2
= =1
, where = degrees of = 2

(B9)

2
=
2

(B10)

2
=
2

(B11)

In order to determine the spread of the data about the fitted curve , we can calculate the standard deviation of
the data with respect to . Thus,
1 ( )2
= +
.
( )2

(B12)

Likewise, we can calculate the standard deviation of an individual reading by

= 1 +

1 ( )2
+
.
( )2

(B13)

It is also important to note that (B9), (B12), and (B13) are related by
2 = 2 + 2 ,

(B14)

where 2 is the combined variance of the curve fit variance, 2 , and the variance of the data, 2 .
Using , we are able to find the standard deviation of an individual reading, in the units of the input, by using
the slope as a conversion. Thus,
=

18

(B15)

Uncertainties
Uncertainties are calculated using standard deviation of a quantity and a probability from the Students
-Distribution (found on page 131 in Figliola and Beasley). The -value is found from the data using the desired
confidence level, , and the number of degrees of freedom . For example, if we would like to know the
uncertainty for an individual reading measured, in input units, with a 95% confidence interval in a system where
there are 15 degrees of freedom, we need to find 95,15 from the table. Thus,
= 95,15 = 2.131 .

(B16)

This same methodology can be adapted for any of the previously calculated uncertainties. Table B1, gives the
description of each calculated uncertainty.
Table B1: Description of Uncertainties

Uncertainty (all are )

Description

Uncertainty of the estimated slope

Uncertainty of the estimated -intercept

Uncertainty in due to slope and intercept being based on a sample of

data rather than the population;
therefore, it is based on and

,
,

Uncertainty associated with an

individual reading
Uncertainty for an individual reading
measured in input units

19