CHANGING SUBSTANCES

Types of physical change

Change in State- from an orange to juice

Physical changes can alter the physical properties of matter. All reactions fall
into 2 categories.

1. PHYSICAL CHANGE
– No new substance is formed
– The substance can change shape, size or state (Size or shape change-
solid, liquid, gas)
– It can easily be reversed
– Chocolate melting, water boiling, glass smashing, filtration

1. CHEMICAL CHANGE
-One or more new substance is formed, evidenced by:
*production of gases
*permanent change in colour
*formation of a precipitate, coloured solid
*It cannot be easily reversed
*Wood burning, rusting cars, coking a meal, combustion motor

CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Precipitate- this is a solid produced by reaction between 2 clear solutions
Decompose- to breakdown
Combustion- reaction with oxygen
Corrosion- is a chemical reaction between a metal and substances in the
air or water around it which eats away the metal and causes it to corrode
Rusting- is corrosion, the reaction iron+ water +oxygen=rust
Surface Protection- the method used to involves covering, coating an item
to preserve it.

FORCES

A FORCE IS A PUSH OR PULL

It can:

-start or stop something

-change the direction of a mobbing object

-change the shape of an object

UNEQUAL FORCE- results in movement

EQUAL FORCE- results in no movement

ELASTIC: will return to original shape after been stretched, squashed or bent

PLASTIC: will not return to its original shape after being bent squished or
squashed

STIPULATE: make clear

FINITE: limited

INFINITE: unlimited

DEPENDANT VARIABLES: measure

INDEPENDANT VARIABLES: charge

ANGLE: dependant

MATERIAL: independent

In order to remain upright, an objects centre of gravity must remain within the
base of support.

Centre of gravity- the point where the whole mass of a ‘body’ is central.

Base of support- area which outlines the supportive components of a ‘body’

STATIC FRICTION: the force that prevents an object from starting

SLIDING FRICTION: friction between moving surfaces

WEIGHT: the force of gravity upon an object

MASS: the amount of matter in an object
FORCE FIELD: a force that does not rely on contact, it radiates
CONTACT FORCE: must be toughing an object to have an effect upon it
NEWTON: 100g, a measurement used to measure a force
NEWTONS 3rd LAW: every action has an equal and unequal reaction

What is digestion?

Food and drink must be changed into smaller molecules of nutrients to be

absorbed into the blood and carried to cells throughout the body. Digestion is the
process by which food and drink are broken down into smaller parts so that the
body can use them to build and nourish cells, and to provide energy.

How does the digestive process work?

Digestion involves:

• the mixing of food

• the movement of food through the digestive tract
• a chemical breakdown of large molecules of food into smaller molecules
Digestion begins in the mouth, where food and drink is taken in, and is
completed in the small intestine.

What is included in the digestive system?

The digestive system is made up

of the digestive tract and other
organs that aid indigestion.

The digestive tract is a series of

hollow organs joined in a long,
twisting tube from the mouth to
the anus, consisting of the
following:

• mouth
• oesophagus
• stomach
• small intestine
• large intestine
• rectum
• anus
Organs that help with digestion,
but are not part of the digestive
tract, include the following:

• tongue
• glands in the mouth that make saliva
• pancreas
• liver
• gallbladder
Parts of other organ systems, like nerves and blood, also play a major role in the
digestive process.

How does food move through the digestive system?

In a wave-like movement called peristalsis, muscles propel food and liquid along
the digestive tract. In general, there are six steps in the process of moving food
and liquid through the digestive system:
1. The first major muscle movement is swallowing food or liquid. The start of
swallowing is voluntary, but once it begins, the process becomes
involuntary and continues under the control of the nerves.

2. The oesophagus, which connects the throat above with the stomach
below, is the first organ into which the swallowed food goes.

3. Where the oesophagus and stomach join, there is a ringlike valve that
closes the passage between the two organs. When food nears the closed
ring, the surrounding muscles relax and allow the food to pass into the
stomach, and then it closes again.

4. The food then enters the stomach, which completes three mechanical
tasks: stores, mixes, and empties.

First, the stomach stores the swallowed food and liquid, which requires the
muscle of the upper part of the stomach to relax and accept large
volumes of swallowed material.

Second, the lower part of the stomach mixes up the food, liquid, and
digestive juices produced by the stomach by muscle action.

Third, the stomach empties the contents into the small intestine.

5. The food is digested in the small intestine and dissolved by the juices from
the pancreas, liver, and intestine and the contents of the intestine are
mixed and pushed forward to allow further digestion.

6. Last, the digested nutrients are absorbed through the intestinal walls. The
waste products, including undigested parts of the food, known as fibre,
and older cells that have been shed from the mucosa, move into the
colon. Waste products usually in the colon remain for a day or two until
the faeces are expelled by a bowel movement.

How does the heart work | How the heart works

In a healthy person the heart is responsible for providing the body with
blood that has been resupplied with oxygen, so that the body can continue
to function. It’s a continuous process. On the right side of the heart, the
right atrium, the heart receives de-oxygenated blood from the body. The
blood passes through the Tricuspid Valve into the Right Ventricle and then
is pumped through the Pulmonary Valve into the Pulmonary Artery which
takes the de-oxygenated blood to the lungs where it picks up oxygen. This
oxygen rich blood comes back into the Left Atrium of the heart through
the Pulmonary Veins, the blood passes through the Mitral Valve into the
left ventricle which pumps the blood out through the Aortic Valve into the
 Aorta. This is the
main artery that
takes this oxygen
rich blood to all the
different parts of the
body.
7. Once the body has
used all the oxygen
from the blood it is
pumped back into
the rights side of the
heart and the
process continues.
Within the healthy
heart there is a
partition called the
Septum that divides the two sides of the heart and prevents the
oxygenated blood and the de-oxygenated blood from mixing. With every
heart beat the valves in the heart open to allow the blood to flow freely in
one direction but they then close completely to prevent any blood from
leaking backwards
WHY WE NEED FOOD

Food provides us with the energy needed to work the muscles and organs in our
bodies. It also provides us with the materials needed for growth and repair of
damaged and worn and tissues. The energy the body obtains from food
measures in ‘kilojoules’. (KJ)

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are sugary and starchy foods. These are the body’s main source
of energy. Sugar is all carbohydrates, whilst jam, potatoes, rice, bread, cakes,
buns and fruit are very high in carbohydrates.

PROTEINS
The body uses proteins for growth and for repairing damaged and worn out
tissues. In other words, proteins are body-building foods. Large amounts of
protein re found in meat, fish, cheese and eggs. Milk, bread, peas and beans also
contain some protein.

FATS AND OILS

These are the bodies main stored foods. The body stores energy as fats. Butter
and margarine are fats. Meat often contains a high amount of fat, milk, nuts, fish
and oils contain some fat.

MOUTH AND SALIVARY GLANDS- ingestion of food

OESOPHOGUS- passage of food into stomach

STOMACH- storage of food and beginning of digestion

LIVER AND PANCREAS- secretion of bile from liver and pancreatic juices to
small intestines

SMALL INTEATINES- digestion and absorption of breakdown products

LARGE INTESTINES- re-absorption of salts and water. Undigested wastes

collect

TESTING FOR CARBOHYDRATES

Iodine solution can be used to detect starch, a type of carbohydrate. If starch is
present, the colour of the iodine solution will turn from yellow to blue-black.

Benedict’s solution can be used to detect for glucose, another type of

carbohydrate. Substances containing glucose will change Benedict’s solution
from a blue colour to an orange-red colour when heated.

TESTING FOR PROTEIN

To find out if a food sample contains protein, it can be mixed with sodium
hydroxide and copper sulfate solutions. If the food contains protein, the colour of
the copper sulfate solution will turn from blue to purple.

TESTING FOR LIPIDS

To find out if a food sample contains lipids, the sample should be dissolved in
ethanol and filtered. The filtrate should then be added to water. If the food
contains lipid, the water will become cloudy.

Speed is: distance divided by time

3 units used to measure speed: kilo-meters per hour, miles per hour, and
metres per second

The smaller the object, the less the gravitational pull.

SOUND and LIGHT

FREQUENCY is the number of cycles of a wave per second expressed in hertz
(Hz) or mega-hertz (MHz).

The RAREFRACTION is the gaps, no vibrating particles. Light travels at nearly 1

000 000 times faster than sound: 3 000000 m/s

The speed of sound is approximately 330 m/s

Light travels in transverse waves

Crest
 Amphitat Troug
Wave- h
e
length
Sound travels through compression waves – they need matter to travel

PROPERTIES OF SOUND
* Sound vibrations can travel through solids, liquids and gases. They cannot
travel through a vacuum

*A sound wave is a back and forth motion of air particles as energy passes
through them

* When sound energy travels through the air, it creates alternating areas of high
pressure and low pressure.

*AMPLITUDE is the distance air molecules move backwards and forwards. Louder
sounds make air molecules vibrate with greater amplitude.

*The distance between two high pressured areas is called the wavelength of a
sound.

*Sound travels at 330 m per second, which is slower than the speed of light. The
speed of sound increases as air temperature rises.

*Frequency of sound is the number of sound waves produced per second. It is

measured in Hertz. Vibrations that have a high frequency produce a high pitched
sound. Vibrations that have a low frequency have a low pitch.

*The decibel scale (dB) is used to measure volume. Above 120 dB can be painful
and result in the loss of hearing.

ECHOES
When a sound wave strikes a hard surface they are reflected back and you hear
an echo.

CONVEX AND CONCAVE

Convex- a lens which is thicker in the middle than on the ends

Concave- a lens which is thinner in the middle than the ends

Light and sound are both forms of energy. Light can only travel in straight lines
called rays. Light travels really fast, about 300000000 m/s. Sound is much
slower, only about 330m/s. That’s why we see lightning before we hear thunder.
Sound is also different to light because it needs a substance to travel through.
Sound travels much faster in solids than in gases. Light can be reflected when it
hits a surface, so can sound. Fill in these diagrams to show what happens when
light hits these mirrors. Label the incident ray, the angle of incidence, the
reflected ray and the angle of reflection.

THE LAW OF REFLECTION STATES THAT THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE

EQUALS THE ANGLE OF REFLECTION

When light hits a surface it can be absorbed or transmitted.

Stomach lining- mucus

Solute- a substance dissolved in another substance

Solvent- a substance in which other substances are dissolved in, often liquids

Carbon dioxide
1) Has no colour or smell.
2) Will put out a lit splint.
3) Will turn moist blue litmus paper red,
and moist universal indicator paper orange.
In water it forms carbonic acid (H2CO3); it is a weak acid (see Carbon Cycle).
Hydrogen
1) Has no colour or smell.
2) Has no effect on moist litmus paper
or moist universal indicator paper - it is neutral.
3) Burns with a characteristic 'pop'.
THE POP TEST

THE SPLINT TEST

PROPERTIES OF METAL PROPERTIES OF NON-METAL

Metals in general have high electrical
conductivity, thermal conductivity,
luster and density, and the ability to be
deformed under stress without cleaving
They are poor conductors. They are
brittle, not ductile in their solid state.
They show no metallic lustre. They may
be transparent or translucent. They
have low density. They are gases,
liquids, or solids. They form molecules
which consist of atoms covalently
bonded. The nobel gases are
monatomic.